Recall

What is instrumentations ?
Why do you need measurement?
What are the performance characteristics of
instruments?
 Chapter 2: Sensors &
Applications
Outlines
Sensor Definition

Passive Sensors

Active Sensors

Position sensors
 Objectives
 To know the principle operation of sensors
 To understand passive and active sensors
 To understand Position measurement system
 To understand Temperature measurement system
 To understand Pressure measurement system
 To understand Level &Flow rate measurement system
 To know application of sensors
Induction

What Is Sensor?
What are the application area of sensor?

Why do you need study about sensor?

Could you list physical quantities ?

Why do you need sense the physical quantities ?
 Sensors and Transducers
• Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus
and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.

• Transducer is device that converts one form energy to another

form of energy.

• Example: it convert non-electrical physical quantity, such as

temperature, sound or light to an electrical signal.
As a comparison:
• Sensor for the sensing element itself and transducer for
the sensing element plus any associated circuitry.
• All transducers would thus contain a sensor and most (not all)
sensors would also be transducers.
 Active and Passive Transducers
1. Active transducers: These transducers do not need
any
external source of power for their operation.

• The active transducer are self generating devices

which operate under the energy conversion principle.

Active Transducer

Photo Voltaic Thermo Electric Magnetism Piezo Electric Others

 Active and Passive Transducers

2. Passive Transducers: These transducers

need external source of power for their
operation.
• A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external
power source.
• These transducers produce the output signal
in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be
measured.
Continued

76
Position sensor

Introduction
Type of position sensor
Construction, working principle and applications
of
 Resistance based or potentiometric position
sensor
 Capacitive position sensor
 Linear variable differential transformer
 Eddy current position sensor
 Hall effect based magnetic position sensor
Position sensors are the devices that can
• Detect movements of an object
• Determine relative position measurement
from an established reference point

• Applications
• Elevator ….
 Position Measurement System

1) Linear and Rotary Potentiometer

I. Linear Potentiometer:
• Potentiometer is an electrical device comprising a resistor with
a sliding third contact (wiper).
• Potentiometer is a device which changes the
mechanical
displacement in to a voltage difference.
• The magnitude of this output voltage is directly proportional to
the relative position of the wiper along the length of
the resistor.
• The fundamental formula for the resistance (R) of a
conductor is given by the expression:

𝜌
𝑅 𝐿
=
�
• Where; �
• ρ= is the resistivity of a conductor
• L= is the length of the conductor
• A= is cross-sectional area of the conductor
• Keeping the parameters ρ and A constant the resistance, R,
varies directly with length of the displacement of any
sensor being used to measure force, pressure, level…etc.
• Hence change of resistance can be used for measure
of displacement.
• This change in resistance can be measure using
Wheatstone bridge in balanced mode or using an amplifier
circuit.

• When the potentiometer wiper is at position B, the output

voltage will be zero and when at position A it will
be maximum, the full supply voltage (V in).
 II. Rotary Potentiometer
• In terms of operating principles the rotary potentiometer is the
same as the linear potentiometer.
• The differences are in the design and manufacture so that the
resistance is formed into an arc and that the wiper rotates
about a central pivot.
Example of a Simple Positional Sensing Circuit
Applications
 Advantage Potentiometers
• They are inexpensive (low cost)
• Simple to operate (easy to use)
Disadvantages Potentiometers
• Wear due to moving parts
• Low accuracy
• Low repeatability
• Limited frequency response.
• The range of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output
signal obtained) is limited to the physical size of the potentiometer
being used.
2) Capacitive Displacement Sensors

• The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel metal

plates separated by a dielectric or insulating material.

𝜀0 𝜀
• The capacitance of this parallel plate capacitor is given by:

𝐴
𝐶 = �
• Where;
• 𝜺𝟎 is the � space (vacuum) of
permittivity of free
magnitude
8.85 pF m−1.
• ε is therelative permittivity or dielectric constant of
the insulating material.
• A is the area of overlap of the plates.
• d is their separation distance.
• Variation in any of the above factors will result in variation in the
capacitance of the device which can be used for measurement of
some quantities.
• Such as; capacitive pressure sensor, capacitive level sensor, capacitive
displacement sensors & capacitive humidity sensors.
 Continued

• In the variable area capacitor, the relationship between the area

of overlap A and the capacitance C is of direct
proportionality by keeping the other factors constant.
• This variation in the area will result in linear variation in the
capacitance of the material and this can be used
for displacement measurement.
• Variable area capacitor can be one arm of an a.c. bridge such
that any capacitance produces an imbalance in the bridge.
Variable Separation Displacement Sensor
• If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to
d + x the capacitance of the sensor is:
𝜀0 𝜀
𝐴
𝐶 =𝑑
+𝑥
Variable area displacement sensor
• In variable area type, the displacement x causes the overlap
area to decrease by ΔA = wx, where w is the width of
𝜀0 𝜀
the plates, giving:
𝐶 = (𝐴 −
𝑤𝑥) �
�
Variable Dielectric Displacement Sensor
• In the variable dielectric type, the displacement x changes the

amount of dielectric material 𝜀2 (𝜀2 > 𝜀1) inserted

between the plates.
• The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two

capacitances, one with area A1 and dielectric constant 𝜀1,

and one with area A2 and dielectric constant 𝜀2,

𝜀0 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝜀0 𝜀2 𝐴2
𝐶 = +
𝑑 𝑑
• With; A1= wx, A2 = w(l − x), where, w is the
width of the
 Question?

• How change in capacitance can be

converted into voltage change (what type of
circuit)?
3) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
displacement sensor

• This is an inductive type position sensor which works on the

same principle as transformer.
• It is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement
and whose output is proportional to the position of
its moveable core.
 Construction of LVDT
• LVDT basically consists of a single primary winding, two
identical secondary windings and a ferromagnetic core
or plunger.
 Working Principles of LVDT

• LVDT is work on the principle of mutual

inductance (transformer principles).
• The LVDT's primary winding, is energized by an AC voltage

of amplitude 𝑉𝑝 and frequency f.

• Then a fluctuating magnetic field is produced around it.

• Which in turn induces an EMF signal into the two

adjacent secondary windings.
1. If the core is located midway between S1 and S2

• Equal flux is coupled to each secondary so the voltages, E1

and E2, induced in each winding are equal.
• At this midway core position, referred to as the null point, the
differential voltage output, (E1 - E2) is zero.
2. When the core is move towards left (S1)

• More flux is coupled to S1 and less to S2, so the induced

voltage E1 is increased while E2 is decreased, resulting in
the differential voltage (E1 - E2).
3. When the core is move towards right (S2)

• More flux is coupled to S2 and less to S1, so E2 is increased

as E1 is decreased, resulting in the differential voltage (E2 -
E1).
Graphically,
 Advantages of LVDT

• Compared to a resistive potentiometer are that:

• Its linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is
excellent
• Very good accuracy
• Good resolution
• High sensitivity
• Frictionless operation.
 Disadvantages of LVDT

• It has limited dynamic response

• DC output external demodulator is required

• Temperature affects the performance

• Sensitive to a stray magnetic field

 Reading Assignment

• List the application area in which

the Potentiometer and LVDT are used and
explain
?
 Thank
You!!
1-Dec-22 101