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 COURSE CONTENTS

In this course, the following topics will be covered:

1. Orientation
-Introduction to fluid power
-Hydraulic systems
-Pneumatic systems
-Types of power transmission systems
-Advantages of fluid power systems over others
-Applications of fluid power systems

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 COURSE CONTENTS
2. How fluid transmits power?
Pascal Theorem
Concept of Bulk Modulus
Concept of fluid Viscosity
Cavitation
Fluid power formulas

3. Fluid Power Components

Hydraulic valves
Pumps
Actuators (cylinders and motors)

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 COURSE CONTENTS
4. Fluid Power Circuits
-Hydraulic circuit symbols
-Basic hydraulic circuits

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 RECOMMENDED TEXT BOOKS AND READING MATERIALS

1. Fundamentals of Fluid Power Control(By John

Watton)
2. Fluid Power Circuits and Control-fundamentals and
applications(By: John S. Cundiff )
3. Hydraulic Power System Analysis(By Arthur Akers,
Max Gasmann and Richard Smith)

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 WHAT IS FLUID POWER?
Fluid power refers to transmission and control of energy by
means of pressurized fluid.
The term fluid designates liquid or gas. If the fluid power
system involves liquid, it’s called Hydraulic System but,
if the medium used in the fluid power system is air (gas)
then the system is known as a Pneumatic System.
Essentially fluid power is used for convenience in
converting mechanical power to fluid power and back to
mechanical power.

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 POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
There are three types of power transmission systems:
1. Mechanical power transmission system (gear boxes,
pulleys, levers)

2. Electrical power transmission system (cables, wires)

3. Fluid power system (fluid)

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 ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER

 Fluid power systems offer high power at correspondingly small weights of its
components

 Easy and accurate control of actuators.

 Actuators in fluid power can have enormous speed range and be reversed when
needed.
 Capable of producing a high and constant torque regardless of speed changes.

 Single source of fluid power (pump) is capable of operating several systems at

once

 Can be operated at hazardous environments

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 DISADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER

 Leakage and pump cavitation in hydraulic systems tend to

lower their efficiency

 The system needs careful handling against particle

contamination hence filtering is necessary

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 APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER
 Industrial ( e.g. Metal working, Injection molding,
Controllers, Material handling etc.)
 Aerospace (e.g. Landing, brakes etc.)
 Construction
 Mining Machinery and Equipment
 Agriculture Machinery and Equipment
 Vehicles

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 WHAT IS THE MAGIC BEHIND FLUID POWER SYSTEMS?

The secrecy behind fluid (in this case, liquid) being able to
multiply force and hence become capable of accomplishing
useful work lies under two facts:

1. Pascal Theory
2. Incompressibility of Liquid

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 1. PASCAL THEORY
Pascal Theory states that pressure of an incompressible
fluid in a confined system travels undiminished at every
point within the system.
That means, if we put a liquid in a container and apply force
at one point, the force will create some sort of pressure over
the area where the force has been applied and that pressure
will be the same everywhere within the confined liquid.
Mathematically; the theory can be expressed as:

P=F/A

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 PASCAL THEORY

Where ;
 P is pressure defined as force per unit area and measured in
Newtons per square metres (N/m² which is equivalent to Pascal
Pa).
 F is the applied force in Newtons (N)
 A is the area in square metres (m² ) over which the force is
applied.

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DEMOSTRATING APPLICATION OF PASCAL THEORY [1]

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DEMOSTRATING APPLICATION OF PASCAL THEORY
The above pictorial presentation shows application of the Pascal Theory where
a small force of F1 is applied on a confined fluid over an area of A 1, but the
pressure created on the fluid can be used to obtain large force of magnitude F 2 if
the fluid is allowed to act on a large area, A 2.

Here ,we can see that the hydraulic system can be used to multiply force in the
sense that a small force can be applied over a small area (for instance a hydraulic
hose), but by making use of the Pascal Theory, the pressure created by the small
force within the liquid can be exposed over a relatively large area (for instance
on a piston of a hydraulic cylinder) and thus resulting in a very large force.

In this context, the concept can be termed as a mechanical advantage of the

hydraulic system.

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 2.INCOMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID
Another factor that enables fluid power systems to demonstrate wonders in
today’s sophisticated industrial applications is their tendency to resist shear
forces. We can’t simply cut through a confined fluid. The fluid will tend to
move (thereby pushing anything along its way) as far as its compressibility
allows it.

This is particularly the case in Hydraulics, where the liquid used (hydraulic
oil) generally shows negligible change in its density and hence considered
incompressible.

In other words, we can apply high pressures on Hydraulic systems (between

100 and 350 Bars) which can result in higher forces necessary for lifting,
lowering, compacting, forming or pushing applications without affecting the
force transmitting medium (hydraulic oil) in the system.

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 2.INCOMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID

On the other hand, Pneumatic systems have limited pressure ranges (around 2 to 8
Bar). This is due to the fact that air is compressible, therefore only applications
involving relatively lower pressures can be handled nicely with Pneumatic
systems.
But pneumatic systems have the advantage of having quick responses than their
hydraulic counterparts.
Due to their light and simple construction, Pneumatic components are cheaper than
hydraulic system components.

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 BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Hydraulic system deals with the generation of forces and
motion
using hydraulic fluids.
The hydraulic fluids represent the medium for power
transmission.
Generally speaking, a basic hydraulic system consists of the
following components:
 Hydraulic pump
 Pressure relief valve to protect the system against extreme
pressures
 Prime mover to drive the pump

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  Control valve to route the oil to the actuators
 Actuators (users) that use fluid pressure to do
mechanical works
 Hydraulic tank to store the fluid
 Fittings and Hoses to help conveying the fluid to
required points.

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 EXAMPLE OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM[2]

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 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM WITH TWO ACTUATORS [3]

Directional
Pressure Line Control Valve Actuato
rs
Filter

Pump

Electric Return
Motor Filter
Pressure Relief
Valve
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Strainer
 FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

 Pump is among the most important components in a hydraulic system. Its function is
to create flow of the hydraulic oil to the system.
Note: the pump did not make pressure; it only produced flow. Pumps never make
pressure. They only give flow. Resistance to pump flow causes pressure.
 Prime Mover; this refers to electric motor or an internal combustion engine whose
function is to provide mechanical energy to drive the pump.
 Suction Strainer, it’s a means of filtering. The device filters coarse solid materials and
prevents them from reaching the pump.
 Actuators; these are devices that use the fluid pressure and velocity to do mechanical
works. They are either linear actuators known as cylinders or rotary actuators termed as
hydraulic motors.
 Coolers; Hydraulic systems are almost always susceptible to overheating . This is
prevented by incorporating an oil cooling device to lower the operating temperatures
of the liquid.

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 APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Stationary hydraulics system – remain firmly fixed in one position. A
characteristic feature is that mainly solenoid valves are used.
The following application areas are important for stationary hydraulics;-
 Production and assembly machines of all types
 Transfer lines
 Lifting and conveying devices
 Presses
 Injection Molding machines
 Rolling lines
Modern CNC Lathe Machine

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 APPLICATION CONT…………………………………
Mobile hydraulic systems :move on wheels or tracks . A characteristic feature of
mobile hydraulic is that the valves are frequently manually operated.
Typical application fields for mobile hydraulics include
 Construction machinery
 Tippers, excavators, elevating platforms
 Lifting and conveying devices
 Agricultural Machinery

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 ADANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
 Transmission of large forces using small components
 Precise positioning
 Start up under heavy load
 Even movements independent of load , since liquids and flow
control valves can be used.
 Smooth operation and reversal
 Good control and regulation
 Favorable heat dissipation

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 DISSADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM.
 Pollution of the environment by waste oil ( danger of fire or
accidents)
 Sensitivity to dirty
 Danger resulting from excessive pressures ( severed lines )
 Temperature dependence ( change in viscosity )
 Unfavorable efficiency factors

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 CONTROL OF A FLUID POWER SYSTEM
In a fluid power system, we are expected to control the
pressure and flow rate of the fluid as well as motion of the
actuators ( speed and directions of hydraulic cylinders and
motors). This function is accomplished with the valves.

There are different types of control valves in fluid power

systems, grouped as
 Directional Control Valves
 Pressure Valves
 Flow Valves

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
As the name implies, these valves are used in fluid power systems to
control the directions to which an actuator moves.
Directional control valves perform only three functions:
 Stop fluid flow
 allow fluid flow, and
 change direction of fluid flow.

Here one –way valves (or check valves) can also be considered as being
directional valve types.

There are several ways of controlling these valves, but mostly they are
either manually controlled, by using electrically operated solenoids or
fluid pressure signal
.

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Common Types: DCV
 Spool valve: Move
horizontally within
the valve body to
control flow.
 Rotary spool valve:
have the same idea,
when rotates opens
and closes ports.

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
 Poppet valve:
This valve is normally in closed
condition. In this valve; balls,
discs or cones are used in
conjunction with valve seats to
control the flow.
When the pushbutton is depressed,
the ball is pushed out of its seat
and flow occurs as a result of
port 1 being connected to port
2. When the button is released,
the spring forces the ball back
up against its seat and so closes
off the flow.

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Directional control valves are shown by means of several connected squares
 The number of squares indicates the number of switching positions possible
for a valve
 Arrows within the squares indicates the flow direction
 Lines indicates how the ports are interconnected in the various switching
positions.
There are two possible methods of Ports designation. One method is to use the
letters, P,T,A,B and the other is to label ports alphabetically A,B,C,D etc. The
former method is generally preferred .Ports should always be labelled with the
valve in the rest position. Where there is no rest position, they are allocated to
the switching position assumed by the valve when the system is in its initial
position.

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES CONT………..
Directional control valve is described by :-
 Number of ports opening (ways) e.g. 2 way, 3 way , 4 way etc.
 Number of positions , 2, 3, positions etc.
 Method of Actuation of the valves e.g. Manual actuated, Mechanical etc.
 Method of return actuation e.g. Spring return or air return
 According to type of construction e.g. Poppet valve , Spool valve
When labelling directional control valves, it is first necessary to specify the
number of ports followed by the number of switching positions. DCV have
at least two switching positions and at least two ports e.g 2/2 way valve.

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES CONT………
The following diagrams show other directional control valves and their circuit
symbols

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Four way valve, Three positions (4 /3 way Dcv)
Three- position, four- way DCV have different variety of center
configurations. The common varieties are
 The open center,
 closed center,
 tandem center,
 floating center,
 regenerative center

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
4/3 way DCV open center: In open- center circuit, all ports
are open to each other in the center position. When the
valve is in open center position, the pump flow is directed to
the tank at atmospheric pressure. At the same time the
actuator can be moved freely by applying an external force.
Open center valve help to prevent heat buildup, and no
work can be done by any part of the system, as long as the
valve remains in the center position, since the fluid always
follows the path of least resistance . This means that other
auxiliary devices in the system using pressure energy
A B
cannot function.

P T

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
4/3 way DCV Closed Center : In closed center DCV all ports are
closed to each other. Hence the actuator connected to ports A
and B is hydraulically locked and cannot be moved by an
external force In this position the pump flow must go over the
relief valve when flow is not being used for any other parts of
the circuit. This forces the pump to produce flow at the high
pressure setting of the pressure relief valve. This not only
waste pump design power but promotes wear and shortens
pump life .
Closed –center versions are used only when multiple circuit or
A B
functions must be accomplished in the system from one power
source.
P T

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
4/3 DCV Tandem centered : Figure below shows a
tandem center 3-position, 4-way DCV. In the center
configuration, the working ports A and B are blocked ,
and the pump port P is connected to tank port T. The
tandem center also results in a locked actuator.
However, it also unloads the pump at atmospheric
pressure. The application of this design may be to
hold a cylinder or fluid motor under load or to
permit the pump flowA to Bbe connected to a series of
valves for multiple circuitry.

P T

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
4/3 way DCV Regenerative Center : This is another type
of common center configuration used in hydraulic circuits.
Regenerative means the flow generated from the system
itself. Regenerative center is used whenever the actuator
movement in one direction requires two different speeds e.g.,
Part of length of extending stroke of actuator requiring fast
movement during no load condition and remaining length
slow controlled motion. During fast extending the DCV is un-
actuated thereby by spring forces it comes to the mid
position. This center AsavesB on additional pump capacity
required.

P T

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 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
4/3 way DCV Floating center in its mid position. In this
position the pump port is blocked and the two working ports
A and B are connected to tank port T. Since the working ports
A and B are connected to tank T, the actuator can be moved
freely without any external force and hence the name
floating. In this valve also like in closed center, in the mid
position the pump flow must go over the relief valve when
flow is not being used for any other parts of the circuit. This
forces the pump to produce flow at the high pressure setting
of the pressure relief valve, which buildup heat in the circuit.
A B
Hence this center configuration is used only in special case.

P T

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 SOLENOID OPERATED VALVES

In most industrial applications of fluid power, solenoid

operated valves are commonly used. Not only the
directional control but also pressure control valves tend
to use electrical signals to activate the valves. This is
generally the case when automated systems are to be
controlled.
The solenoid operated valves are stacked on valve
manifolds containing several precision drilled holes to
route fluid to different locations.

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 SOLENOID OPERATED VALVES
 Solenoid operated spool valve: The valve is actuated by a current
passing through the solenoid and return to its original position by
spring.

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 SOLENOID VALVES AND MANIFOLD BLOCK[4]

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 MANUALLY OPERATED DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

Simple hydraulic systems and

most mobile hydraulic
applications involve manually
operated valves to control
actuators.

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 PILOT-OPERATED VALVES
 In pilot operated system one valve is used to control a second valve. In
the Fig the pilot valve is small size and can be operated manually or by
a solenoid.
 It is used to overcome
when the force required
to move the ball shuttle
in a valve can often be
too large for manual or
solenoid operation.

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 METHODS OF ACTUATION
Switching position of a DCV can be changed by various actuation methods as shown
below:-

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 METHODS OF ACTUATION CONT…………….

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 PRESSURE VALVES

These are fluid power valves dealing with controlling

pressures, they include:
Pressure Relief Valves
Unloading Valves
Pressure Reducing Valves
Sequential Valves
Counter Balance Valves
Brake valves
Each of these valves has a specific and peculiar way of
functioning in the system.

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 PRESSURE VALVES CONT………………
 Pressure relief valve ( safety valve) it protect the system against extreme
pressures.
Also it used to limit pressure in an entire circuit . It is generally the first
component downstream from the pump. Relief valve can be direct acting or
pilot operated .

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 PRESSURE VALVES CONT………………
 Unloading Valves This type of hydraulic valve is used to unload pump (i.e.
directing pump flow to tank at a low pressure) when a required pressure in
the system is reached. An unloading valve principally operates as a pressure
relief valve but at a relatively lower pressure.

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 PRESSURE VALVES CONT………………
 Pressure Reducing Valves- a pressure-reducing valve does not
allow pressure downstream of the valve to exceed the set point

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 PRESSURE VALVES CONT………………
 Sequential Valves - sequence valve is among the pressure control valves
that are used to prevent an actuator from operating until a certain pressure is
reached. This is commonly set in order to a achieve a sequence of
operations where one operation must be performed before another starts.
A sequence valve resembles a pressure reducing valve in that they both have
an external drain to the reservoir. However; a sequence valve is a normally
closed valve while the pressure reducing valve is a normally open valve.

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 PRESSURE VALVES CONT………………
Counter Balance Valves
 Counterbalance valves are among pressure controlling valves used to control
overrunning loads from falling uncontrollably.
 Overrunning loads are loads that act in the same direction as actuator motion.
 On the contrary; the loads that act in opposite direction to the actuator
motion are known as Resistive loads.
 Essentially; a counterbalance valve is a pressure relief valve incorporated
with a check valve and a pilot line.
 The valve allows free flow to the actuator in one direction and blocks the
flow in opposite direction until a set threshold pressure value is reached.
 A counterbalance valve with an additional externally piloted line is
commonly known as a brake valve. This is commonly used in controlling
hydraulic motors from running out of control.

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 COUNTERBALANCE AND BRAKE VALVE SYMBOLS

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 FUNCTIONS OF A COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
Counterbalance valves have the following functions;
 Allowing free flow for resistive loads
 Blocking reverse flow when the directional valve is not operated.
 Allowing controllable lowering of an overrunning load by metering the flow when
the directional valve is operated.
 Provides pressure relief within the actuator against pressure surges.
 Helps in preventing cavitation in a pump by restricting oil to be sucked faster than the
pump can allow.

The most common applications of a counterbalance valve are the hydraulic presses with
large platens and hydraulic motors with winch drives.

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PLATE AND CARTRIDGE TYPES COUNTERBALANCE VALVES

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 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
These valves are used to control the flow rates of a fluid
system. In other words, they are responsible for the speed
at which an actuator operates.

They operate by increasing or decreasing the valve orifices

where the fluid passes.

It should be noted that frequent operations of these valves

lead to overheating problems, as the fluid faces resistance
(friction) whenever the orifice constricts.

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 FLOW CONTROL VALVES CONT………….
Flow control valves

A B A B

Throttle/ Nozzle
Orifice

A B
A B
Throttle Valve One way flow control valve

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 NON RETURN VALVES
Allow flow in one direction only.
 The symbol for non-return valves is a ball which is pressed against a
sealing seat. This seat is drawn as an open triangle in which the ball
seats. The point of triangle indicates the blocked direction and not the
flow direction.
Check valve

B A B A

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 NON RETURN VALVES
 Shut-off valve : shown as a two triangles facing one
another.
 They are used to depressurize the systems manually or
relieve accumulators.
B

X
A

Shut-off valve Pilot check valve

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 NON RETURN VALVES
Shuttle valve/ OR Valve
C

A B

Dual pressure valve / AND Valve

C

A B

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 DOUBLE PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVE
In most heavy duty hydraulic presses, the press table connecting the cylinder
needs to be locked in place when the press is off duty. This is achieved by
incorporating a double check pilot operated valve in the system. In this
way, the table (cylinder) remains in its required position and no external
load (such as the table’s weight) can move it.
Double check pilot operated valve differs from a normal check valve in that it
allows flow in reverse direction after receiving signals (pressure increase).
When the directional valve is in neutral position; the double pilot operated
check valve locks the actuator against external forces by blocking flows
from both ends of the actuator.

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 DOUBLE PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVE SYMBOL

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 FUNCTIONS OF A DOUBLE PILOTED CHECK VALVE

The double piloted check valve is used in hydraulic circuits for

various purposes including:
 Preventing loads from dropping faster than pump supply
 Locking hydraulic cylinders when DCV is in neutral
position
 Relieving excess pressure due to load or thermal expansion
 Helps in preventing cavitation.

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 ACTUATORS
 Actuators: these are devices that use the fluid pressure and velocity
to do mechanical works. They are either linear actuators known as
cylinders or rotary actuators termed as hydraulic motors.

Cylinders ( Linear Actuators).

 Cylinders are drive components which convert hydraulic power into
mechanical power.
They generate linear movements through the pressure on the surface
of the movable piston.

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 CYLINDERS
Cylinders are classified as either single – acting or double acting.

 Single- acting cylinders

Single- acting cylinders just have one port i.e. the fluid pressure can
only be applied to one side of the piston with the result that the drive
movement is only produced in one direction . The return stroke of
the piston is affected by an external force or by a return spring.

Example: Hydraulic arm , Telescopic cylinder.

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 CYLINDERS
 Single- acting cylinders

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 CYLINDERS
 Double – acting cylinders
Double acting cylinders have two ports for supplying either side of
the piston with hydraulic fluid i.e. the fluid pressure can be applied to
either side of the piston meaning that the drive movement are
produced in two directions.

Example : Telescopic cylinder , Differential cylinder and

Synchronous cylinder.

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 CYLINDERS
 Double – acting cylinders

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 CYLINDERS
 Double – acting cylinders

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 CYLINDER CUSHIONING

The cushion slows the cylinder down just before it hits the back (or front)
of the cylinder.

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 MOTORS ( ROTARY ACTUATORS)
 Like cylinder hydraulic motors are drive components controlled by
valves.
 They too convert hydraulic power into mechanical power with the
difference that they generate rotary or swivel movement instead of
linear movement

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 PUMP AND MOTORS SYMBOLS
 Hydraulic pumps and motors are represented by means of a circle which
shows where the drive or output shaft is located. Triangles within the circle
give information about the direction of flow. These triangles are filled in,
since hydraulic fluids are used for hydraulics. If a gaseous pressure medium
were being used, as is the case in pneumatics, the triangles would not be
filled in. the symbols for hydraulic motors and hydraulic pumps can only be
distinguished from one another by the fact that the arrows indicating the
direction of flow are drawn pointing one way for the pumps and the other for
the motors

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 PUMP AND MOTORS SYMBOLS
Hydraulic pumps with fixed displacement

Hydraulic Motors with fixed displacement.

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 MORE FLUID POWER SYMBOLS

SYMBOL GROUPS
Circles/Semi Circles Rectangles and Squares Diamonds

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 CIRCLES/SEMI-CIRCLES
 Circles: generally represent devices that can deliver or
use oil.
Unidirectional Bi-directional Bi-directional Unidirectional Semi Rotary
Fixed Fixed Fixed Variable Actuator
Displacement Displacement Displacement Displacement
Hydraulic Pump Hydraulic Pump Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Pump

0 25
4.2 75
.0
07
 DIAMONDS
 Symbols in diamonds condition the oil in some way.
Heating, cooling, filtering etc.

Filter Cooler Heater

0 25
4.2 76
.0
07
 RECTANGLES AND SQUARES

 Rectangles and squares are generally used to represent

components that direct and control oil in some way.
Valves can be:

One Position Two Position Three Position

Usually control.
Relieving or
controlling Directing the flow
pressure and flow of oil to various
for example. positions.

0 25
4.2 77
.0
07
 DIRECTION ARROWS
.
Arrows Can Indicate:

Flow in One Flow in Two Rotation Variability

Direction Directions

Arrow at 30 or 60 degrees through

a component that can be varied.

0 25
4.2 78
.0
07
 TRANSFER OF ENERGY AND CONDITIONING OF
PRESSURE MEDIUM.
 The following symbols are used in circuit diagrams for energy transfer and conditioning
of the pressure medium:-

0 25
4.2 79
.0
07
 TRANSFER OF ENERGY AND CONDITIONING OF
PRESSURE MEDIUM.

0 25
4.2 80
.0
07
 TRANSFER OF ENERGY AND CONDITIONING OF
PRESSURE MEDIUM.

0 25
4.2 81
.0
07
 MEASURING DEVICES
 Measuring devices are shown in the circuit diagrams by the following
symbols

0 25
4.2 82
.0
07
 COMBINATION OF DEVICES
 If several devices are brought together in a single housing , the symbols for the
individual devices are placed into a box made up of broken lines from which the
conditions are led away.
Hydraulic power pack

0 25
4.2 83
.0
07
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

Hydraulic system components are

represented by their internationally
recognized symbols. Some of these
symbols are shown below:
Hydraulic Tank (reservoir)

Variable Displacement Pump

Fixed displacement pump

Fixed Displacement Pump

0 25
2
0 4. 84
0 7.
HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Hydraulic line Flexible line
Pilot line line connection

Filter
Pressure Relief Valve

Two way – two position valve (2/2)

Four way, three position valve (4/3)

0 25
2
0 4. 85
0 7.
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Double acting cylinder

Single acting cylinder

Pressure reducing valve

Flow control valve + check valve

0 25
2
0 4. 86
0 7.