2019 paper – last question
Alpha Decay – analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-
two decay energy in spontaneous and artificial nuclear
transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay,
products
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
• Energy is released, a mass defect is observed.
• The energy associated with the additional mass of the parent nucleus
is transformed into the kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus and the
alpha particle.
• Due to conservation of energy and momentum:
a. the alpha particle has much greater velocity
and hence kinetic energy.
b. all alpha particles produced from a certain
radioactive decay have a specific kinetic
energy.
Beta decay – analyse relationships that represent conservation of
mass-energy in spontaneous and artificial nuclear
three decay transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay,
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
products
• Beta particles have a range
of kinetic energies. 14
6
14 0 0
𝐶 → 7 𝑁 +𝑒 + −1¿ 0 ν 𝑒 ¿
• Mass defect is the same
for each decay.
• The neutrino and beta
particle both have large
kinetic energies.
• The beta particle energy
spectrum caused Pauli to
propose that neutrinos
existed in 1930.
The Standard Model
How is it known that human understanding of matter
is still incomplete?
In the course so far, when have
we discussed subatomic
particles other than protons,
neutrons and electrons?
● analyse the evidence that suggests:
– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than protons,
neutrons and electrons
Evidence for ● analyse the evidence that suggests:
– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental
other subatomic particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than
particles. protons, neutrons and electrons
Chemists: NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectra depend on
the number of nucleons in nucleus, not the number of protons.
1. Neutrons, despite not having electrical charge, produce a magnetic
field. This suggests they are made of charged components.
2. Beta plus decay and the production of positrons by cosmic rays
demonstrated the existence of another subatomic particle.
• Paul Dirac produced a relativistic version of the Schrodinger equation
that predicted an positively charged, antielectron that annihilates an
electron when they meet.
• Anderson in 1932 showed the positron was Dirac’s proposed particle.
3. In 1930 Pauli proposed that a massless, neutral neutrino was also Anti-neutrinos
produced in beta decay. produced by a
nuclear reactor
• This was to explain why beta decay produces particles can take a were first
range (continuous spectrum) of energies. This is unlike alpha decay detected by
and would violate energy and momentum conservation unless a Cowan and
third body was present (nucleus, beta particle and neutrino) Reines in 1955.
4. Further experiments with cosmic rays
and particle accelerators demonstrated
the production of other subatomic
particles.
E.g.: the muon was discovered by
Anderson and Neddermeyer in 1936 in
showers of cosmic rays
5. Deep inelastic scattering experiments.
High energy electrons were scattered off nuclei ( and ). The scattering observed
showed that protons and neutrons were made out of smaller particles (quarks).
These experiments were performed at Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre (SLAC)
from 1967 and resulted in the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics being awarded to
Kendall, Friedman and Taylor.
The targets that the electron beam scattered off were liquid hydrogen, first and
later (deuterium).
Link to de Broglie,
The very high kinetic energy electrons (up
to 21 GeV) used in deep inelastic scattering
experiments have very short wavelengths.
This allows of the internal structure of
nucleons to be probed and resolved.
Read Physics in Focus 17.1 p 413-
415
• Answer Q 1-5 and 7 p 418-419 of this resource.
• Watch Brian Cox’s - Crash Course in Particle Physics
• Old but good
The Standard Model ???
The Standard Model
• Outlines the fundamental particles that make up all matter.
• Describes how forces arise from the exchange of force carrying
particles called gauge bosons.
• Mathematically describes how particles have mass.
● investigate the Standard Model of matter,
including:
– quarks, and the quark composition
hadrons
– leptons
– fundamental forces
Which particles have electrical
charge?
• Particles with electrical charge interact with the electromagnetic force
through the exchange of photons.
• Complete activity 1 on worksheet.
• You should memorise the charges for these particles – hint remember the
charges of rows of particles
Which particles have colour charge?
• Particles with colour charge interact with the strong nuclear force
through the exchange of gluons.
• Complete activity 2 on worksheet.
• You should know which particles interact via the strong nuclear force.
Spin - fermions and bosons
• Spin is the intrinsic angular momentum of particles.
• Fermions are spin 1/2 particles while bosons have integer spin
• Complete activity 3 on worksheet.
• You should know which particles are fermions and which particles are
bosons.
What is are the masses of Standard
Model Particles?
• Complete activity 4 on worksheet.
Note:
• The constituents of normal matter – up quarks, down quarks and
electrons are part of the lightest, lowest energy, generation of matter.
• Higher energy particles decay.
• Generally speaking, higher mass particles were discovered latter than
lower mass particles. E.g. the Higgs boson has a large mass and was last
to be found.
• You do NOT need to know the mass of each particle – it is enough to
understand trends.
Antiparticles
• Antimatter particles have the same mass as their
matter equivalents but are otherwise opposite.
E.g. they have opposite electrical and colour
charges.
• Complete activity 5 on worksheet.
• Do not try to remember all these antiparticles,
rather remember the concepts above.
The Standard Model ???
Quiz: from multiple choice, select
ALL that apply
1. Which particles experience the electromagnetic force?
A) Quarks B) Charged leptons C) Neutrinos D) W bosons
2. Which particles experience the strong nuclear force?
A) Quarks B) Leptons C) Gluons D) Photons
3. List all fundamental particles with a charge of
4. List all fundamental particles with a charge of
5. List all fundamental particles in the second generation of matter.
Hadrons
• In nature isolated quarks are not observed.
• Quarks are found in groups called hadrons.
These arrangements are:
• collections of 3 - called baryons
• quark-antiquark pairs - called mesons
• Hadrons:
• are “colourless”
• have integer electrical charge
• are bound together by the strong nuclear
force
Baryons
The most common, lowest energy baryons are
• protons: uud
• neutron: udd
Possible colour charges of
quarks in baryons.
High energy, short-lived baryons may be created
in particle accelerators.
Can contain 3 quarks or 3 antiquarks.
Example Questions
Q1. What fundamental particles make up a deuterium (H-2) nucleus?
Q2. What fundamental particles make up a Be-9 atom?
Q3. What fundamental particles make up an antiproton? What is the
electrical charge of the antiproton?
Mesons
• Are quark-antiquark pairs.
• Pions are simple mesons made up of first
generation quarks.
Possible colour charges of
• What would the composition of and quarks in mesons.
mesons be?
Recall: forces arise from the exchange of force carrying
particles called gauge bosons.
Let’s see how much weaker the gravitational force is
than the electrostatic force in the nucleus of atoms.
Electrostatic Force between 2
Protons
(in He-4)
m
Gravitational Force between 1
Proton and the rest of a He-4
nucleus
m
Forces
How is it known that human understanding
Unification of Forces of matter is still incomplete?
• The understanding electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force
have been combined in a theory of the “electro-weak force”.
• While we have a very good theory for the strong nuclear force –
quantum chromodynamics (QCD) – this has NOT been unified with
these other 2 forces.
A Graviton?
• Gravity is not included in the standard model.
• A spin 2, force carrying particle called the graviton has been proposed
but not observed.
Analysing a question…
CUB
Practice Questions from Pearson
• Answer Q 1-7 p 457 of your text.
• Other examination style questions from the worksheet last lesson
(also available on portal).
Operation of a investigate the operation and role of particle
Particle accelerators in obtaining evidence that tests
and/or validates aspects of theories, including
Accelerator the Standard Model of matter
Three key points
1. Electric fields accelerate particles – electric fields do work to increase a
particle’s kinetic energy.
2. Magnetic fields change the direction of particles – magnetic fields do no
work, magnetic fields guide changed particles around a circular path.
3. Collisions between particles cause kinetic energy to be transformed into
mass.
relativistic kinetic energy
Some types of Particle Accelerator
Cyclotrons Linear Accelerators (LINAC)
Some types of Particle Accelerator
Colliders
Synchrotrons
(A type of
synchrotron)
Extension
[Link]
investigate the operation and role of particle
Examples of evidence that accelerators in obtaining evidence that tests
verifies theories of matter. and/or validates aspects of theories, including
the Standard Model of matter
• The Higgs boson was found to with a mass of 125 GeV/c2
in 2012. This provided evidence to support the Higgs
mechanism, (part of the Standard Model) which is our
theory of how fundamental particles have mass.
• The existence of the top quark predicted after the
discovery of the bottom quark in 1977. It was found in
1995 by Tevatron at Fermilab.
For You to Do
Visit CERN Website: [Link] and read an article
about the discovery of the W or Z bosons.
With these resources and further research answer the questions below:
1. How did the discovery of the W or Z boson validate aspects of the Standard
Model of matter?
2. Outline one new question that this research generated.
Also you may also like to have a read of this article.
[Link]
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