Unit Three
Politics, economy
1
and society to the
end of the 13 c
th
2
Emergence of
States
One important factor for the emergence of states
was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
build houses near cultivated plots fencing
farming fields & residences
harvest crops and stored and protected from
humidity and rodent
form larger communities for better security
and to help each other
By advancing their farming farmers acquired
surplus produce to exchange with tools and
clothes
Traders also began to buy the products for
exchange
3
the expansion of agriculture
rise to class differentiation State
formation
the growth of trade
4
State refers to
an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and
government with the power to decree and
enforce laws.
State was the outcome of regular cultural
process and arose independently in different
places and at different times.
Favorable environmental conditions helped to
speed the rate of transformation
Religious leaders played prominent role in
maintaining the social and religious affairs of
their people during the initial formation of the
5
As production became market oriented,
religious elites were gradually replaced by
chiefs
Then chiefs began collecting regular
tributes for various purposes
In Ethiopia and the Horn: Strong stats were
emerged due
Geographical proximity to and control
of the international water bodies -Red
Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean
The existence of Rich interior
6
7
Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia
Evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic
writings,
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent
expedition
Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose
expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El
Bahri.
She sent five ships
Return collecting frank incense, cinnamon,
sweet…
Presented some parts of the items to her god,
Amun.
Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact
location of Punt. Suggestions are
8 Da’amat
South of Aksum.
Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated
to the 5th c shows that he used politico-religious
title known as Mukarib.
Various gods and goddesses were worshiped
Almouqah -principal god
Astarr- Venus god
Na’uran- light god
Shamsi - sun god
Sin- moon god
There were similar practices in South Arabia.
There were a number of cultural centers in northern
Ethiopia. The major ones are:
9
1. Yeha:
The oldest of these centers, emerged around 1, 000
BC
There was interaction with South Arabian merchants
Its period of prosperity was from (750 to 500 B.C.)
Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone
masonry and temple and inscriptions indicate
Yeha’s glory.
2. Hawulti Melazo:
Stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple
surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle have been excavated.
3. Addi-Seglemeni:
The oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is
10 The Aksumite
State
The nucleus of Aksumite state was formed around 200-
100 B.C.
Initially, its power was limited to a relatively
small area- town of Aksum and its environs.
Gradually, it expanded to include large territories in all
directions
Red Sea coast - edge of Ethiopian plateau
Northern most corner of Eritrea - northern parts
of Shewa
According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the
western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of
Aksum.
There were long distance trades
Manufactured products were imported;
11
garments and textiles: Egypt, India, Roman
Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry: Egypt
metallic sheets, tools, oil and wine: Roman
Empire and Syria
Among the Aksumit kings Zoscales (c. 76-89),
used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua
Franca of Greco-Roman world.
Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri
Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
12
The Christian Topography
describes commercial activities of the Red Sea
areas
internal long distance trade between Aksum and
a distant region called Sasu, most probably in
Beni Shangul
A big caravan (500) would take to Sasu
cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks)
and iron to exchange for gold.
Nature of their trade:
As they did not speak each other’s language,
and did not even trust to be near to each other
to bargain through signs and gestures, the
whole exchange was done without one side
13
Had extensive contacts with the outside world notably
with the South Arabian region,
leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual
culture.
Such contacts involved conflicts - around 200 A.D.
Peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula
(Yemen) had difficulties in defending
themselves against the army of the Aksumite
king, Gadarat.
From 3rd to 7th c, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis,
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc.
minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold,
silver and bronze for both overseas and local
transactions.
14
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the
world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time.
It was a major naval and trading power from
the first to the seventh centuries.
ships were the main means of
transporting goods
sufficient sources of timber for ship
building
had a large fleet of ships, for trade & war
Military Expedition
15
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of
Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba
local prince Dhu-Nuwas who was converted to
Judaism marched to Zafar and Nagran, and
killed many Christians.
Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with
blessing of Patriarch Timit III (518-538)
provided Kaleb with a number of ships to
transport armies led by Julianos and Nonossus.
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed
Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued
until 570 A. D.
16 Gabra Masqal
Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal
(535-48) who built a church at Zur Amba in
Gayint.
Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church
liturgical songs and hymns during his
period.
17
The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late 7th
c
Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural
productivity and possibly plague
Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs
around 702
the whole network of Aksumite international
trade came under the control of Arab Muslims
Decline of its political and military power on the
Red Sea coast and in its interior provinces
Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local
rebellions
Recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw
and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit)
18
Aksumit civilzation had a profound impact upon
the peoples of the Horn of Africa and beyond, and
on its successors- Zagwe, Solomonic, Gondarine…
Some of its achievements include indigenous
script and calendar, EOC hymns and chants,
paintings etc.
Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory
curving…
Urbanization and sophisticated building
traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn
churches…)
Complex administrative and governance
Agricultural system including irrigation etc.
19
Zagwe Dynasty 1150 to
After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted
1270
southwards to Kubar.
This gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part
in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and
functionaries.
After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class,
they successfully took over the state administration.
Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe
Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil
Na'od.
Overthrew his father-in-law and took control of
power.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab,
Yetbarek etc.
20
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District
within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa
The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from
ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north
northern Shewa in the south
Lake Tana region and the northern part of Gojjam
in the west
The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions
almost intact.
Renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern
Mediterranean region.
export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices
cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, various
types of drags coins were imported
21
Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's
paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez and known for the
construction of:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost
similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: unique in constructions
interior decoration and partial decoration
outside
not totally separated from the surrounding
rock
eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael,
Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete
22
3. Monolithic: decoration in the interior and
exterior parts.
completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock
eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis,
Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem
Among the eleven churches, Bete
Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete
Giyorgis is the most finely built.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second
Jerusalem
23
The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to
1. internal problems of royal succession
2. oppositions from groups claiming descent
from the ancient rulers of Aksum
It considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate
rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of
Sheba- Kebra-Negest
Based on the legend, the power
claimants contend that “Solomonic”
Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until
its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.
Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), organized his
forces with the assistance of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek in battle.
East, Central, Southern, and
24 Western States
Bizamo: southern bend of Abay River around -Wambara
area
had early connections with Damot
Damot: expanded its territories - south of Abay - north of
Lake Turkana - west of Awash -east of Didessa.
Motalami was king of Damot in 13th c
Enarya: Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho
Enarya's kingship was a divine one: (Hinnare Tato)
Communicated with visitors through an intermediary,
AfeBusho.
The real power rested with Mikretcho (council)
Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a
campaign…
25
Gafat: south of Abay
inhabited by Semitic speaking population -Harari
and the Gurage
Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold
largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion
As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying
tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in
cattle
Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names
The state was governed by rulers bearing the
title of Awalamo
26
Muslim Sultanates
Shewa:
Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid set up the Makhzumite
Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern
foothill of Shewa.
Fatagar:
founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in 11th c
cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits...
Dawaro:
located south of Fatagar between upper waters of
Awash and Wabi Shebelle
valuable information on Dawaro -Egyptian courtier Ibn
Fad Allah el-umari- much smaller than Ifat
had a currency called hakuna for transaction
27
Bali:
occupy high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle
and Rift valley
largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces
had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry
Ifat:
located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate
northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward
to the Awash.
established by Umar Walasma
inhabitants earned their living from cultivation
chat was described for the first time
28 External Contacts
With Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.- earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the
Greco-Roman World.
Trade contact -South Arabian Kingdoms -
before 1,000 B.C.
The introduction of Christianity to Aksum
established a new pattern of relation between
the region and Egypt.
Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt
and the general reduction of the
Christians into minority, relations
between the two were fairly smooth and
friendly.
29
Following the introduction of Christianity,
Aksum established close relationship with the
East Roman or Byzantine Empire
The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs led to
the decline of Aksumite land routes and
shipping lines.
The coming to power of the Mamluk was
followed by the reciprocal persecution of
religious minorities.
Mamluk presented a barrier to the
contacts between Christian Ethiopia and
European states.
Prester John
?
30
Tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places
in the Middle East had begun at the end of the
1st millennium AD. through Egypt.
Consequently, there were considerable
numbers of Ethiopian Christian
communities found in different regions
Served as an important link between
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe
Pilgrims in the holy places transmitted
information about the EOC and its exceptional
liturgical practices and territorial extent
31
From the information, the Europeans began to
consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn
of Africa.
European wanted to use this strong
Christian power in their struggle against
the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
In the middle of the 12th century, a myth about
a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known
as Prester John began to circulate in Europe.
The legend was developed when the balance of
the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between
the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter.
32
In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings,
thought to be sent by the Prester John appeared in
Europe mentioning about the enormous power of the
Prester John.
The geographical location of the country of Prester
John was not known to Europe for over a century.
However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John
Since the only Christian kingdom between the
Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
Then, they began to search for the location of
the Kingdom to make an alliance with it.
Economic Formations
33 Agriculture and Land Tenure System
The main stay of ancient states' economy in
highland was agriculture.
irrigation contributed to the growth of
agricultural production.
Land has always been the most precious
possessions
People used diverse soil fertility enhancement
strategies
The rules share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system.
The most ancient system of land holding which
survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the
34
Peasants in the north had rist rights which is a
kind of communal birthright to land.
known as bale-rist and paid tributes to the
state
Tribute was collected through a complex
hierarchy of state officials who were given gult
right
It is a right to charge tribute on rist owners’
produce.
Tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted
for themselves and the rest were sent to the
imperial center.
It became hereditary was called Riste-Gult
35 Handicraft
Social, economic and political conditions of
ancient states had allowed the emergence of
artisans
Metal workers: produced spears’ points,
swords , javelins…
Carpenters: carving wood implements like
doors…
Potters: produced ceramic utensils like
saucepan, ovens, pot…
Tanners: produced leather tools used for bed,
bed
Artisans were mostly marginalized.
36
Trade
The major socio-economic and political centers of
earliest states seem to have also been major trade
centers
For both local and foreign traders
A network of roads connected the centers with the
coast and various dependencies in the interior.
Local and international merchants frequented
these roads.
The region was crisscrossed by various trade
routes connecting various market places in all
directions.
The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states
in that one of their major concerns was to protect
the trade routes and make them safe from robbers
Socio-cultural
37
Achievements
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish
Architecture
There were 58 steles in and around Aksum - well made and
decorated, half completed and megaliths (not hewn).
As local tradition says, the steles were engraved at
Gobodara from which they were transported and planted
in Aksum.
longest one of these stele measures 33meters
highly decorated in all of its four sides.
represents a-14 storied building with many windows
and a false door
bears pre-Christian symbols, half moon
second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height
third longest stele measures 21- with no decoration
38
The Zagwe churches are regarded as
some of the finest architecture of
artistic achievements of the Christian
world- registered by UNESCO as part of
world cultural heritage in 1978
Further refinement can be observed in
the construction and decoration of the
rockhewn churches in the Zagwe
period.
Zagwe architecture used a softer
material like sandstone, which was cut
and shaped all round, except the floor,
into a variety of delicately decorated
churches.
39
Writing System
The Sabean language had an alphabet with
boustrophedon -paleographical writing from left to right
and right to left alternatively.
earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia
date to 9th c
unusual feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of
vowels
For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as D’mt
After 7th and 6th BC variants of script arose, evolving in
the direction of the Geʽez script
By 1st C AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose (26 consonant letters
only) written left-to-right
Though the first completely vocalized texts known are
inscriptions by Ezana c. 330 AD.
40
Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times
rains would begin and end
the rise and fall of the water level
the length of the month was based on the
movement of the moon or the apparent
movement of the sun.
Calendar in Ethiopia and the Horn
Oromo calendar
based on astronomical observations of
moon in conjunction with seven or eight
particular stars
41
Sidama
rotates following movements of stars with 13
months a year, 12 of which are divided equally
into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29
days.
week has only 4 days
each month has 7 weeks
Ethiopic solar calendar
has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added
every 4 years)
the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/
September 11
42
The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a
year of 354 or 355 days.
employs the Hijra year of 622 AD
AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra")
Years prior to the Hijra - BH ("Before the
Hijra"
Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya,
Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own
dating system.
43
Numerals
Numerals appeared in at the beginning of 4th
C AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to
the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals,
but it lacks individual characters for
multiples of 100.
44
