Complex Sentence

Defining a Complex
Sentence
▪ Sentences, one of whose parts is a
clause, are called as complex sentences.
▪ I like listening to music.
NP (S) finite VP (V) -ing clause (Od)
▪ What you said is correct.
Od S V
Wh – clause (S) finite VP (V) Adj. P
(Cs)
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 What are Complex
Sentences?
◼ Complex sentences are often referred to two types:
coordination and subordination.
◼ Coordination: the relationship between the 2 units
which are independent from each other.
(1) Tom saw Mary. (2) He ran away.
🡪 Tom saw Mary and/ but he ran away.
◼ Subordination: the relationship between 2 units, one
of which is an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses connected to it.
When Tom saw Mary, he ran away. (dependent
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 Coordination
◼ is the combination of 2 or more equal units,
namely phrases or clauses.
◼ We went there and returned immediately.

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 Coordinators
(Coordination Conjunctions)

◼ FAN BOYS principle:

For > And > Nor > But > Or > Yet
> So

Joe waited for the train, but the train was

late.
Mary and Samantha left on the bus
before I arrived, so I did not see them at
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 Syntactic Features of
Coordinators
◼ Restricted to initial position in the clause or phrase
John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.
◼ Fixed position of clauses beginning with coordinator
They are living in England or they are spending a vacation
there.
◼ Impossibly preceded by other conjunctions
◼ Allowing ellipsis of S of the clause it introduces (to
avoid repetition)
I may see you tomorrow, or (I) may phone you later.
◼ And and or can link subordinate clause, and link more
than 1 clause. 6
 Semantic Implication of
AND
◼ Addition of consequence or result
He heard an explosion and (he therefore) phoned the police.
◼ Addition of chronological sequence
He washed the dishes and (then) she dried them.
◼ Contrast: Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is
candid.
◼ Second clause being a comment on the first
They disliked John – and that’s not surprising.
◼ First clause being a condition of the second
Give me some money and (then) I’ll help you escape.
◼ Second clause making a point similar to the first
A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly)7 a
 Semantic Implication of OR
◼ Exclusive choice
You can go there by car or you can walk there.
◼ Inclusive choice
You can boil an egg, or you can make some
sandwiches, or you can do both.
◼ Restatement or correction of previously –
mentioned idea
He began his educational career, or, in other words,
he started to attend the local kindergarten.
◼ Negative condition
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 Semantic Implication of
BUT
◼Unexpected contrast
John is poor, but he’s happy.
He didn’t want their help, but he had to
accept it.
◼Contrast being restatement (negative
>< affirmative)
John didn’t waste his time in the week
before exam, but studied hard every
evening. 9
 Coordinators or
Correlatives?
◼ Both…and: anticipates addition
◼ Either…or: anticipates alteration
◼ Neither …nor: anticipates additional negation >>> these
2 clauses are the equivalent of 2 negative clauses
conjoined by and.
You can write both/ either/ neither elegantly and/ or/ nor
clearly.
◼ Note: The position of the anticipatory elements indicates
the scope of the addition, alternative or additional
negation. Still, either & neither can be placed before the
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 Other Correlatives
◼Nor/ neither: correlated with actual or
implied negative in the previous
clause.
We owe no money, (and) neither do
they.
◼Not only … but (also)
They not only broke into his office and
stole his book, but they (also) 11
 Phrasal Coordination

◼And & Or are the main

coordinators for phrasal
coordination, But is used only
to link Adj. Ps and Adv. Ps.
◼ A very long but unusually interesting journey.
◼ He (S) wrote (V) to them (A) politely but
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 Subordination

◼ Is the relationship between the 2 units which

are dependent on each other >>> one is the
subordinate to the other.
If I were you, I would not pay anything for
her anymore.

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 Indicators of Subordination
Correlative Borderli
Simple Compound
s ne
As, • Ending with “that”: If … then, Supposing
although so that, in order that, although… that…,
, except that… yet/ The
because, • Ending with optional nevertheless, minute
since, if, “that”: now (that), as …so more/ (that)…, if
once, supposing (that)… less … than, only,
that, • Ending with “as”: as as…as…, no speaking
when, far as, as long as, as sooner … frankly…
while… soon as, so as (+ to + than…, …
inf)… whether …
• Ending with “than”: or…, the …
sooner … than + inf. Cl, the…
rather than + non –
finite/ verbless cl… 14
 Other Indicators of
Subordination
- Wh – clauses
- Non – finite clauses
- Subject – operator inversion (in conditional
sentences & other emphasized clauses)
Careful though she is, mistakes were still found.
- No indication at all:
- Nominal clauses with/ without “that”
I suppose (that) you’re right.
- Comment clauses
You’re right, I suppose. 15
 Use of WH - words

- Wh – word as a pronoun, functions as S, C, O

in sub-clause: What, Who, Which
[(What you say) isn’t true.]
O S V
(…): Wh – clause, functioning as S in […]
- Wh – word as an adverb, functions as an A in
sub-clause: Where, When, How, Why
[I’ll go (where you go).]
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 Optional Use of
Subordinators
◼ In finite clause:
I knew that he didn’t like joking.
◼ In non – finite clause:
(While running away, Tom saw Mary.
(After) having finished the work, they went
home.

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 Absence of Subordinators
◼ In non – finite clauses acting as S, O, C:
We want him to stop talking.
Watching these films was not my liking.
◼ In contingent adjectival clauses:
They went home tired/ happy.
◼ In case of subject – operator inversion:
Had you gone there, you would have met
her.
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 Functional Classification of
Dependent Clauses
◼ S: That we need more equipment is obvious.
◼ Od: I know that she is pretty.
◼ Oi: I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. Rarely
◼ Cs: The point is that we’re leaving. Read:
Adverbial
◼ Co: I imagined him overcome with grief. Clauses,
322 –
329.
◼ Adjunct: When we meet, I shall explain everything.
◼ Disjunct: To be honest, I’ve never liked him.
◼ Conjunct: What is more, he has lost the friends he had.

◼ Post-modifier, prepositional complement within the

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 Types of Subordinate
Clauses
▪ Relative clauses
▪ Dependent Wh – Interrogative clauses
I don’t know how I can start the motor.
I don’t know how to start the motor.
Do you know if/whether the bank is open now?

▪ That-clauses: THAT + a statement

Are you sure (that) you know the way there?
That even she is a millionaire encourages us a lot in our
business.
The fact that she is a millionaire encourages us a lot. 20
 Types of Subordinate
Clauses
◼ To – Infinitive clauses
For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.

◼ - Ing clauses
No one enjoys deceiving his own family.
I’m surprised at his/ John’s making that mistake.

◼ - Ed clauses
Given a beautiful present, she was very happy.

◼ Verbless (adjectival) clauses

When (she was) well aware of her situation, she
would learn herself. 21
 Types of Subordinate
Clauses
▪ Nominal clauses: S, O, C, App (Appositive),
Cprep.
I don’t know whether she will agree or not.
O
I know dancing.
O
That she was chosen to be the star in that film
amazed us.
S
What to do next depends on whether it rains.
S Cprep
That question, whether we can do it, has not 22
 Types of Subordinate
Clauses
▪ Adverbial clauses: A (adjunct)
Because of coming late, we couldn’t get tickets for
the concert. (non-finite clause)
Because we came late, we couldn’t get tickets for
the concert. (finite clause)

▪ Comparative clauses: Modifier of Adv/ Adj

He came as quickly as he could. (Adv. P = A)

He’s not as clever as a man/ as I thought. 23

 Types of Subordinate
Clauses
▪ Complementary clauses: Cs, Co
Co: I found him reading the paper.
Cs: ???
▪ Comment clauses: A (conjunct or
disjunct)
Conjunct: What is more, we lost all our
belongings.
Disjunct: She is a good girl, I think. 24
Identify clauses in the following sentences. Indicate
their linguistic structures and syntactic functions in the
superordinate units.

1{ He said 2[that 3(what he wanted to know 4)

is simply the truth everybody has known 5]}.
(5)
2 […]: That-clause, O in 1 {…}
3 (…): Wh-relative clause, S in 2 […]
4 ___: to-infinitive clause, O in 3 (…)
5 ___: Relative clause, post modifier in NP as Cs
in 3 (…)
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Identify clauses in the following sentences. Indicate
their linguistic structures and syntactic functions in the
superordinate units.
1. Who will go there is a question.
2. They are thinking of cheating.
3. It is easy to learn grammar.
4. Run away was what we could do then.
5. His hope, that he’ll become a teacher of English, will soon come true.
6. She likes to dance then.
7. Her dream was becoming a good translator.
8. We heard him murmur something.
9. What we ought to do is repeat what he says.
10. I can paint it whichever colour you like.
11. I don’t understand whatever he says.
12. I saw him driving a new Dream.
13. I’m not certain who helped him over the difficulty.
14. He is easy to deal with.
15. It depends on what he will say at the meeting. 26
Identify clauses in the following sentences. Indicate
their linguistic structures and syntactic functions in the
superordinate units.
1. Who will go there is a question. S
2. It is easy to learn grammar. S
3. Run away was what we could do then. S
4. She likes to dance then. Od
5. I don’t understand whatever he says. Od
6. Her dream was becoming a good translator. Cs ( - ing cl)
7. What we ought to do is repeat what he says. Wh – cl S, bare inf cl Cs
8. I can paint it whichever colour you like. Nominal rel cl Co
9. I saw him driving a new Dream. Co
10. His hope, that he’ll become a teacher of English, will soon come true. App
11. I’m not certain who helped him over the difficulty. Cadj
12. He is easy to deal with. Cadj
13. They are thinking of cheating her. Cprep
14. It depends on what he will say at the meeting. Cprep
15. We heard him murmur something. Od 27