Chapter Three

3. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END
OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
 3.1 EMERGENCE OF STATE
• One of the most important factor for the emergency
of state is the beginning of sedentary life.
• With improvement of means and ways of
production, human beings begun to possess surplus
production and ensure food security for long period.
• Eventually trade transaction developed between
farmers and artisans via bartering system.
• Development of agriculture and trade gradually
resulted in the formation of class with in the
community.
 Cont’d
• Generally states were formed because of
expansion of agriculture and trade.
• State is an autonomous political entity which
have: Population, Defined Territory,
Government(with the power to enact and
enforce laws) and Sovereignty. (Recognition
also taken as an essential element of state.)
• States arose independently in different places
and at different times.
 Con’d

• Religious leaders were prominent in

maintaining social and religious affairs of initial
formation of states.
• With the development of trade and market
places, religious leaders were replaced by
Chiefs who begun to collect tributes and
provide security for the community.
• Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in
Africa where early state formation took place.
 3.2 Ancient States
A. Punt
 the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian
hieroglyphic writings.
Different Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt had sent
trade expedition towards Punt to collect
commodities like myrrh, ebony and electrum
(gold and silver alloy) and Dwarfs.
 Cont’d
• Of these pharaohs, Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C)
and Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.) are the most
important one.
• Especially Hatshepsut’s expedition is well documented
at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
• She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian
Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was
warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu and the
royal Family.
• The Egyptian collected commodities like frankincense,
cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes etc…
 Cont’d
• The Egyptians used commodities from Punt
for ritual purpose and that is why Punities are
Known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine/
Ghost land)
• The Punities import materials like axes,
daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets
were imported from Egypt.
• However there is no agreement among the
scholars concerning the exact location of Punt.
 B. Da’amat

• Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum

• Inscription of the king of Da’amat dated 5th C. BC,
shows that he used politico-religious title known as
Mukarib.
• Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah
(principal god), Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light
god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were
worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and
other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural
centers
• There were similar practices in South Arabia at the
time
 Yeha
• is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and
was the oldest of these centers
• It probably emerged around 1000 B.C as a small
emporium where South Arabian merchants and
their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros
horn and other commodities coming from the
interior.
• It reached its zenith around 750-500 B.C
• Remains of walls of some of its buildings and
stone masonry as well as still standing temple and
inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
 Cont’d
Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum,
where stone tablets that are inscribed in
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated
with paintings representing herds of cattle have
been excavated.
Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of
Aksum, from where a stone slab is found and the
oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is
discovered.
There were also other cultural centers like Addi
Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe and Tekonda etc…
 C. Axumite State
• Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C,
initially limited to a relatively small area
comprising the town of Aksum and its environs.
• However in its Zenith, Aksumite territories
extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to
River Nile Basin in the West and Northern most
of Eritrea in the north to Shewa in the south.
• According to Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Adulis
was major port of axum.
• The LDT connects trde centers in Aksumite
states like Kaskas, Coleo, Matara…
 Con’d
• Major export items of the Axumites were ivory,
myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like
ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros
horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and
some curiosity animals like apes.
• In return: a number of manufactured products like
garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the
Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry
from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools
or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the
regions of Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
 Con’d

• The Axumites had maintained multifaceted relations with

the outside world including the Greco-Roman
World(*Axumite King Zoscalus used to speak Greek
Language), middle East and Far East(Sri Lanca) and Asia
minor.
• Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of
the Axumites and the LDT between Axum and Sasu
(people beyond Blue Nile)
• Silent trade was conducted between the Axumites and
Sasu (because of language barrier and Trust issue)
• The Axumites had extensive relation with the South
Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material
and spiritual culture.
 Con’d

• Different Axumite kings (Aphilas, Endybis,

Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II) had minted and issued
different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze
for both overseas and local transactions.
• Axum was one of Four great power of the world:
Roman Empire, Persia and China)
• It was a major naval and trading power from the
first to the seventh centuries.
• Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used
not only for trade but also for its wars across the
Red Sea
 Con’d

• King Caleb (r 500-535) extended the territories

of Axum in South Arabia after defeating Dhu
Nawas, who had professed to Judiasm and
persecuted Christians in South Arabian region,
in 523 and 525.
• It was during Gabra Maskal, the son and
successor of Caleb, that St. Yared developed
Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs
and hymns.
 Decline of Axum

• Both internal and external factors accounted for

the decline of Axum.
• Environmental degradation, decline in
agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
• The whole international trade relation was
crippled with occupation of the Adulis by the
Arabs in 702.
• As a result the Axumites were cutoff from their
diplomatic and commercial partners which
resulted in decline in economy.
 Con’d

• The Axumites were also challenged internally,

mainly the rebellions of the Bejja, the Agaw
and Yodit who finally sealed the collapse of
the Aksumite state.
• However, as a civilization, Aksum had a
profound impact upon the peoples of the
Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its
successors ( Zagwe and Solomonic Dynasty
and the Gondarian Period)
 Con’d

• Some of its achievements include Sub-Saharan

Africa’s only surviving indigenous script and
calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants,
paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic
tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and
sophisticated building traditions.
• It also developed complex administrative and
governance system, and agricultural system
including irrigation
 Zagwe Dynasty

• After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted

southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the
Agaw.
• This paves the way for the Agaws to took part in state
affairs of the Axumites.
• The Agaws successfully integrated with the Axumites (for
instance Merra T/haymanot married Mesobe-Worq, the
daughter of the last King of Axum Dil Naod), and took over
the state administration.
• Merra T/aymanot overthrew his father in law and took in
control of power.
• Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is
believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
 Cont’d
• The Dynasty established its center at Adafa near
Roha (Lalibela).
• Its territory includes most of highland provinces
of Axumite state in the north to Shewa in the
South and Lake Tana and Gojjam in the West.
• The Agaw maintained the ancient Axumite
tradition intact.
• The Zagwe Rulers maintained cultural and trade
contact with eastern Mediterranean region
 Con’t
• Export items includes slaves, ivory and rare
spices
• While they imported goods like: cotton, linen,
silver and copper vessels, various types of drags
and newly minted coins.
• Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's
paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
• Zagwe rulers are also best known for the
construction of cave, semi-hewn and
monolithic churches.
• Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar
with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel
• Semi-hewn: They are not totally separated from
the surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete
Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba
Libanos.
• Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the
interior and exterior parts. They are completely
separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg.
Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and
Bete Medhanialem.
 Cont’d
• Of all, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all
and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely
built in the shape of the Cross.
• Lalibela build these churches to second
Jerusalem and avoid difficulties that Ethiopian
Pilgrims had faced on their way to Jerusalem.
• Internal (problem of succession) and external
factors ignite dynasty’s decline.
• They were considered as ‘usurper’ by their
rivals
• Their rivals considered Zagwe kings
“illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of
the Queen of Sheba.
• The legend was in turn based on a book
known as Kebra-Negest that was translated
from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez.
• Exploiting the legend the rivals contend
“Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state
until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.
• Finally Yekuno Amlak(1270-85), who claimed
to the descent of Last king of Axum Dil-Naod,
organized his force and defeated the last king
of Zagwe Yitbarek
• Yekuno-Amlak took the state power
proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic”
Dynasty.
 East, Central, Southern, and Western States

Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend

of Abay River just opposite to the present districts of
Gojjam and around the current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and had early
connections with Damot.
Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its
territories into most of the lands the south of Abay
and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash
and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the
thirteenth century
Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in
southwestern Ethiopia
• The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho
• Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king
(Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as
sacred
• The real power rested with Mikretcho (council)
including Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson) and
Atche-rasha (royal treasurer.
• By the 9th c. the Axumite King Digna-Jan led
campaign in to Enarya followed by EOC.
 Gafat
 historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of
Abay
It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population
related to Harari and the Gurage
 the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their
own indigenous religion.
The state was governed by rulers bearing the title
of Awalamo.
As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying
tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle,
 Muslim Sultanats
• With the expansion of Islam in to the region,
Muslim communities and states had been
established at many locations especially along
the main trade routes from Zeila and its many
branches penetrating the interior.
A. Shewa: ruled by Makhzumite Dynasty
established by Makhzumi Khalid, who claimed
decent from Meca, in 896 A. D.
• Fatagar: founded around Minjar, Shenkora and
Ada’a in the 11th C.
 Con’d
C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between
upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle.
• Despite its size, Dawaro resembled Ifat in many
ways.
• Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for
transaction .
D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high
plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift
valley Lakes.
• Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim
provinces
 CON’D
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle,
sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan
Sultanate, established by Umar Walasma.
• Umar intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite
princes and weakened and finally annexed the
sultanate of Shewa.
• The sultanate was fertile and well watered, hence
their economy was dominated by agriculture
• Chat was described for the first time as being
consumed as a stimulant.
 Cont’d

• There were also other autonomous states

mutually independent states like Arababani,
Biqulzar, Dera , Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla,
Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah and Sim which
were established and flourished.
 Foreign Relations
• Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt
since at least 3,000 B. C.
• It had very close relations with all commercially
active South Arabian Kingdoms starting
sometimes before 1,000 B.C
• The introduction of Christianity to Aksum
established a new pattern of relation between the
region and Egypt.
• Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the
general reduction of the Christians into minority,
relations between the two were fairly smooth and
friendly.
 Cont’
• Aksum had also established close relationship with
Byzantine Empire(commercial interest in the Red
Sea against Persians) however since seven century,
this relation became complicated and began to
deteriorate.
• The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs to the
region led to the decline of Aksumite land routes
and shipping lines.
• Egyptian rulers used the consecration and sending
of Bishops to Ethiopia to promote their interest
over Ethiopia, while the Christian Rulers of
Ethiopia threatens to divert River Nile.
 Con’d
• Moreover the coming of Mamluks in Egypt
presented a barrier to the contacts between
Christian Ethiopia and European states.
• Despite challenges, the tradition to visit Jerusalem
and other holy-lands in the Middle east by the
Ethiopians sustains Ethiopia's relation with
Christian Europe as most of these pilgrims who
came in to contact with fellow Christian
Europeans:
 they transmitted information about the EOC and its
exceptional liturgical practices.
 Territorial extent of Christian Kingdom & its domination
over the muslims
 Cont’d
• From the information, Europeans begun to
imagine that there is strong Christian state in
Africa.
• Around 12th C. a myth about a very rich and
powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John
began to circulate in Europe.
• The legend developed when the Muslims
dominate crusade wars over christians.
• The Europeans do not know the geographic
location of country of Prester Jhon but regard
Christaian Ethiopia as potential one.
 Economic Formation
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
• Agriculture was the backbone for most of the
peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn
• People use Irrigation and improve soil fertility
through different mechanism to produce more.
• Land has always been one of the most precious
possessions of human society throughout
history.
• The rules according to which members of the
society hold, share and use land constitute what
is known as the land tenure system.
 Con’d

• The most ancient system of land holding which

survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn is the communal land tenure system
which is Group Right.
• Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas
• Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by
members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived.
• Most of the subjects of the state had rist
rights. The rist owners were known as bale-rist
 Con’d
• Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land
belonged to the state theoretically
• Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy
of state functionaries or officials who were given
Gult right over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the government.
• Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce. The person who is authorized to do so is
called bale-gult.
• Eventually Gult right became hereditary called
Riste-Gult.
 2. Handicraft
• Indigenous handcraft technology had existed
since the ancient period
• Metal workers, carpenters, potters, tanners and
weavers produced different materials for the
community
• However artisans were mostly despised and
marginalized
• The ruling family spend enormous wealth on
imported items than indigenous one.
• As a result handicraft productions did not show
sign of improvement as anticipated.
 3. trade
• Trade(internal and external) was another
important economic activity of ancient states
that obtained considerable income.
• The region was crisscrossed by various trade
routes connecting various market places in all
directions
• A network of roads connected the centers
with the coast and various dependencies in
the interior
• Security and maintain of regular flow of Trade
was the main concern of state.
 Socio-cultural achievements
ARCHITECTURE
 architecture is one of the most important
achievements of Ethiopia.
 Axumite architecture began to flourish and one
of the unique architectural technologies was
the engraving of stele around the 3rd C.AD
 There were totally fifty eight steles in and
around Aksum that can be grouped into well
made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths
 Con’d
• the steles were engraved specifically at Gobodara
from which they were transported and planted in
Aksum
• The longest one of these stele measures 33meters
heights.
• It represents a-14 storied building with many
windows and a false door at the bottom. It also
bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a
crescent (half moon) at the top
• 2nd largest have 24 height, and the third 21 with 10
and 9 story building respectively and false windows
and doors
 Cont’d

• The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of

the finest architecture of artistic achievements
of the Christian world and registered by
UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in
1978, two years before that of the Aksumite
stele
• Zagwe architecture used a softer material like
sandstone, which was cut and shaped all
round, except the floor, into a variety of
delicately decorated churches
 Writing system
• Before 6th C BC, peoples in the north used Sabean Language
with Boustrophedon writing system but without vowels.
• Since 6th c BC variants of script arose, evolving in the
direction of the Geʽez script
• By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26
consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters
identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized
alphabet
• Though the first completely vocalized texts known are
inscriptions by Ezana 330 AD,
• Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense
contribution to the development of literature, art and the
writing of history
 Calander
• Calendars were developed and adopted among
various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn
• Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical
observations of moon in conjunction with
particular stars or group of stars
• There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in
12 months of a year
• The Sidama calendar rotates following
movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the
thirteenth month has 29 days
 Cont’d
• The Sidama week has only 4 days and hence
each month has 7 weeks.
• Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30
days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth
month.
• A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from alternative
calculation in determining date of Annunciation
• The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to
become the official calendar of the country
 Con’d
• The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar
consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355
days.
• It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which
Mohammed and his followers made flight from
Mecca to Medina Dates in this era are usually
denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the
Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as
BH ("Before the Hijra").
• Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya,
Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own
dating system.
 numerals
• Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at
the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez uses
numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100.