CELL AND CELL CYCLE

Mercy Kemboi
 Introduction
• Cells are the smallest living subunits of a
multicellular organism such as a human being.
• Human cells, however, must work together
and function interdependently.
• Human cells vary in size, shape, and function.
• Most human cells are so small they can only
be seen with the aid of a microscope and are
measured in units called micrometers.
 Introduction cont
• About 200 different types of specialized cells
carry out a multitude of functions that help
each system contribute to the homeostasis of
the entire body.
• At the same time, all cells share key structures
and functions that support their intense activity.
• All cells arise from existing cells by the process
of cell division, in which one cell divides into
two identical cells.
 CELL STRUCTURE
• A cell consists of a plasma membrane inside
which are a number of organelles suspended
in a watery fluid called cytoplasm.
• Organelles, literally have individual and highly
specialised functions, and are often enclosed
in their own membrane within the cytoplasm.
• They include:
– the nucleus,
– mitochondria,
– ribosomes,
– endoplasmic reticulum,
– Golgi apparatus,
– lysosomes
– and the cytoskeleton.
 Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane forms the cell’s flexible outer
surface, separating the cell’s internal environment
(inside the cell) from the external environment (outside
the cell).
• It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of
materials into and out of a cell.
• This selectivity helps establish and maintain the
appropriate environment for normal cellular activities.
• The plasma membrane also plays a key role in
communication among cells and between cells and their
external environment.
 Plasma membrane cont
• The plasma membrane consists of two layers of
phospholipids (fatty substances) with protein
and sugar molecules embedded in them.
• In addition to phospholipids, the lipid cholesterol
is also present in the plasma membrane.
• The phospholipid molecules have a head, which
is electrically charged and hydrophilic (meaning
‘water loving’), and a tail which has no charge
and is hydrophobic (meaning ‘water hating’)
• The phospholipids are diglycerides, and form a
bilayer, or double layer, which makes up most
of the membrane.
• Phospholipids permit lipid-soluble materials
to easily enter or leave the cell by diffusion
through the cell membrane.
• The presence of cholesterol decreases the
fluidity of the membrane, thus making it more
stable.
 Plasma membrane cont
The membrane proteins perform several functions:
• Some form channels or pores to permit passage of
materials such as water or ions.
• Others are carrier enzymes or transporters that also
help substances enter the cell.
• Still other proteins, with oligosaccharides on their
outer surface, are antigens, markers that identify the
cells of an individual as “self.”
• Yet another group of proteins serves as receptor
sites for hormones.
 Transport of substances across cell
membranes

• The structure of the plasma membrane

provides it with the property of selective
permeability, meaning that not all substances
can cross it.
• Those that can, do so in different ways
depending on their size and characteristics.
 Passive Transport

• This occurs when substances can

cross the semipermeable plasma
and organelle membranes and
move down the concentration
gradient (downhill) without using
energy.
• Diffusion
• Small molecules diffuse down the
concentration gradient: lipid-soluble
materials, e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty
acids and steroids, cross the membrane by
dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane .
• Water-soluble materials, e.g. sodium,
potassium and calcium, cross the membrane
by passing through water-filled channels.
 Facilitated diffusion

• This passive process is used by some substances that are

unable to diffuse through the semipermeable membrane
unaided, e.g. glucose, amino acids.
• Specialised protein carrier molecules in the membrane have
specific sites that attract and bind substances to be
transferred, like a lock and key mechanism.
• The carrier then changes its shape and deposits the substance
on the other side of the membrane). The carrier sites are
specific and can be used by only one substance.
• As there are a finite number of carriers, there is a limit to the
amount of a substance which can be transported at any time.
• This is known as the transport maximum.
Osmosis
• Osmosis may be simply defined as the diffusion
of water through a selectively permeable
membrane.
• That is, water will move from an area with more
water present to an area with less water.
• Another way to say this is that water will
naturally tend to move to an area where there is
more dissolved material, such as salt or sugar.
 Active Transport
• This is the transport of substances up their
concentration gradient (uphill), i.e. from a lower to a
higher concentration.
• Chemical energy in the form of ATP drives
specialised protein carrier molecules that transport
substances across the membrane in either direction.
• The carrier sites are specific and can be used by only
one substance; therefore the rate at which a
substance is transferred depends on the number of
sites available.
 The sodium–potassium pump

• This active transport mechanism maintains the unequal

concentrations of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions on either
side of the plasma membrane.
• It may use up to 30% of cellular ATP requirements.
• Potassium levels are much higher inside the cell than outside – it is
the principal intracellular cation.
• Sodium levels are much higher outside the cell than inside – it is the
principal extracellular cation.
• These ions tend to diffuse down their concentration gradients, K+
outwards and Na+ into the cell.
• In order to maintain their concentration gradients, excess Na+ is
constantly pumped out across the cell membrane in exchange for K+.
 Bulk transport

• Transfer of particles too large to cross cell

membranes occurs by pinocytosis or phagocytosis.
• These particles are engulfed by extensions of the
cytoplasm which enclose them, forming a membrane-
bound vacuole.
• When the vacuole is small, pinocytosis occurs. In
phagocytosis larger particles (e.g. cell fragments,
foreign materials, microbes) are taken into the cell.
• Lysosomes then adhere to the vacuole membrane,
releasing enzymes which digest the contents.
• Export of waste material by the reverse
process through the plasma membrane is
called exocytosis.
• Secretory granules formed by the Golgi
apparatus usually leave the cell in this way, as
do any indigestible residues of phagocytosis.
 Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
• This compartment has two components: cytosol and
organelles.
• Cytosol , the fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains
water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles.
• Surrounded by cytosol are several different types of
organelles.
• Each type of organelle has a characteristic shape and
specific functions.
• The cytosol (intracellular fluid) is the fluid portion
of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and
constitutes about 55% of total cell volume.
• Although it varies in composition and consistency
from one part of a cell to another, cytosol is 75–90%
water plus various dissolved and suspended
components.
• Among these are different types of ions, glucose,
amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and
waste products.
• The cytosol is the site of many chemical
reactions required for a cell’s existence.
• Organelles are specialized structures within
the cell that have characteristic shapes; they
perform specific functions in cellular growth,
maintenance, and reproduction.
 Nucleus
• With the exception of mature red blood cells,
all human cells have a nucleus.
• The nucleus is the largest organelle and is
contained within the nuclear envelope, a
membrane similar to the plasma membrane but
with tiny pores through which some substances
can pass between it and the cytoplasm
• It contains one or more nucleoli and the
chromosomes of the cell
• The nucleus contains the body’s genetic
material, which directs all the metabolic
activities of the cell.
• This consists of 46 chromosomes, which are
made from deoxyribonucleic acid .
• Within the nucleus is a roughly spherical
structure called the nucleolus, which is
involved in manufacture (synthesis) and
assembly of the components of ribosomes.
• A nucleolus is a small sphere made of DNA,
RNA, and protein.
• The nucleoli form a type of RNA called
ribosomal RNA, which becomes part of
ribosomes (a cell organelle) and is involved in
protein synthesis.
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell
because it contains the chromosomes.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are membranous, sausage-shaped
structures in the cytoplasm, sometimes described as
the ‘power house’ of the cell .
• They are involved in aerobic respiration, the processes
by which chemical energy is made available in the cell.
• This is in the form of ATP, which releases energy when
the cell breaks it down .
• The most active cell types have the greatest number
of mitochondria, e.g. liver, muscle and spermatozoa.
 Ribosomes
• These are tiny granules composed of RNA and protein.
• They synthesise proteins from amino acids, using RNA as
the template .
• When present in free units or in small clusters in the
cytoplasm, the ribosomes make proteins for use within
the cell.
• These include the enzymes required for metabolism.
• Ribosomes are also found on the outer surface of the
nuclear envelope and rough endoplasmic reticulum where
they manufacture proteins for export from the cell.
 RNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• The transcription and translation of the genetic
code in DNA into proteins require RNA.
• DNA is found in the chromosomes in the
nucleus of the cell, but protein synthesis takes
place on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the intermediary
molecule between these two sites.
• When a protein is to be made, the segment of
DNA that is its gene uncoils, and the hydrogen
bonds between the base pairs break.
• Transcription—mRNA is formed as a
complementary copy of the sequence of bases
in a gene (DNA).
• mRNA moves from the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• tRNA molecules (in the cytoplasm) have
anticodons for the triplets on the mRNA.
• Translation—tRNA molecules bring amino
acids to their proper triplets on the mRNA.
• Ribosomes contain enzymes to form peptide
bonds between the amino acids.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

• Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive series of interconnecting

membranous canals in the cytoplasm
• There are two types: smooth and rough.
• Smooth ER synthesises lipids and steroid hormones, and is also
associated with the detoxification of some drugs.
• Some of the lipids are used to replace and repair the plasma
membrane and membranes of organelles.
• Rough ER is studded with ribosomes.
• These are the site of synthesis of proteins, some of which are
‘exported’ from cells, i.e. enzymes and hormones that leave the
parent cell by exocytosis to be used by cells elsewhere.
 Golgi apparatus

• The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of closely folded

flattened membranous sacs.
• It is present in all cells but is larger in those that
synthesise and export proteins.
• The proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus where they are ‘packaged’ into
membrane-bound vesicles called secretory granules.
• The vesicles are stored and, when needed, they move
to the plasma membrane and fuse with it.
• The contents then leave the cell by exocytosis.
• Carbohydrates are synthesized within the Golgi
apparatus, and are packaged, along with other
materials, for secretion from the cell.
• Proteins from the ribosomes or lipids from the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum may also be secreted in this
way.
• To secrete a substance, small sacs of the Golgi
membrane break off and fuse with the cell membrane,
releasing the substance to the exterior of the cell.
• This is exocytosis, exo meaning “to go out”of the cell.
 Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are single-membrane structures that contain

digestive enzymes.
• Lysosomes are one type of secretory vesicle with membranous
walls, which are formed by the Golgi apparatus.
• They contain a variety of enzymes involved in breaking down
fragments of organelles and large molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA,
carbohydrates, proteins) inside the cell into smaller particles
that are either recycled, or extruded from the cell as waste
material.
• Lysosomes in white blood cells contain enzymes that digest
foreign material such as microbes.
 Centrioles
• Centrioles are a pair of rodshaped structures
perpendicular to one another, located just outside
the nucleus.
• Their function is to organize the spindle fibers
during cell division.
• The spindle fibers are contracting proteins that pull
the two sets of chromosomes apart, toward the
ends of the original cell as it divides into two new
cells.
• Each new cell then has a full set of chromosomes.
 Cilia and flagella
• Cilia and flagella are mobile thread-like projections through
the cell membrane; each is anchored by a basal body just
within the membrane.
• Cilia are usually shorter than flagella, and an individual cell
has many of them on its free surface.
• The cilia of a cell beat in unison and sweep materials across
the cell surface.
• Cells lining the fallopian tubes, for example, have cilia to
sweep the egg cell toward the uterus.
• The only human cell with a flagellum is the sperm cell. The
flagellum provides motility, or movement, for the sperm cell.
 Microvilli
• Microvilli are folds of the cell membrane on the free
surface of a cell.
• These folds greatly increase the surface area of the
membrane, and are part of the cells lining organs that
absorb materials.
• The small intestine, for example, requires a large surface
area for the absorption of nutrients, and many of its
lining cells have microvilli.
• Some cells of the kidney tubules also have microvilli that
provide for the efficient reabsorption of useful materials
back to the blood.
 CELL DIVISION
• Cell division is the process by which a cell reproduces itself.
• There are two types of cell division, mitosis and meiosis.
• Although both types involve cell reproduction, their
purposes are very different.
• Many damaged, dead, and worn out cells can be replaced by
growth and division of other similar cells.
• Most body cells have 46 chromosomes and divide by
mitosis, a process that results in two new genetically
identical daughter cells.
• The only exception to this is the formation of gametes (sex
cells), i.e. ova and spermatozoa, which takes place by meiosis
 Mitosis
• Human cells, such as those in the brain, stomach, and
kidneys, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of
46.
• One member of each pair is inherited from each parent.
• The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called
homologous chromosomes or homologs; they contain
similar genes arranged in the same (or almost the same)
order.
• When examined under a light microscope, homologous
chromosomes generally look very similar.
• Each of us began life as one cell, a fertilized egg. Each of us
now consists of billions of cells produced by the process of
mitosis.
• In mitosis, one cell with the diploid number of chromosomes
(the usual number, 46 for people) divides into two identical
cells, each with the diploid number of chromosomes.
• This production of identical cells is necessary for the growth
of the organism and for repair of tissues.
• Before mitosis can take place, a cell must have two complete
sets of chromosomes, because each new cell must have the
diploid number.
• The process of DNA replication enables each chromosome (in
the form of chromatin) to make a copy of itself.
• The period between two cell divisions is known as
the cell cycle, which has two phases that can be
seen on light microscopy: mitosis (M phase) and
interphase
• Interphase, the time between mitotic divisions.
• Although interphase is sometimes referred to as the
resting stage, resting means “not dividing” rather
than “inactive.”
• The cell is quite actively producing a second set of
chromosomes and storing energy in ATP.
 Interphase
• This is the longer phase and three separate stages are recognised:

• First gap phase (G1) – the cell grows in size and volume. This is
usually the longest phase and most variable in length. Sometimes
cells do not continue round the cell cycle but enter a resting phase
instead (G0).
• Synthesis of DNA (S phase) – the chromosomes replicate forming
two identical copies of DNA.
• Therefore, following the S phase, the cell now has 92
chromosomes, i.e. enough DNA for two cells and is nearly ready to
divide by mitosis.
• Second gap phase – (G2) there is further growth and preparation
for cell division.
 Stages of mitosis
• The mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle consists
of a nuclear division (mitosis) and a cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis) to form two identical cells.
• The events that occur during mitosis and
cytokinesis are plainly visible under a
microscope because chromatin condenses into
discrete chromosomes.
• The stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
 Prophase
• During this stage the replicated chromatin becomes tightly
coiled and easier to see under the microscope. Each of the
original 46 chromosomes (called a chromatid at this stage)
is paired with its copy in a double chromosome unit.
• The two chromatids are joined to each other at the
centromere.
• The mitotic apparatus appears; this consists of two
centrioles separated by the mitotic spindle, which is formed
from microtubules. The centrioles migrate, one to each end
of the cell, and the nuclear envelope disappears.
 Metaphase
• During metaphase, the microtubules of the
mitotic Spindle align the centromeres of the
chromatid pairs at the exact center of the
mitotic spindle.
• This midpoint region is called the metaphase
plate.
• The chromatids align on the centre of the
spindle, attached by their centromeres.
 Anaphase
• The centromeres separate, and one of each pair of
sister chromatids (now called chromosomes again)
migrates to each end of the spindle as the
microtubules that form the mitotic spindle
contract.
• As the chromosomes are pulled by the
microtubules of the mitotic spindle during
anaphase, they appear V-shaped because the
centromeres lead the way, dragging the trailing
arms of the chromosomes toward the pole.
 Telophase
• The final stage of mitosis, telophase, begins
after chromosomal movement stops.
• The identical sets of chromosomes, now at
opposite poles of the cell, uncoil and revert to
the threadlike chromatin form.
• A nuclear envelope forms around each
chromatin mass, nucleoli reappear in the
identical nuclei, and the mitotic spindle breaks
up.
 Cytokinesis
• Division of a cell’s cytoplasm and organelles into two
identical cells is called cytokinesis.
• Following telophase, cytokinesis occurs: the
cytoplasm, intracellular organelles and plasma
membrane split forming two identical daughter cells.
• The organelles of the daughter cells are incomplete at
the end of cell division but they develop during
interphase.
• The frequency with which cell division occurs varies
with different types of cell
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is a more complex process of cell division that
results in the formation of gametes, which are egg and
sperm cells.
• In meiosis, one cell with the diploid number of
chromosomes divides twice to form four cells, each with the
haploid number (half the usual number) of chromosomes.
• In women, meiosis takes place in the ovaries and is called
oogenesis. In men, meiosis takes place in the testes and is
called spermatogenesis.
• The differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis
will be discussed in Reproductive Systems.
• The egg and sperm cells produced by meiosis have
the haploid number of chromosomes, which is 23
for humans.
• Meiosis is sometimes called reduction division
because the division process reduces the
chromosome number in the egg or sperm.
• Then, during fertilization, in which the egg unites
with the sperm, the 23 chromosomes of the sperm
plus the 23 chromosomes of the egg will restore the
diploid number of 46 in the fertilized egg.
• Unlike mitosis, which is complete after a single round,
meiosis occurs in two successive stages: meiosis I and
meiosis II.
• During the interphase that precedes meiosis I, the
chromosomes of the diploid cell start to replicate.
• As a result of replication, each chromosome consists
of two sister (genetically identical) chromatids, which
are attached at their centromeres.
• This replication of chromosomes is similar to the one
that precedes mitosis in somatic cell division.
• MEIOSIS I Meiosis I, which begins once chromosomal
replication is complete, consists of four phases: prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I .
• Prophase I
• Is an extended phase in which the chromosomes shorten and
thicken, the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the
mitotic spindle forms.
• Two events that are not seen in mitotic prophase occur during
prophase I of meiosis.
• First, the two sister chromatids of each pair of homologous
chromosomes pair off, an event called synapsis. The resulting
four chromatids form a structure called a tetrad.
• Second, parts of the chromatids of two homologous
chromosomes may be exchanged with one another. Such an
exchange between parts of nonsister (genetically different)
chromatids is termed crossing-over.
• This process, among others, permits an exchange of genes
between chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
• Due to crossing-over, the resulting cells are genetically unlike each
other and genetically unlike the starting cell that produced them.
• Crossing-over results in genetic recombination—that is, the
formation of new combinations of genes—and accounts for part
of the great genetic variation among humans and other organisms
that form gametes via meiosis.
• In metaphase 1, the tetrads formed by the homologous
pairs of chromosomes line up along the metaphase
plate of the cell, with homologous chromosomes side by
side .
• During anaphase I, the members of each homologous
pair of chromosomes separate as they are pulled to
opposite poles of the cell by the microtubules attached
to the centromeres.
• The paired chromatids, held by a centromere, remain
together. (Recall that during mitotic anaphase, the
centromeres split and the sister chromatids separate.)
• Telophase I and cytokinesis of meiosis are
similar to telophase and cytokinesis of mitosis.
• The net effect of meiosis I is that each
resulting cell contains the haploid number of
chromosomes because it contains only one
member of each pair of the homologous
chromosomes present in the starting cell.
• MEIOSIS II The second stage of meiosis, meiosis II, also
consists of four phases: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase
II, and telophase II.
• These phases are similar to those that occur during mitosis;
the centromeres split, and the sister chromatids separate and
move toward opposite poles of the cell.
• In summary, meiosis I begins with a diploid starting cell and
ends with two cells, each with the haploid number of
chromosomes.
• During meiosis II, each of the two haploid cells formed during
meiosis I divides; the net result is four haploid gametes that
are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell.