In Last Lecture

Traditional File System

Database Technology
Program Data Independence
Minimal Data Redundancy
Improved Data Sharing
Rapid Application Development
Enforcement of standards
Improve Data Quality
Improved Data Accessibility and Responsiveness
Reduced Program Maintenance
 Evolution of Database Technology
Functions of DBA
Planning
Identifying User Requirements
Study the current system and its output
Interview the different users to know their
current and future requirements
Developing and maintaining Data Dictionary
Characteristics of entities like length and type of
name
Functions of DBA
Designing Logical Model
After analyzing user environment, the DBA
develop a logical data model
Data model consists of all entities, attributes and
relationships
Choosing a DBMS
Select DBMS on the basis of Logical Data Model
The DBMS should satisfy the all requirements
and constraints of Logical Data Model
Functions of DBA
Developing Physical Model
Create the exact layout of data according to the
selected DBMS and available resources of
Software and Hardware
Creating and Loading Database
After developing physical model the DBA create
the structure of database by using DBMS
Load the data into database
Functions of DBA
Developing User Views
Guide the user about the functionality of the project,
If any request of user is not satisfied, DBA should
justify it.
Developing and Enforcing Data Standards
Data in database must be inserted according to the
standards required by the organization.
The DBA ensures that the inserted data always
according to these standards.
Data Integrity and Consistency
Functions of DBA
Developing Operating Procedures
Procedures includes security and authentication
Recording hardware and software failures
Taking performance measurements
Shutting down and restarting database properly
Recovering the database incase of any failure
Functions of DBA
Training the user
The DBA should train the users so that they may
use the database effectively
Defining Recovery and Backup Procedures
If any portion of database is damaged by human
error or hardware, it should be restore as soon
as possible
The backup is compulsory and it may be recover
in case of emergency.
Functions of DBA
Monitoring Performance
 Respond to the complaints or suggestions of the users
 DBA should make sure that the database should
always work in its optimum performance
 If any problem the DBA should solve it.
Tuning and Reorganization
 If performance is disturbed due to huge amount of
data the DBA should tune it
 In some case the DBA may have to change the
physical model and reload the database.
Database Development System

General Strategies
Top-Down Development
 General to Specific Issues

Bottom-Up Development
 Specific to General
Design Stages
Analyze User Environment

Develop Conceptual Model

Map Conceptual Model to Logical

Choose DBMS

Develop Physical Design

Implement System

Test System

Operational Maintenance
Analyze Existing System
Objective: To understand the working of
existing system
Analyze users’ requirements
Tool Used
Why to use at all?

Data Flow Diagrams

Database Development Process

Similar to
Preliminary Study software
Requirement
developmen
Analysis process
DB Design

Physical Design

Implementation

Maintenance
Enterprise Modeling/ Planning
Analyze current data processing
Analyze the general business functions and
their database needs
Justify the need of new databases in support
of business
Conceptual Data Modeling
Identify the scope of database
requirements
Analyze overall data requirements for
business functions supported by
database
Develop preliminary conceptual data
model, including entities and
relationship
Develop detailed conceptual data
model including all entities and
relationships
Conceptual Data
Modeling
Logical Database Design
Analyze in detail the transactions, form,
displays and inquiries required by the
business functions and supported by
database
Identify data integrity and security
requirements
Logical Database Design
Logical Database Design
Logical Database Design
Physical Design
Define database to DBMS
Decide physical organization of data
Design database processing programs
Database Implementation
Code and test database processing
programs
Complete database documentation and
training materials
Install database and convert data from
prior systems
Database Maintenance
Ensure evolving information requirements
are met
Tune database for improved performance
Fix error in database and database
application
Recover database when it is contaminated
Database Development Process
Enterprise Modeling

Conceptual Data Modeling

Logical Database Design

Physical Database Design and definition

Database Implementation

Database Maintenance
Data Modeling
Crucial phase in Database development
Technology independent analysis of the
organization's data
Output of this phase will be ERD(Entity
Relationship Diagram) that model common
Business Rules
Data Modeling
In Short we perform two activities in this
phase
1. Make Entity Relationship Diagram
2. Collect and Documents Business Rules
Entity Relationship Model
Introduced by Peter Chen(1976)
Entity Relationship Model is logical
representation of data for an organization
Define Entities and relationships and their
associated attributes in an organization
using some common notations and
conventions
Entity Relationship Model
 ER- Model consists of three basic
components:
1. Entities
2. Attributes
3. Relationships
The E-R Model
Entity Relationship Diagram is graphical
representation of E-R Model
Unfortunately, there is no standard
notations for ERD
Entity Relationship Diagram
Entity Relationship Model
 ER- Model consists of three basic
components:
1. Entities
2. Attributes
3. Relationships
Entity
Entity is a person, place, object, event,
or concept in the user environment
about which the organization wishes to
maintain data
Entities are represented as
boxes(rectangles) in ER-Diagram
Entities
Person: EMPLOYEE,STUDENT,PATIENT
Place: STORE, WAREHOUSE,STATE
Object:MACHINE,BUILDING, AUTOMOBILE
Event: SALE,REGISTRATION
Concept:ACCOUNT,COURSE,
Entity Type & Entity Instance
Entity Type:
A collection of entities that share
common properties and characteristics
Entity Instance: A single
occurrence of an entity type in a specific
environment
Entity Type
 Entity Type: EMPLOYEE Attributes:
 EMPLYEE NUMBER CHAR(10)
 NAME CHAR(25)
DEPARTMENT CHAR(20)
 DATE HIRED DATE
 Designaton
 Salary
 Timing
 Department
 Contact #
 Address
 Off day
 Martial status
 Blood group
 Date of birth
Entity Instance
Here we have two instances of
EMPLOYEE entity type:

642-17-8360 534-10-8360

ahmad hassan ali mehmood

Accounts Manufacturing

03-21-1992 02-10-1982
Strong Entity types
Entity type that exists independently of
other entity types is called strong entity
STUEDNT, AUTOMOBILE etc.
Strong entity always has a unique
characteristics(attribute) called
identifier
Weak Entity types
Weak Entity is an Entity type whose
existence depends on some other entity
Weak Entity type has no business
meaning without the entity(Identifying
Owner) on which it depends
Weak entity does not have its own
identifier
Weak Entity types
Entity type Selection
Entity Selection is critical issue in ERD
design
ERD is not a Data Flow Diagram(DFD)
Suppose in a business environment one
treasure manages the accounts of business
according to the expenses. He generates
expense report after one week.
Example ERD

Correct

Incorrect
Naming Entity Types
Entity name is a singular noun and
should write is capital letters in ERD
Name should be specific to the
organization
Entity Name should be concise
Event Entity Types should be named for
the result of the event, not the activity of
the process of the event
Attributes
Each entity has a set of attributes
associated with it
Attribute is a property or characteristic
of an entity types that is of interest of an
organization
Attributes
STUDENT
Student_ID,Student_Name,Home_Address,
Phone_Number,Blood_Group
AUTOMOBILE
Vehicle_ID,Color,Weight,Horsepower
EMPLOYEE
Employee_ID, Employee_Name,Skill
Attributes
First letter of the attribute name should be
capital letter
Use under score(_) between two or more
words i.e. Employee_ID
In ERD we use ellipse to represent
attributes of an entity type
Now a days its better to write attributes
inside the ERD
Employee_i
d
Attributes
 Attributes in ERD
DEPENDENT_NAME
Employee_ID Employee_Name Date_of_Birth

EMPLOYEE Has DEPENDENTS

Types of Attributes
We can distinguish between the following
types of the attributes
1. Required Versus Optional Attributes
2. Simple vs. Composite Attributes
3. Single-Values vs. Multi-valued Attributes
4. Stored vs. Derived Attributes
5. Identifier Attributes
Attributes
Required versus Optional
An attribute that must be present for each
entity instance is called a required attribute,
Whereas an attribute that may not have a value
is called an optional attribute.
 Simple Vs. Composite
Composite Attribute
An attribute that can be broken down into
meaningful component parts
For example Address can be further divided
into Street_Address, City,State,Postal_Code
Address (Street_Address,
City,State,Postal_Code)
 Simple Vs. Composite
Street_Address City
Province
First_Name Last_Name

Address

Name
Simple Vs. Composite
Simple Attribute
It is type of attribute that cannot further
divided into smaller parts
For AUTOMOBILE entity type attributes
Vehicle_ID,Color,Weight etc. are examples
of simple attributes
Single Valued Vs. Multi-valued
Employee_Name
Employee_ID Skill

EMPLOYEE
A Multi-Valued attribute is an attributes
which may take more than one value for
a given entity instance
Multivalued attribute is written as:
{Skill: graphic design, web, sql,
oracle}
Stored vs. Derived
Derived Attributes
• An attributes whose value can be
calculated from related attributes(Stored
in database or not)
• For Example: [Years_Employed]
Identifier Attributes
An identifier attribute is a type of attribute
that uniquely identify every entity
instance
Student_ID in STUDENT entity type and
Employee_ID in EMPLOYEE
Identifier are underlined in Entity
Relationship Diagram(ERD)
 Identifiers
Employee_Name
Employee_ID Skill

EMPLOYEE

Yea
rs_E
m ploy
ed
Date_Employed
Identifier Attributes
An identifier attribute is a type of attribute
that uniquely identify every entity
instance
Student_ID in STUDENT entity type and
Employee_ID in EMPLOYEE
Identifier are underlined in Entity
Relationship Diagram(ERD)
Composite Identifier Attribute
Composite identifier is one that consists
of more than one attributes
An entity type may have more than one
identifier

m ber
t _ Nu Da
h te
Flig
Flight_ID Passenger_Name

Flight
Identifier Selection
Chose an identifier that will not change its
value
The attribute is guaranteed to have a valid
value and not to be Null
Avoid the use of intelligent identifiers or
keys, whose structure shows classification,
location, so on