Unit -4

Ashima Wadhwa
Associate Professor
Gitarattan International Business School
 Data Communication

• Data communication refers to the exchange of

data between a source and a receiver via form
of transmission media such as a wire cable.
• The device that transmits the data is known as
source and the device that receives the
transmitted data is known as receiver.
Components of Data
Communication
 Components of Data
Communication
1. Message: A message in its most general meaning is an object of
communication. It is a vessel which provides information. Yet, it can also
be this information. Therefore, its meaning is dependent upon the context
in which it is used; the term may apply to both the information and its
form.
2. Sender: The sender will have some kind of meaning she wishes to
convey to the receiver. It might not be conscious knowledge, it might be a
sub-conscious wish for communication. What is desired to be
communicated would be some kind of idea, perception, feeling, or datum.
It will be a part of her reality that she wishes to send to somebody else.
3. Receiver: These messages are delivered to another party. No doubt, you
have in mind a desired action or reaction you hope your message prompts
from the opposite party. Keep in mind, the other party also enters into the
communication process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtedly
influence their understanding of your message and their response. To be a
successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering
your message, then acting appropriately.
 Components of Data
Communication
4. Medium: Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The
sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else
the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of
appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message
effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication
medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance -
Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group
of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is
required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a formal description of digital message formats and the
rules for exchanging those messages in or between computing systems and in
telecommunications. Protocols may include signaling, authentication and error
detection and correction syntax, semantics, and synchronization of
communication and may be implemented in hardware or software, or both.
6. Feedback: Feedback is the main component of communication process as it
permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in
confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may
be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may
take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.
 Communication media
• Communication medium refers to the physical channel
through which data is sent and received. Data is sent in
the form of voltage levels which make up the digital
signal. A digital signal consists of 0s and 1s; essentially, a
1 corresponds to a high voltage, while a 0 corresponds to
a low voltage.
• The speed of data transmission or data rate depends
upon the type of medium being used in the network.
There are basically two types of networks:
• Wired network
• Wireless network
Communication/Transmission media
 Guided Media/ Wired Media
• Guided Media/ Wired Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway
by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
 Wired Network

1. Twisted Pair
It consists of a pair of copper wires twisted around each other;
the wires are around 1 to 2 mm thick and they are twisted to
reduce the interference from the surrounding wires. Remember
that a current carrying wire has a magnetic field around it that
can interfere with that of another wire when in close proximity.

Invented by Alexander Graham Bell, this form of wire has been

in use since the 19th century and is currently the cheapest
mediums available. Twisted pairs are also used in telephone
wires, but they only consist of four wires or two pairs. In
computer networks, eight wires or four pairs are utilized.
Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Twisted-pair cable
 Wired Network

2. Coaxial Cable
Offering better data rates and less signal
attenuation, a coaxial cable consist of a central
copper conductor that is surrounded by a foil
shield. The foil is covered by yet another
shield known as a braided shield
Advantages:
High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
 Wired Network
3.Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light
through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or
plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for the transmission of large volumes of data.
• The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional.
Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Lightweight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
Fragile
 Unguided/ Wireless Media
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded
transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.
• Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
 Wireless Media
• Radio waves :
• These are used for multicast communications,
such as radio and television, and paging
systems. They can penetrate through walls.
• Highly regulated.
• Use omni directional antennas
 Radio waves
• Omni directional antenna
 Wireless Media
• Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending
and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other.
• The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz.
• These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
Microwaves
 Wireless Media
• Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short
distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents
interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
 The Computer Network

 A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes)

that use a set of common communication protocols over digital
interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on
or provided by the network nodes.
 The nodes of a computer network may include personal
computers, servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or
general-purpose hosts.
 The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
 A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging
information over a network. physically wired, optical, and
wireless
 The Advantages/Uses of Network
Simultaneous Access
 There are moments in any business when several workers
may need to use the same data at the same time.
Shared Peripheral Devices

Personal Communications
 Videoconferencing
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-VoIP transmits the sound
of voice over a computer network using the Internet Protocol
(IP ) rather than sending the signal over traditional phone
wires
Easier Data Backup
 The Networking Devices(Nodes)

1. NIC Card
2. Repeater
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Firewall
 1. Network Interface Card

 NIC is used to physically

connect host devices to the
network media.
 A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot
of a bus on a computer
motherboard.
 It can also be a peripheral
device. NICs are sometimes
called network adapters.
 Each NIC is identified by a
unique code called a Media
Access Control (MAC) address.
 This address is used to control
data communication for the host
on the network.
 2. Repeaters

 A repeater is a network device used to

regenerate a signal.
 Repeaters regenerate analog or digital
signals that are distorted by transmission
loss due to attenuation.
 A repeater does not make an intelligent
decision concerning forwarding packets
 3. Hubs
 Hubs concentrate on connections.
 In other words, they take a group
of hosts and allow the network to
see them as a single unit. This is
done passively, without any other
effect on the data transmission.
 Active hubs concentrate hosts and
also regenerate signals.
 4. Bridges

 Bridges convert network data

formats and perform basic data
transmission management.
 Bridges provide connections
between LANs.
 They also check data to
determine if it should cross the
bridge. This makes each part of
the network more efficient
 6. Routers

 Routers have all the capabilities listed

above.
 Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and
manage data transfers.
 They can also connect to a WAN, which
allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.
 7. Gateway

 A gateway is a piece of
networking hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.
 Gateways are distinct from routers
or switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of networks
 8. Firewall

 A firewall is a network device or

software for controlling network
security and access rules.
 Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks
and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet.
 Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
 The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
 9. Modem

•Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to
another computer network through telephone lines.
•The computer network works in digital mode, while analog
technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
•Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog
mode at the transmitting end and de-modulator converts the same
from analog to digital at receiving end.
 Types of Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
 2. Local Area Network

Local Area Network (LAN)

• Contains printers, servers and
computers
• Systems are close to each
other
• Contained in one office or
building
• Organizations often have
several LANS
 4. Metropolitan Area Network

1. A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than or equal in size to a WAN.
2. The size range anywhere from 5 to 50km in diameter.
3. MANs are typically owned and managed by a single entity.
4. This could be an ISP or telecommunications company that sells its services
to end-users in that metropolitan area.
5. For all intents and purposes, a MAN has the same characteristics as a WAN
with distance constraints.
6. Large network that connects different organizations
 5. Wide Area Network

• A Wide Area Network exist over a large area

• Data travels through telephone or cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area Network in the Internet
Network Topologies
 Simple Physical Topologies
• Physical topology: physical layout of nodes on a
network
• Four fundamental shapes:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
– Mesh
 Why we need a topology
Choosing one topology over another can
impact :
– type of equipment the network needs
– capabilities of the equipment
– network’s growth
– way a network is managed
 1. Bus Topology

All devices are connected to a central

cable, called bus or backbone.
T T
There are terminators at each end of
the bus that stops the signal and
keeps it from traveling backwards.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. There is no central controller. 1. It is possible that more than one station may
attempt transmission simultaneously (collision or
2. Control resides in each station
contention).
3. The less interconnecting wire is
2. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
required.
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
4. Ease of installation.
transmission, even between devices on the same
5. Backbone cable can be laid along the side of the problem.
most efficient path, and then
4. The damaged area reflects signals in the direction
connected to the nodes by drop lines
of origin, creating noise in both directions
of various lengths
 2. Ring Topology

• All devices are connected to one another in the shape of

a closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices,
one on either side of it.
Advantages:
1. Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
2. Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
3. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
another, until it reaches its destination.
4. Each device incorporates a repeater.
5. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
6. Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
7. A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
8. Unidirectional traffic.
 3. Star Topology

• All devices are connected to a central hub.

• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other
links remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is
working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass
defective links.
Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to the
controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
 4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology

Advantages:
1. It allows more devices to be attached to a
single central hub and can therefore increase
the distance a signal can travel between
devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and prioritize
communications from different computers.

Disadvantages:
3. The devices are not linked to each other.
4. If one device wants to send data to another,
it sends it to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
5. The addition of secondary hubs brings two
further advantages.
 6. Mesh Topology

Each host has its connections to all other hosts.

Mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
1. A nuclear power plant might use a mesh
topology in the networked control systems.
2. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each 1. A large amount of cabling required.
connection can carry its data load, thus eliminating 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
the traffic problems that can occur when links must 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
be shared by multiple devices. difficult.
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, it does 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
not incapacitate (affect) the entire system. greater than the available space (in the
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent travels walls, ceiling, or floors) can accommodate.
along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient 5. The hardware required to connect each
sees it). link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and prohibitively expensive.
fault isolation easy.
OSI Model
 OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.

OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular

network function.

OSI model was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
OSI Model
 Physical layer

• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
 Data-Link Layer

• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
• It contains two sub-layers:
– Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.
– Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's
physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
 Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header
which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has
control over the link at a given time.
 Network Layer

• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the

location of devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding
the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer
and used to provide the routing services within an
internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
 Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility

of the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to
identify the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer,
and it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple
paths from source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the
upper layer and converts them into packets. This process is
known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
 Transport Layer

• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
• The two protocols used in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol
– It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
– It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
– When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known
as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different
orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
• User Datagram Protocol
– User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
– It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment when the
packet is received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol
unreliable.
 Functions of Session layer:

• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller

that creates a dialog between two processes or we can
say that it allows the communication between two
processes which can be either half-duplex or full-
duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints
when transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error
occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then
the transmission will take place again from the
checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization
and recovery.
 Presentation Layer

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with

the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that
converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the
syntax layer.
 Functions of Presentation layer:

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in

the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers
use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts
the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and
changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,
i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression
is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
 Functions of Application layer:
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to
access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a
user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.
Summary of Layers
 OSI Model
Deals with the mechanical and
Physical layer electrical specification of the
interface and transmission
media.

Transforms the physical layer,

Data Link Layer to a reliable link and is
responsible for node-to-node
delivery.

Responsible for the source-to-

Network Layer destination delivery of a
packet across multiple links.
 OSI Model
Responsible for the source-to-
Transport Layer destination (end-to-end)
delivery of the entire message.

It establishes, maintains and

Session Layer synchronizes the interaction
between communicating
systems.

It concerns with the syntax

Presentation Layer and semantics of the
information between two
systems.
 OSI Model

It provides user interfaces and

Application Layer support for services such as
E-Mail, Remote Login and
other types of Distributed
Information Services.
What is the Internet
• The Internet is a collection of interconnected networks, all freely
exchanging information.
• The Internet is actually a network of networks: tens of thousands of
computers connected in a web, talking to one another through a common
communications protocol.
IP Addresses

Every node on the Internet has a unique Internet number called an IP

address. IP addresses are 32 bits long and consist of four parts (called
dotted-quads) that are separated by the period. For example:
129.34.139.30
The Domain Name System (DNS)
Because the IP addresses are hard to remember, the
Internet supports the use of a text name that can be
substituted for the IP address. The text version of the
IP address is called a domain name. Each domain name is
mapped to a particular numeric address.
To translate and track domain names, we use the Domain
Name System (DNS), which is a set of distributed
databases containing IP addresses and their
corresponding domain names. DNS servers perform the
translation back and forth between names and numbers
(i.e., saclink.CSUS.edu).
The top-level domain indicates the class of institution
to which the server belongs to the Internet (i.e., edu).
The second-level domain is registered by an organization
(i.e., CSUS).
How the Internet Works

On this "highway" of network connections, routers provide Internet traffic

control. The primary purpose of routers is to find the best path among
available alternatives by which to send data.
The Internet transmits a message from one computer to another either
directly (in the same network) or through a router till the message reaches its
destination.
Messages are passed around in chunks, called packets, each of which
carries the address of the sender and the receiver.
The set of conventions used to pass packets from one computer to another
is the combination of the Transport Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
Protocol (IP).
The Domain Name System (DNS)

Because the IP addresses are hard to remember, the Internet

supports the use of a text name that can be substituted for the IP
address. The text version of the IP address is called a domain name.
Each domain name is mapped to a particular numeric address.
To translate and track domain names, we use the Domain Name
System (DNS), which is a set of distributed databases containing IP
addresses and their corresponding domain names. DNS servers
perform the translation back and forth between names and numbers
(i.e., saclink.CSUS.edu).
The top-level domain indicates the class of institution to which the
server belongs to the Internet (i.e., edu).
The second-level domain is registered by an organization (i.e.,
CSUS).
The first item is the name of the host computer, or the hostname
(i.e., saclink).
Internet Services
• E-mail: sends text, sound, and images to others.
Telnet: logs on to another computer and access its public files.
• FTP: copies a file between two computers.
• Usenet and newsgroup: an on-line discussion group of a specific topic.
• Chat rooms: enables tow or more person to carry on on-line text
conversation in real time.
• Internet phone: enables voice communication between two person with
proper hardware and software.
• Internet video conferencing: supports simultaneous voice and visual
communications.
• Content streaming: continuously transfers and plays multimedia files over the
Internet between two locations.
• Instant messaging: allows two or more person to communicates instantly on
the Internet,
• Shopping on the Web: allows people to purchase products and services over
the Internet.
• Web auctions: lets people bid on products and services.
• Music, radio, and video on the Internet: lets user play or download music,
radio, and video.
• Office on the Web: allows people to access files and information through a
Web site.
Intranets and Extranets

An Intranet is an internal corporate network built using the Internet and W3

standards and products. One of the intranet’s most obvious virtues is its
ability to slash the need of paper. Any employee can view the same
electronic information.
An Extranet is a network based on Web technologies that links selected
resources of the intranet of a company with its customers, suppliers, or other
business partners
 Intranets

1. Network within an organization that uses Internet protocols

and technologies for collecting, storing, and disseminating
useful information that supports business activities
2. Also called “corporate portals”
3. For internal use by employees
 Applications of an Intranet
1. Human resources management
2. Sales and marketing
3. Production and operations
4. Accounting and finance
5. Help organizations move from a calendar- or
schedule-based document-publishing strategy to
one that’s based on events or need
6. Reduce the costs and time of document production
Extranets

1. Secure network
1. Uses the Internet and Web technologies to connect
intranets of business partners
2. Type of interorganizational system (IOS)
Electronic funds transfer (EFT)
Electronic data interchange (EDI)

Advantages of extranets:
1. Coordination
2. Feedback
3. Consumer satisfaction
4. Cost reduction
5. Expedited communication
 Transmission Modes

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as
a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to
occur between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of
transmission mode:-
1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.
2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both directions.
Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full
duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in another direction.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all

the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same
time.
 Information technology and society

• Railways
• Airlines
• Banking
• Online Banking System
• Insurance
• Inventory Control
• Financial
• Hotel Management
• Education
• Entertainment & health
Security in Information Technology

Computer viruses – these are malicious programs as described in the above section. The threats
posed by viruses can be eliminated or the impact minimized by using Anti-Virus software and
following laid down security best practices of an organization.
Unauthorized access – the standard convention is to use a combination of a username and a
password. Hackers have learnt how to circumvent these controls if the user does not follow security
best practices. Most organizations have added the use of mobile devices such as phones to provide
an extra layer of security.
Data loss – if the data center caught fire or was flooded, the hardware with the data can be
damaged, and the data on it will be lost. As a standard security best practice, most organizati
Social media attacks – In this cyber criminals identify and infect a cluster of websites that persons
of a particular organization visit, to steal information.
Mobile Malware –There is a saying when there is a connectivity to Internet there will be danger to
Security. Same goes for Mobile phones where gaming applications are designed to lure customer to
download the game and unintentionally they will install malware or virus on the device.
Corporate data on personal devices – These days every organization follows a rule BYOD.
BYOD means Bring your own device like Laptops, Tablets to the workplace. Clearly BYOD pose a
serious threat to security of data but due to productivity issues organizations are arguing to adopt
this.
Social Engineering – is the art of manipulating people so that they give up their confidential
information like bank account details, password etc. These criminals can trick you into giving your
private and confidential information or they will gain your trust to get access to your computer to
install a malicious software- that will give them control of your computer. For example email or
message from your friend, that was probably not sent by your friend. Criminal can access your
friends device and then by accessing the contact list, he can send infected email and message to
all contacts. Since the message/ email is from a known person recipient will definitely check the link
or attachment in the message, thus unintentionally infecting the computer.