Scientific Investigation

Chapter 2
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing Chapter 2 you should be able to:
 Explain what is meant by scientific investigation,
giving examples of both scientific and
nonscientific investigations.
 Explain the hallmarks of scientific research
Discuss the seven steps of the hypothetico-
deductive method, using an example of your own.
Discuss alternative perspectives on what makes
good research.
 Scientific research
Scientific research pursues
A step‐by‐step logical,
Organized and rigorous method
To identify the problems
Gather data,
Analyze data
Draw valid conclusions
 Hallmarks of scientific research
1. Purposiveness
 Research should be started the with definite aim or
purpose e.g..
 If focus is on increasing the commitment of employees
to the organization, this will be beneficial in many ways.
 An increase in employee commitment will result into
lower turnover, less absenteeism, and probably increased
performance levels,
 All of these will definitely benefit the organization.
 Hence the research has a purposive focus
 Hallmarks of scientific research
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 Means carefulness, thoroughness(with great care and attention to detail) and the
degree or percentage of correctness.
 A good logical/theoretical base and a sound methodology add rigor
 Providing theoretical base is to connect your new research to existing knowledge
which can lay the foundation and strong methodology
 Rigor in the research is achieved when each component of study’s methodology is
systematic and transparent and accurate.
 If a HR manager of an organization asks 10 to 12 of its employees to suggest what
would increase their level of commitment. If, only on the basis of their responses, the
manager reaches conclusions on how employee commitment can be increased, the
whole approach to the investigation is unscientific. It lacks rigor for the following
reasons
a. The conclusions are incorrectly drawn because they are based on the responses of
just a few employees whose opinions may not be representative of those of the
entire workforce
b. Question should be free from bias and incorrectness
c. Lots of other factors influence commitment which researcher failed to include
because of small sample of respondents did not or could not express during the
interviews
 Hallmarks of scientific research
3. Testability
 Testability is a property that applies to the hypotheses of a study
 A hypothesis as a tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts
what you expect to find in your empirical data.
 Hypotheses are derived from theory, which is based on the logical
beliefs of the researcher and on (the results of) previous, scientific
research
 .EXP: Hypothesis Employee Participation in decision making is
positively related to the Employee Commitment
 It must be able to testify by applying certain statistical tests which
are most appropriate
 A correlation analysis will indicate whether the hypothesis is
validated or not.
 Testing logically developed hypotheses to see whether or not the
data support the hypotheses
 Hallmarks of scientific research
4. Replicability
 Results should be supported again and again when the same type of
research is repeated in other circumstances
 An attempt by a second researcher to replicate a previous study is an effort
to determine whether applying the same methods to the same scientific
question produces similar results
 Manager/Researcher based on Previous study concludes that Participation
is positively related to commitment.
 We will place faith and credibility in these findings if similar findings
appear on data collected from other organization applying same method.
 Replication demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been
 supported merely by chance, but are reflective of the true state of affairs in
the population.
 The results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet
again when the same type of research is repeated in similar circumstances.
 the result to test the hypothesis same when the same type of research
repeated  In similar circumstances.
 Gain confidence  in scientific nature
 Hallmarks of scientific research
5. Precision and confidence
 Precision
 Refers to the Closeness of the findings to reality.
 Precession reflects the degree of accuracy of results
 We assume that our findings are close to reality
 So that we can place reliance in the results.
 Confidence
 Probability that our estimation are correct
 In social sciences confidence level is 95%
 We can confidently claim that 95% of time our result would be
true.
 Significance level = p= .05 (Far from reality)
5. Precision and confidence
 We hardly ever have the luxury of being able to draw definite conclusion
on the basis of result.
 Our findings are based on sample.
 Sample is not exact to the population but representation of population
 Measurement error and other problems make bias or error in findings.
 We would like to design  Ensure  finding are close to reality.
Precision
 Refers to the Closeness of the findings to reality on the basis of sample.
 No of production days lost during year = 35
 Your study = 30-40 favorable
 If your study = 20-50 the term confidence interval in statistics will lead to
referred to here as precision.
 Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.
 Confidence
 Probability that our estimation are correct
 We can confidently claim that 95% of time our result would be true.
 Significance level = p= .05 (Far from reality)
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 If results of research drawn are entirely based on facts of the findings and they are without
the personal feelings, perceptions or prejudices of researcher.
 Not on subjective or emotional values.
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 Scope of applicability of the research findings from one organization setting to other should
not be limited to one specific
 If the researchers find that  participation and commitment link different settings
generalizibility enhance.
 The wider the range of applicability of the solution generated by research, the more useful
will be.
 A company implements a training program aimed to improve employees' customer service
skills. The program is conducted in one department initially but later spread out to other
departments across the organization. If evaluations of the training program show consistent
improvements in customer service performance across different departments, it indicates
that the training's effectiveness is generalizable to various organizational contexts.
 8. Parsimony
 Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or a problem that occur,
 Generating solution,
 Economy of research model when we can build with a lesser variables rather the research is
based on a complex model wit number of variables
 Parsimony can be introduce with good understanding of the problem and important factors
that influence.
 What is Theory
 A theory is a formal, logical explanation of some events that includes
predictions of how things relate to one another.
 a theory is an organized set of assumptions that generates testable
predictions) about a topic of interest
 Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation,
 Newton’ theory of motion
 Components of theory are;
 Concepts: are the basic elements or ideas that the theory seeks to explain.
 Variables: In many theories, concepts are translated into variables that can
be quantitatively or qualitatively measured.
 Assumptions: A statement that is assumed to be true and from which a
conclusion can be drawn
 Hypotheses: are specific, testable predictions derived from the theory.
 How theories are developed?
 A theory may be developed with Deductive reasoning and
Inductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning is the logical process of deriving a
conclusion about a specific instance based
 Deductive reasoning: going from a general principle or
statement to a specific claim or known general premise or
something known to be true.
 Inductive reasoning: is the logical process of establishing a
general proposition on the basis of observation of particular
facts, involves moving from the specific to the general.
 Building Blocks of science in Research
Deduction
 A process, we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical
generalization of a known fact.
 to test a theory :
 within deductive reasoning, we work from general to the more
specific. e.g. all racing cars must go over 80MPH; the Ferrari is a
racing car, therefore it can go over 80MPH.
 We start out with a general theory and then narrow down that theory
into specific hypotheses we can test.
 We narrow down even further when we collect specific observations
to test our hypotheses.
 Analysis of these specific observations ultimately allows us to
confirm (or refute) our original theory
Building Blocks of science in Research
Induction
Process where we observe certain phenomena and on
the basis arrive at conclusion, in inductive reasoning,
we work from the specific to general.
 The observation of a first, second, and third white
swan (this is a very famous example) may
lead to the proposition that “all swans are white.” In
this example, the repeated observation of a white
swan has
led to the general conclusion that all swans are white.
 Building Blocks of Science
Observation
Theory refinement
or Identification
implementation of Problem
Area

Data
Interpretation Theoretical
Framework

Data
Analysis Hypothesis

Data
Collection Research Concept
Design Construct
 Hypothetico Deductive Method
1. Observation
 Sense certain changes (new behavior, attitude, feeling)
 The observed phenomena have potentially important consequences
 How to observe?
 People- oriented manager is always aware of what is happening in and
around organization.
 Goals Effectiveness in processes Positive or negative reaction.
 Manager pick that problems through cues.
 Manager identify gap actual and required.
2. Preliminary information gathering
 Seeking information  what is observed in-depth information.
 Done by talking informally to workers or use other sources (what is
happening and why)
 To identify what transpire in situation.
 Increases the level of awareness Focus on problems and factors
structured and formal interviews
3. Theory Formulation
 Integrate all information in logical manner
 All factors can be conceptualized and tested.
 Theoretical Framework  variables theoretically woven
(stretches in the bias directions) justification
 Why they might influence problem.
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 Theoretical framework hypothesis generated.
 Hypothesis testing is called deduction
 Hypotheses not original formulated  generated through
induction.
 This is after data obtain  creative insight occur New
hypotheses generated.
 Hawthorne study
5. Scientific data collection
Data regarding every variable in hypotheses
needed to test hypothesis.
6. Data Analysis
Data gathered are statistically analyzed.
To see hypotheses generated supported
7. Deduction
Arriving at conclusion interpretation of
analysis.
 Other type of Research
 Case studies
 In-depth Contextual (relative)Analysis of similar situation in other
organization nature and definition of problem same
 Hypothesis can be developed in case studies.
 If the hypotheses cannot be validate in even single study it will not support
your alternate hypothesis.
 Not often undertaken in organization
 Action Research
 Sometime undertaken by consultants  initiate change process.
 Action research methodology most appropriate while effecting planned
changes.
 Researchers begin with problem gathered relevant data to provide tentative
problem solution.
 The solution then implemented with knowledge maybe unintended
consequences following such implementation.
 The effects then evaluated, defined and diagnosed  research continuous 