The periodic table

1869- Dmitri Mendeleev

GCSE Chemistry - Modern Periodic Table #9
Groups and Periods
 Groups and Periods

Group: A column in the periodic table. There are 18

groups in the periodic table, numbered 1 to 18.

Period: horizontal row in the periodic table; the period

number tells you how many electron shells an element
has.
 Periodic table
The periodic table is called periodic because elements show behaviour and properties
that repeating/ recurring periodically. Which properties are periodic?

● Physical/chemical properties
● Atomic radius
● Ionization energy
● Electron affinity
● Electronegativity

Elements are ordered by their Z = atomic number (number of protons)

The periodic table is arranged in groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal
rows). Elements in the same group have got the same number of the valence
electrons so they react in the similar way during a chemical reaction.
Main groups (in Roman numerals)
 Periodic properties of the periodic
table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity
 Periodic properties of the periodic
table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity
 Metals
Non-metals
a. Left of the periodic
table a. Right of the periodic
b. Shiny table Metalloids
c. Solids (except Hg and b. Matte, opaque
Ga) Amphoteric behaviour =
c. Gases (except Bromine)
d. Good conductors of
d. Form anions they share some properties
electricity
e. High electronegativity of metals and some
e. Ductile and malleable
f. High ionization energy properties of non-metals.
f. Form cations
g. Low electronegativity g. Tendency to take
h. Low ionization energy electrons
i. Tendency to give h. Non-conducting
electrons
 Blocks of the periodic table

Blocks
refers to
the
position
of the
valence
electrons.
Electron configurations and blocks
Why in the p block, the outermost electrons
of boron contains 1 electron but the valence
electrons are considered 3?
What would you predict the condensed electron configuration
for caesium would be?
[Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p⁵
 Using the block method to determine electron configuration

● Identify the element of interest in the periodic table.

● Identify the period number to deduce the outermost energy level that
will be occupied by electrons.

● Starting with hydrogen, move along each row, left to right, top to bottom
writing out the electron configuration for each block in a period until
you reach your element.
5 groups to remember
Alkali metals
Transition elements
Halogens
Noble gases
Atomic radius
 Periodic properties of the periodic
table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity
 Models of atom overtime

Dalton Thomson Rutherford Bohr Shrodinger

The Shrodinger equation
 Periodic properties of the periodic
table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity

The distance from an atom's nucleus to the outermost orbital of

one of its electrons. Usually measured as the half-distance
between the nuclei of two of the same atoms bonded together.
Why should we measure the atomic radius in this way?

What part of the atom has a well-defined location? The nucleus!

This means it would be easy to identify the nucleus of adjacent
atoms in order to deduce the atomic radius of each atom.
 Introducing the effective nuclear charge concept

The net positive charge from the

nucleus experienced by outer
valence shell electrons once the
screening effect of the core
electrons has been considered.
As we move across a period, elements have a greater number of protons in the
nucleus and a greater number of electrons occupying the outermost energy level.
This greater number of protons and valence electrons increases the effective
nuclear charge.
The greater the effective nuclear charge, the stronger the force of attraction
between outer valence electrons and the nucleus. The lower the effective nuclear
charge, the weaker the force of attraction between valence electrons and the nucleus.
Can you think of an explanation for this trend?
General trend in atomic radius down a group
 General trend in atomic radius across a period

This is due to the increasing effective nuclear charge increasing the

attraction of the electrons in the n = 3 energy level to the nucleus
resulting in a slight decrease of radius of the atom.
Ionic radii: How do you think the addition or loss of electrons influences the force of attraction between valence
electrons and protons in the nucleus?
Ionic radius: radius of ions (cations and anions)
 Isoelectronic species

Can you think of anything that the species Na+, Mg2+,

Al3+, N3–, O2–, F– and Ne all have in common?
 Isoelectronic species

Molecules with the same electron configuration.

Since each of the species has the same number of electrons, the species
with the greatest number of protons will have the greatest effective
nuclear charge. The greater the effective nuclear charge, the stronger the
force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons, therefore the
smaller the radius.

The lower the effective nuclear charge, the weaker the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the outer electrons, therefore the larger the radius.
Therefore the order of decreasing radius for the species would be N 3– > O2–
> F– > Ne > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+.
Ionization energy
 Periodic properties of the periodic
1. Physical/chemical properties table
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electron affinity
5. Electronegativity

Amount of energy needed to remove an electron from a neutral

atom. Less ionization energy= easy to lose electrons
But how might we quantify these tendencies? How might we
compare the tendencies to lose or gain electrons between atoms?

How is this electron removed? What is needed for the removal of an electron from
an atom?
Trends in ionization energy
Energy level n= ∞. This
represents the point
when the electron has
been completely
removed from the
attraction of the nucleus
and the atom has been
ionised.
When an electron absorbs enough energy to be promoted to the n = ∞
energy level, this represents the point when the electron has been
removed from the atom.

This is when enough energy has been applied to overcome the

attraction between the nucleus and that electron. The atom is said to be
ionised once the removal of an electron occurs.
Can you think of explanations for this trend?
Exception 1: Be-B
Exception 2: N-O
What do you notice about the trend in first ionisation energy going down a
group?
 General trend in first ionisation down a group
● Going down a group the first ionisation decreases.
● Going down a group atomic radii increases and electrons occupy higher energy
levels.
● Electrons in higher energy levels have a weaker attraction to the nucleus.
● Less energy is required in order to remove an electron.
Why would the first ionisation energy increase across the period when
valence electrons are all occupying the same n = 3 energy level?
 General trend in first ionisation across a period
● Going across a period the first ionisation energy increases.
● Going across a period there are more protons in the nucleus and more electrons occupying the
outermost energy level.
● A greater number of electrons in the outermost energy level results in a stronger attraction to the
nucleus.
● More energy is required in order to remove an electron.
Electronegativity
 Properties of the periodic table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electronegativity
5. Electron affinity

Tendency for an atom

of a given
chemical element to
attract shared
electrons when
forming a
 Electronegativity down a group

General trend in
electronegativity going
down a group
● Electronegativity values generally
decrease down a group
● Atomic radius increases down a
group from additional energy
levels
● Weaker attraction between the
nucleus and the shared pair of
electrons
 Electronegativity across a period

General trend in electronegativity going across a period

● Electronegativity values generally increase going across a period.
● Effective nuclear charge increases going across a period.
● Stronger attraction between the nucleus and the shared pair of electrons.
Electron affinity
 Periodic properties of the periodic
table
1. Physical/chemical properties
2. Atomic radius
3. Ionization energy
4. Electronegativity
5. Electron affinity

The amount of energy

liberated when an electron is
added to a neutral atom in a
gaseous state to form a
negatively charged ion.
 Electron affinity

When a neutral atom gains an electron, energy is released. Energy is

released due to the small force of attraction between the nucleus and
the incoming electron.
General trend in electron affinity going down a group

● The absolute value for first

electron affinity generally
decreases going down a
group (lower affinity for
gaining an electron).

● Elements further down have

a larger atomic radius, with
outer valence shells further
away from the nucleus.

● Weaker attraction between

the added electron and the
nucleus.
 General trend in electron affinity going across a period

● Absolute value for first electron affinity generally increases going

across a period (higher affinity for gaining an electron).
● Elements across the period have a higher effective nuclear charge.
● Stronger attraction between the added electron and the nucleus.
 Elements without electron affinity value

You may have noticed that there are no values for first electron
affinity listed for Mg and Ar. This is because many elements
with completely filled subshells do not tend to gain electrons,
therefore they do not have an associated electron affinity value.
Group 1 and 17
elements
 Metallic and non-metallic character

Metallic character is the tendency of an element to lose electrons to

form positive ions.
Which could be an indicator for the metallic character?

Non-metallic character is the tendency of an element to gain electrons

to form negative ions.
Which could be an indicator for the non-metallic character?
 Metallic and non-metallic character

Metallic character is the tendency of an element to lose electrons to

form positive ions.
Between K, Ca and Mg which one has the most metallic character?

Non-metallic character is the tendency of an element to gain electrons

to form negative ions.
Between S,F and Cl which one has the most non metallic character?
Reactions of group 1 metals with

water
Why don’t we see metallic solids made of group
1 metals as building structures or making up a
surface in our kitchen?
The reason we cannot use group 1 metals for solid materials
is that they are highly reactive with substances such as
water. Since water is in our atmosphere it would not be
possible to create solid materials out of these metals without
a reaction occurring. This is why these substances are
typically stored in oil to prevent reactivity with water.
General trend of reactivity for group 1 metals with
water
● Increasing reactivity going down group 1.
● Going down group 1, elements have lower first ionisation
energies due to the presence of an additional energy level.
● Easier for with lower ionisation energy to transfer the outer
valence electron to water increasing reactivity with water.
 How would you predict the reactivities of Rb and Cs
would compare with Li, Na and K? Watch the video to
confirm your predictions.
Reactions of group 17 elements

with halide ions

 We can quantify this tendency to gain electrons by
looking at the values for electron affinity for these
elements.

What do you think this means for reactivity? How do you

think the general trend for reactivity will be for group 17
elements when they react in a manner to gain an electron?
 A common type of reaction that the halogens readily
undergo is called a displacement reaction:a reaction where
a less reactive element is removed from a compound by a
more reactive element.

The electron donated from K to Br is transferred to Cl.

What about Na+?
Na+ is called spectator ion
Aqueous
ions that
remain
unchanged
throughout
a chemical
reaction.
If we have Br2 and NaCl, what
do you think it will be happen?
Oxidation states
 Can you think of any ways that we can track how
many electrons are transferred or distributed when a
chemical bond is formed?
 Oxidation state/oxidation number

A number assigned to an element showing

the number of electrons lost or gained (or
even shared) in a compound or ion.
 Oxidation state vs charge

Oxidation states are hypothetical and a method to track how electrons are distributed. It can
be attributed to atoms in covalent compounds, while the charge refers only to ionic
compounds.

Ionic charges on the other hand indicate a numerical quantity of electrons that has been
either lost or gained from a species. To differentiate the two terms a slightly different
notation is used.
6 Rules for assigning oxidation states
1) A pure element has an oxidation state of zero
2) In monoatomic ions oxidation state=charge
3) In neutral compounds the sum of oxidation states must give zero.
4) In polyatomic ions, the oxidation state=charge of the ion
5) Oxidation
numbers of
atoms are
typically the
charge of the
most common
ion.
6) Assign oxidation numbers to the most metallic and non
metallic elements first.
 Exercises

1. Deduce and compare the oxidation states of each element in NO and NO 2.

2. Assign oxidation numbers to each element in Al 2(SO4)3.

3. Assign oxidation numbers to each element in hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2.

 Naming

conventions

using

oxidation

numbers
 Metallic and non-
metallic continuum
Acid-base nature of metallic and non-metallic oxides
 Acid-base nature of metallic and non-metallic oxides

Amphoteric: The term amphoteric means that a substance has the

ability to act as either an acid or a base depending on the
surrounding environment.
Chemical reactions for oxides:basic and acid oxides
 Implications of acidic non-metal oxides
The ability of non-metal oxides to form acids when they react
with water has some major implications for our ecosystems, our
health and our infrastructure. The two major global concerns of
these acidic non-metal oxides are:

1. ocean acidification
2. acid rain.
Ocean acidification
 Acid rain

Precipitation
that has
become
acidic as it
contains
high levels
of sulfuric
acid or
nitric acid
due to air
pollution.
Acid rain reactions