1

CHAPTE
R

3 Supply and the

Aggregate
Short-run Tradeoff Between
Inflation and Unemployment

MACROECONOMICS SIXTH EDITION

N. GREGORY MANKIW
PowerPoint® Slides by Ron Cronovich
© 2007 Worth Publishers, all rights reserved
 In this chapter, you will
learn…
 three models of aggregate supply in which
output depends positively on the price level in
the short run
 about the short-run tradeoff between inflation
and unemployment known as the Phillips curve

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 2

 Three models of aggregate
supply
1. The sticky-wage model
2. The imperfect-information model
3. The sticky-price model
All three models imply:
Y  Y   (P  P e )
agg. the expected
output price level
a positive
natural rate parameter the actual
of output price level
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 3
 The sticky-wage model

 Assumes that firms and workers negotiate contracts

and fix the nominal wage before they know what the
price level will turn out to be.
 The nominal wage they set is the product of a target
real wage and the expected price level:
Target
real
W ω P e wage

W Pe
 ω 
P P
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 4
 The sticky-wage model
W Pe
ω 
P P
If it turns out that then
e Unemployment and output are
P P at their natural rates.
Real wage is less than its target,
P  Pe so firms hire more workers and
output rises above its natural rate.
Real wage exceeds its target,
P  Pe so firms hire fewer workers and
output falls below its natural rate.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 5
 The sticky-wage model
 Implies that the real wage should be
counter-cyclical, should move in the opposite
direction as output during business cycles:
 In booms, when P typically rises,
real wage should fall.
 In recessions, when P typically falls,
real wage should rise.
 This prediction does not come true in the real
world:

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 7

 The cyclical behavior of the real
wage
5
Percentage

in real wage 1972

change

4
1965
3 1998
2
1982 2001
1
0
-1 1991
1990 2004 1984
-2
-3 1974
1979
-4
-5
1980
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Percentage change in real GDP
 The imperfect-information
model
Assumptions:
 All wages and prices are perfectly flexible,
all markets are clear.
 Each supplier produces one good, consumes
many goods.
 Each supplier knows the nominal price of the
good she produces, but does not know the
overall price level.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 9

 The imperfect-information
model
 Supply of each good depends on its relative price:
the nominal price of the good divided by the overall
price level.
 Supplier does not know price level at the time she
makes her production decision, so uses the
e
expected price level, P .
 Suppose P rises but P e does not.
 Supplier thinks her relative price has risen,
so she produces more.
 With many producers thinking this way,
Y will rise whenever P rises above P e.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 10
 The sticky-price model

 Reasons for sticky prices:

 long-term contracts between firms and
customers
 menu costs
 firms not wishing to annoy customers with
frequent price changes
 Assumption:
 Firms set their own prices
(e.g., as in monopolistic competition).
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 11
 The sticky-price model

 An individual firm’s desired price is

p P  a (Y  Y )
where a > 0.
Suppose two types of firms:
• firms with flexible prices, set prices as above
• firms with sticky prices, must set their price
before they know how P and Y will turn out:
e e e
p P  a (Y  Y )

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 12

 The sticky-price model
p P e  a (Y e  Y e )
 Assume sticky price firms expect that output will
equal its natural rate. Then,
e
p P
 To derive the aggregate supply curve, we first find
an expression for the overall price level.
 Let s denote the fraction of firms with sticky prices.
Then, we can write the overall price level as…

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 13

 The sticky-price model
e
P  s P  (1  s )[P  a(Y  Y )]

price set by sticky price set by flexible

price firms price firms

 Subtract (1s )P from both sides:

sP  s P e  (1  s )[a(Y  Y )]
 Divide both sides by s :
 (1  s ) a 
e
P P    (Y  Y )
 s 
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 14
 The sticky-price model
e  (1  s ) a 
P P   (Y  Y )
 s 
 High P e  High P
If firms expect high prices, then firms that must set
prices in advance will set them high.
Other firms respond by setting high prices.
 High Y  High P
When income is high, the demand for goods is high.
Firms with flexible prices set high prices.
The greater the fraction of flexible price firms,
the smaller is s and the bigger is the effect
of Y on P.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 15
 The sticky-price model
e  (1  s ) a 
P P   (Y  Y )
 s 

 Finally, derive AS equation by solving for Y :

Y  Y   (P  P e ),
s
where  
(1  s )a

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 16

 The sticky-price model

 In contrast to the sticky-wage model, the sticky-

price model implies a pro-cyclical real wage:
Suppose aggregate output/income falls. Then,
 Firms see a fall in demand for their products.
 Firms with sticky prices reduce production, and
hence reduce their demand for labor.
 The leftward shift in labor demand causes
the real wage to fall.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 17

 Summary & implications

P LRAS
Y Y   (P  P e )

P  Pe Each
Each ofof the
the
SRAS
three
three models
models
e
P P of
of agg.
agg. supply
supply
imply
imply the
the
P  Pe
relationship
relationship
summarized
summarized
Y
Y by
by the
the SRAS
SRAS
curve
curve &&
equation.
equation.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 18
 Summary & implications
Suppose a positive SRAS equation: Y Y   (P  P e )
AD shock moves
P SRAS2
output above its LRAS
natural rate and SRAS1
P above the level
people had P3 P3e
expected.
P2
Over time, P e
 e AD2
2 P1 P1
P e rises,
SRAS shifts up, AD1
and output returns Y
to its natural rate. Y2
Y3 Y1 Y
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 19
 Inflation, Unemployment,
and the Phillips Curve
The Phillips curve states that  depends on
 expected inflation,  e.
 cyclical unemployment: the deviation of the
actual rate of unemployment from the natural rate
 supply shocks,  (Greek letter “nu”).

where  > 0 is an exogenous constant.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 20

 Deriving the Phillips Curve from
SRAS
(1) Y  Y   (P  P e )

(2) P  P e  (1  ) (Y  Y )

(3) P  P e  (1  ) (Y  Y )  

(4) (P  P 1)  ( P e  P 1)  (1  ) (Y  Y )  

(5)    e  (1  ) (Y  Y )  

(6) (1  ) (Y  Y )    (u  u n )

(7)    e   (u  u n )  
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 21
 The Phillips Curve and SRAS
SRAS: Y  Y   (P  P e )
Phillips curve:    e   (u  u n )  
 SRAS curve:
Output is related to
unexpected movements in the price level.
 Phillips curve:
Unemployment is related to
unexpected movements in the inflation rate.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 22

 Adaptive expectations

 Adaptive expectations: an approach that

assumes people form their expectations of future
inflation based on recently observed inflation.
 A simple example:
Expected inflation = last year’s actual inflation
 e   1
 Then, the P.C. becomes
    1   (u  u n )  

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 23

 Inflation inertia
    1   (u  u n )  

In this form, the Phillips curve implies that

inflation has inertia:
 In the absence of supply shocks or cyclical
unemployment, inflation will continue
indefinitely at its current rate.
 Past inflation influences expectations of
current inflation, which in turn influences the
wages & prices that people set.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 24

 Two causes of rising & falling
inflation
    1   (u  u n )  
 cost-push inflation:
inflation resulting from supply shocks
Adverse supply shocks typically raise production
costs and induce firms to raise prices,
“pushing” inflation up.
 demand-pull inflation:
inflation resulting from demand shocks
Positive shocks to aggregate demand cause
unemployment to fall below its natural rate,
which “pulls” the inflation rate up.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 25
 Graphing the Phillips curve

In
In the
the short
short 
run,
run, policymakers
policymakers
face
face aa tradeoff
tradeoff
between  and
between and u.
u. 
1 The short-run
 e  Phillips curve

u
un

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 26

 Shifting the Phillips curve

People
People adjust
adjust 
their
their
expectations
expectations
over
over time,
time,  2e  
so
so the
the tradeoff
tradeoff
only  1e  
only holds
holds in
in
the
the short
short run.
run.
E.g.,
E.g., anan increase
increase
in ee shifts
in shifts the
the u
short-run un
short-run P.C.P.C.
upward.
upward.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 27
 The sacrifice ratio

 To reduce inflation, policymakers can

contract agg. demand, causing
unemployment to rise above the natural rate.
 The sacrifice ratio measures
the percentage of a year’s real GDP
that must be foregone to reduce inflation
by 1 percentage point.
 A typical estimate of the ratio is 5.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 28

 The sacrifice ratio
 Example: To reduce inflation from 6 to 2 percent,
must sacrifice 20 percent of one year’s GDP:
GDP loss = (inflation reduction) x (sacrifice ratio)
= 4 x 5
 This loss could be incurred in one year or spread
over several, e.g., 5% loss for each of four years.
 The cost of disinflation is lost GDP.
One could use Okun’s law to translate this cost
into unemployment.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 29

 Rational expectations

Ways of modeling the formation of expectations:

 adaptive expectations:
People base their expectations of future inflation
on recently observed inflation.
 rational expectations:
People base their expectations on all available
information, including information about current
and prospective future policies.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 30

 Painless disinflation?

 Proponents of rational expectations believe

that the sacrifice ratio may be very small:
 Suppose u = u n and  = e = 6%,
and suppose the Fed announces that it will
do whatever is necessary to reduce inflation
from 6 to 2 percent as soon as possible.
 If the announcement is credible,
then e will fall, perhaps by the full 4 points.
 Then,  can fall without an increase in u.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 31
 Calculating the sacrifice ratio
for the Volcker disinflation
 1981:  = 9.7%
Total disinflation = 6.7%
1985:  = 3.0%

year u un uu n
1982 9.5% 6.0% 3.5%
1983 9.5 6.0 3.5
1984 7.4 6.0 1.4
1985 7.1 6.0 1.1

Total 9.5%
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 32
 Calculating the sacrifice ratio
for the Volcker disinflation
 From previous slide: Inflation fell by 6.7%,
total cyclical unemployment was 9.5%.
 Okun’s law:
1% of unemployment = 2% of lost output.
 So, 9.5% cyclical unemployment
= 19.0% of a year’s real GDP.
 Sacrifice ratio = (lost GDP)/(total disinflation)
= 19/6.7 = 2.8 percentage points of GDP were lost
for each 1 percentage point reduction in inflation.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 33
 The natural rate hypothesis
Our analysis of the costs of disinflation, and of
economic fluctuations in the preceding chapters,
is based on the natural rate hypothesis:

Changes in aggregate demand affect output

and employment only in the short run.
In the long run, the economy returns to
the levels of output, employment,
and unemployment described by
the classical model (Chaps. 3-8).

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 34

 An alternative hypothesis:
Hysteresis
 Hysteresis: the long-lasting influence of history
on variables such as the natural rate of
unemployment.
 Negative shocks may increase un,
so economy may not fully recover.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 35

 Hysteresis: Why negative
shocks may increase the
natural rate
 The skills of cyclically unemployed workers may
deteriorate while unemployed, and they may not
find a job when the recession ends.
 Cyclically unemployed workers may lose
their influence on wage-setting;
then, insiders (employed workers)
may bargain for higher wages for themselves.
Result: The cyclically unemployed “outsiders”
may become structurally unemployed when the
recession ends.
CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 36
 Chapter Summary

1. Three models of aggregate supply in the short run:

 sticky-wage model
 imperfect-information model
 sticky-price model
All three models imply that output rises above its
natural rate when the price level rises above the
expected price level.

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 37

 Chapter Summary

2. Phillips curve
 derived from the SRAS curve
 states that inflation depends on
 expected inflation
 cyclical unemployment
 supply shocks
 presents policymakers with a short-run tradeoff
between inflation and unemployment

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 38

 Chapter Summary

3. How people form expectations of inflation

 adaptive expectations
 based on recently observed inflation
 implies “inertia”
 rational expectations
 based on all available information
 implies that disinflation may be painless

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 39

 Chapter Summary

4. The natural rate hypothesis and hysteresis

 the natural rate hypotheses
 states that changes in aggregate demand can
only affect output and employment in the short
run
 hysteresis
 states that aggregate demand can have
permanent effects on output and employment

CHAPTER 13 Aggregate Supply slide 40