Part II -

Introduction to Basic
Casting Processes

March 5, 2024
Lecture Outline:

> Introduction – Defn

> Steps in casting process
> Adv. & limitations of casting Process
> Casting terms
> Casting materials
> Classification of casting process
> Melting practices
 1. Introduction
# Casting process is one of the

earliest metal shaping

techniques known to human

being.

# Casting means pouring molten

metal into a refractory mold

cavity and allow it to solidify.

# The solidified object is taken out

from the mold either by breaking

or taking the mold apart.

Fig. 2 Pouring and mold system for
 2. Casting Terms:

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is

formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to

by various names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask,

cheek - intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.

2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with

the help of pattern.

3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up

the mold.

4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or

gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner
 Cont’d…

6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to

create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten

metal is poured.

8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the

mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its

own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks

and solidifies. It is also known as "feed head".

13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
 3. Steps in Casting Process:

1. Pattern making:

> This includes the modification of the desired part shape to include

draft, shrinkage, and machining allowances as well as to provide the

gating and risering design.

> The pattern has the shape of the casting, and it is used to make the

cavity in the mold into which the metal is poured.

2. Molding and core making:

> This includes the production of the molds and cores, the insertion

of the cores in the mold, and the closing of the mold.

> Cores typically are sand masses that form the internal surfaces of

the part, whereas the mold forms the external surface of the part.
 Cont’d…

3. Melting:

> This includes the melting of the metal and the

pouring of the molten metal into the mold cavity.

4. Cooling and solidification:

> The cooling and solidification, which are determined

by the mold material and riser location, affect the

material properties and quality of the casting.

 Cont’d…

 Common examples: door handles, locks, the outer

casing or housing for motors, pumps, wheels of

many cars, etc.

 Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make

parts, e.g. toy cars, planes, and so on.

Fig. 2 Metal cast products

 4. Advantages of casting process

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that

intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result,

many other operations, such as machining, forging, and

welding, can be minimized or eliminated.

2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or

non-ferrous.

3. It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in

each casting is re-melted and re-used.

4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very

simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small

 5. Limitations of Casting Process

1) Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made

by sand casting processes are a limitation to this technique.

Many new casting processes have been developed which can

take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy

and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting

process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding

process, and shell molding process.

2) The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.

Overview of Sand Casting Process:
 6. Casting Materials

# The most common casting material is iron. The widely used generic term

cast iron refers to the family of alloys comprising different proportions of

alloying material for iron-carbon and silicon, primarily, as well as

manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus:

1. Gray cast iron: The chemical composition of gray cast iron contains 2.5–

4% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and 0.4–1% manganese. Due to its casting

characteristics and cost, it is the most commonly used material (by

weight). Its fluidity makes it a desirable material for the casting of thin and

intricate features.

# Gray cast iron also has a lower shrinkage rate, and it is easier to

machine.
 Cont’d…
2. White cast iron

— When the white cast iron is fractured, white coloured cracks are

seen throughout because of the presence of carbide impurities.

White cast iron is hard but brittle.

— It has lower silicon content and low melting point. The carbon

present in the white cast iron precipitates and forms large

particles that increase the hardness of the cast iron. It is abrasive

resistant as well as cost-effective making them useful in various

applications like lifter bars and shell liners in grinding mills,

wear surfaces of pumps, balls and rings of coal pulverisers, etc.

 Cont’d…

3. Malleable iron:

# The chemical composition of malleable iron contains 2 – 3.3%

carbon, 0.6 –1.2% silicon, and 0.25–0.65% manganese. It

can normally be obtained by heat-treating white iron

castings.

# The high strength of malleable iron combined with its ductility

makes it suitable for applications such as camshaft

brackets, differential carriers, and numerous housings.

# One must note that malleable iron must be hardened in order to

increase its relatively low wear resistance.

 Cont’d…
4. Ductile cast iron:

> The chemical composition of ductile cast iron (also known as

nodular or spheriodal graphite cast iron) contains 3–4%

carbon, 1.8–2.8% silicon, and 0.15–0.9% manganese.

> First introduced in the late 1940s, this material can also be cast

into thin sections (though not as well as gray cast iron).

> It is superior in machinability to gray cast iron at equivalent

hardness. Its corrosion and wear resistance is superior to steel

and equivalent to gray cast iron.

> Typical uses of ductile cast iron include gears, crankshafts, and

cams.
 Other typical casting materials include:
4. Aluminum and Magnesium alloys:

> Aluminum is a difficult material to cast and needs to be alloyed with other

metals, such as copper, magnesium, and zinc, as well as with silicon (up to

12–14%).

> In general, such alloys provide good fluidity, low shrinkage, and good

resistance to cracking.

> The mechanical properties obtainable for aluminum alloys depend on the

content of the alloying elements as well as on heat-treatment processes.

> Magnesium is also a difficult material to cast in its pure form and is

normally alloyed with aluminum, zinc, and zirconium. Such alloys can
 Cont’d…

5. Copper-based alloys: Copper may be alloyed with many different

elements, including tin, lead, zinc, and nickel to yield, among others, a

common engineering alloy known as bronze (80–90% copper, 5–20% tin,

and less then 1–2% of lead, zinc, phosphorous, nickel, and iron).

6. Steel castings: These castings have isotropic uniformity of

properties, regardless of direction of loading, when compared to cast

iron. However, the strength and ductility of steel becomes a problem

for the casting process, for example, causing high shrinkage rates.

Low-carbon steel castings (< 0.3% carbon) can be found in numerous

automotive applications, whereas high-carbon cast steels (0.5%

7. Classifications of Casting Processes
# Casting processes can be classified into FOUR categories.

1. Conventional Casting/Molding Processes

– Green Sand Casting

– Dry Sand Casting

– Flask less Casting

2. Chemical Sand Casting Processes

– Shell Molding

– Sodium Silicate Molding

– No-Bake Molding

3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes

– Gravity Die casting

– Die Casting

4. Special Casting Processes

– Lost Wax Casting

– Ceramics Shell Molding

– Evaporative Pattern Casting

– Vacuum Sealed Molding

 1. Green Sand Casting
— Green sand is not green in color, but rather has water in it. The water is used

to activate the clay and make it “sticky” to bind the sand grains together.

— There are the three main ingredients of the green sand system: sand,

clay, and water. Other additions are made to improve the surface finish of

the casting.

— In sand molding, the sand is often 3-10 times the weight of the casting, and

recycling or resuse of the mold material is essential.

— The sand commonly used is silica sand, but other sands used are olivine.

chromite, and zircon. These other sands are more expensive and have

higher densities than silica sand, but they do give higher cooling rates and

are more environmentally acceptable.

 Cont’d…
— Other types of binders and additives are used for a variety of reasons,

but the main reasons are better surface finish, faster production

times, lower labor skills required, and lower production costs.

— Finishing operations in the foundry are generally labor intensive and

thus very costly. so processes that improve the surface finish can

greatly reduce production costs and the unit production time.

— The process yield is typically low, that is, 30-60 percent of the total

metal poured. The gating and risering systems used to produce the

casting can account for a large portion of the metal poured, especially

on small castings.
 Cont’d…
— The process yield, commonly called yield, is
defined as:
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ( % )= 𝑋 100 %
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
where

Total weight poured = casting + gating +

risers + melt loss

— The melt loss occurs from slag or dross formed

and from volatilization

of some metals, such as zinc in copper alloys. It is

 Cont’d…

# Advantages: of green sand casting

> Most metals can be cast by this method

> Pattern and material costs are relatively low

> No limitation with respect to size of casting

and type of metal or alloy used.

# Disadvantages of green sand casting:

> Surface finish of the castings obtained by this

process is not good and machining is often

 Sand Mold Making Procedure
The procedure for making mold of a cast product using green casting method (eg. cast

iron wheel).

> The first step in making mold is to place the drag half of pattern on the molding

board.

> The drag is placed on the board.

> Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.

> Molding sand is then riddled to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is

completely filled.

> The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. The ramming

must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.

> After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar known as

a strike rod.
 C o n t’d …

> With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the

flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and

solidification.

> The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.

> Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of

locating pins.

> The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.

> A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the

pattern. Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an appropriate place.

> The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same

manner as performed in the drag.

> The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the

top to pour the liquid metal.

> Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of

paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished

casting a good surface finish.

>
 Cont’d…

Animation video
 2. Dry Sand Casting
 Dry sand casting, also known as air set or air-dried sand casting, is a casting

process that uses chemically bonded sand molds without the need for

additional moisture or liquid binders. It is a versatile and cost-effective

method commonly used for producing medium to large-sized metal parts

 When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the molds, air-

dried molds are sometimes preferred to green sand molds.

 The most common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas

or oil flame.

 The drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed

at the mold surface.

 All other procedures of casting is similar to that of green sand casting except dry

quality silica sand mix with thermosetting resin is used to create the mold.
 3. Shell Mold Casting

 Shell mold casting process is recent invention in casting

techniques for mass production and smooth surface finish. It was

originated in Germany during Second World War. It is also called as

Carning or C- process.

 Shell mold casting is a precision casting process that uses a mold

made of a thin shell of sand held together by a thermosetting

resin.

 This process is commonly used for producing high-quality,

dimensionally accurate metal castings with a smooth surface

 Cont’d…
 The process is described as follows:

> The 2-piece pattern is made of metal (e.g. aluminum or

steel), it is heated to between 175°C-370°C, and coated

with a lubricant, e.g. silicone spray.

> Each heated half-pattern is covered with a mixture of sand

and a thermoset resin/epoxy binder. The binder glues a

layer of sand to the pattern, forming a shell. The process

may be repeated to get a thicker shell.

> The assembly is baked to cure it.

> The patterns are removed, and the two half-shells joined
 Cont’d…

Fig. Shell mold casting

Advantages

The main advantages of shell molding are:

> Very suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.

> Excellent surface finish.

> Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.

> Negligible machining and cleaning cost.

> Occupies less floor space.

> Skill required is less.

> Molds can be stored until required.

> Better quality of casting assured.

> Suitable for mass production.

Disadvantages
# Initial cost is high

# Specialized equipment is required

# Resin binder is an expensive material
# Limited for small size
# Future of shell molding process is very bright.

Applications:
> Suitable for production of casting made up of alloys of Al, Cu and
ferrous metals

> Bushings

> Valves bodies

> Rocker arms

> Bearing caps

> Brackets
 4. Permanent Mold Casting Process

 In all the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the casting

produced.

 For large-scale production, making a mold, for every casting to be produced, may be

difficult and expensive. Therefore, a permanent mold, called the die may be made

from which a large number of castings can be produced, the molds are usually made

of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as

mold materials.

 The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called permanent

mold casting or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mold under

gravity.

 Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal with a high pressure.

 When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting
Cont’d…
Advantages:

> Permanent mold casting produces a sound dense casting with

superior mechanical properties.

> The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher

degree of dimensional accuracy than castings produced in sand.

> The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent

quality of finish on castings

Disadvantages :

> The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings

> The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of

simple exterior design, although complex castings such as aluminum

engine blocks and heads are now commonplace.

Applications:
# This method is suitable for small and medium sized casting such as
carburetor bodies, oil pump bodies, connecting rods, pistons etc.
 5. Centrifugal Casting Process
> In centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a

revolving mold and allowed to solidify molten metal by pressure of

centrifugal force.

> It is employed for mass production of circular parts as the castings

produced by this process are free from impurities.

> Due to centrifugal force, the castings produced will be of high

density type and of good strength.

> The cylindrical parts and pipes for handling gases are most

adoptable to this process.

 Cont’d…
• Advantages

– Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

– Less material required for gate

– Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the

casting

– Free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity

• Disadvantages

– Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-

metallic inclusions

– More segregation of alloy component during pouring

under the forces of rotation
 Applications:
 6. Investment Casting Process

 The investment casting process also called lost wax process begins with the

production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings.

 A pattern is needed for every casting to be produced. The patterns are

prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene in a metal dies.

 A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to form an assembly.

 The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry that

can set at room temperature.

 The mold is then heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean

cavity behind.

 The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten metal is poured

while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the
Steps in Investment mold casting:
 Cont’d…

Advantage:

# An advantage of this process is that the wax

can carry very fine details – so the process not

only gives good dimensional tolerances, but

also excellent surface finish; in fact, almost

any surface texture as well as logos etc. can

be reproduced with very high level of detail.

 7. Die Casting Process

— Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent

mold casting process.

— It is used for producing many components of home

appliances (e.g cookers, stoves, fans, washing and

drying machines, fridges), motors, toys and hand-

tools.

— Surface finish and tolerance of die cast parts is so good

that there is almost no post-processing required.

 C o n t’d …

# In a hot chamber process (used for zinc alloys, magnesium) the pressure

chamber connected to the die cavity is filled permanently in the molten metal.

# The basic cycle of operation is as follows:

(i) Die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal;

(ii) Plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle

into the die cavity; metal is held under pressure until it solidifies;

(iii) Die opens and cores, if any, are retracted; casting stays in ejector die;

plunger returns, pulling molten metal back through nozzle and

gooseneck;

(iv) Ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers inlet

hole, molten metal refills gooseneck cylinder.

# The hot chamber process is used for metals that (a) have low melting
 Cont’d…

Fig. Air blown or goose neck type die

casting setup (hot chamber die casting)
Animation video
 Cont’d…
# In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured into

the cold chamber in each cycle.

The operating cycle is

(i) Die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold

chamber cylinder;

(ii) Plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is

held under high pressure until it solidifies;

(iii)Die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug

from the cylinder, if there are cores, they are retracted

away;
 Cont’d…

Cold chamber die casting process differs from hot chamber

die casting in following respects.

1) Melting unit is generally not an integral part of the cold

chamber die casting machine. Molten metal is brought

and poured into die casting machine with help of ladles.

2) Molten metal poured into the cold chamber casting

machine is generally at lower temperature as compared

to that poured in hot chamber die casting machine.

3) For this reasoning, a cold chamber die casting process has

Advantages of die casting over sand
casting
— Die casting requires less floor space in comparison to sand

casting.

— It helps in providing precision in dimensional control with a

subsequent reduction in machining cost.

— It provides greater improved surface finish.

— Thin section of complex shape can be produced in die casting.

— More true shape can be produced with close tolerance in die

casting.

— Castings produced by die casting are usually less defective.

— It produces more sound casting than sand casting.

 8. Vacuum Casting Process

> This process is also called counter-gravity casting. It is

basically the same process as investment casting, except for

the step of filling the mold (step (e) above).

> In this case, the material is sucked upwards into the mould

by a vacuum pump.

> The figure 9 below shows the basic idea – notice how the mold

appears in an inverted position from the usual casting process,

and is lowered into the flask with the molten metal.

 Cont’d…

# One advantage of vacuum casting is that by releasing the

pressure a short time after the mold is filled, we can release the un-

solidified metal back into the flask. This allows us to create hollow

castings.

# Since most of the heat is conducted away from the surface between the

mold and the metal, therefore the portion of the metal closest to

the mold surface always solidifies first; the solid front travels

inwards into the cavity. Thus, if the liquid is drained a very short time

after the filling, then we get a very thin walled hollow object, etc.

(see Figure 10).

8. Melting Practices

 Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a

quality castings.

 A number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to

make a metal casting. The choice of furnace depends on the

type of metal to be melted.

 Some of the furnaces used in metal casting are as following:.

>Crucible furnaces

>Cupola furnace

>Induction furnace
 i. Crucible Furnace
 Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for

small melting applications.

 Crucible furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries

where the metal requirement is intermittent.

 The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and

graphite.

 The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating

the crucible by coke, oil or gas.

 The heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas.

 Cont’d…
Coke-Fired Crucible Furnace:

> Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

> Furnace is of a cylindrical shape

> Also known as pit furnace

> Preparation involves: first to make a deep bed of coke in the

furnace

> Burn the coke till it attains the state of maximum combustion

> Insert the crucible in the coke bed

> Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to desired

temperature.
 Cont’d…

Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace:

> Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

> Furnace is of a cylindrical shape

> Advantages include: no wastage of fuel

> Less contamination of the metal

> Absorption of water vapor is least as the

metal melts inside the closed metallic furnace.

ii. Cupola Furnace
> Cupola furnaces are tall,
cylindrical furnaces used to melt
iron and ferrous alloys in
foundry operations.
> Alternating layers of metal and
ferrous alloys, coke, and
limestone are fed into the
furnace from the top.
> This diagram of a cupola
illustrates the furnace's
cylindrical shaft lined with
refractory and the alternating
layers of coke and metal scrap.
 Cont’d…
Description of Cupola

# The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet and lined

inside with refractory bricks. The lining is generally thicker in the

lower portion of the cupola as the temperature is higher than in upper

portion

# There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap

and flux is charged.

# The blast is blown through the tuyeres. These tuyeres are arranged in

one or more row around the periphery of cupola.

# Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone) preheats

the iron in the preheating zone

# Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which debris,

consisting of coke, slag etc. can be discharged at the end of the melt.

# A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt.

 Cont’d…
Operation of Cupola:

> The cupola is charged with wood at the bottom. On

the top of the wood a bed of coke is built.

Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys,

coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the

top.

> The purpose of adding flux is to eliminate the

impurities and to protect the metal from oxidation.

Air blast is opened for the complete combustion of

Review Questions on Ch #2
1. Which of the following is NOT a common casting process?
a) Sand casting
b) Injection molding
c) Investment casting
d) Die casting

2. Which casting process uses a mold made of sand?

a) Investment casting
b) Die casting
c) Sand casting
d) Centrifugal casting

3. Which casting process involves pouring molten metal into a

reusable mold made of metal?
a) Investment casting
b) Sand casting
c) Die casting
 Cont’d…

4. Which casting process uses a wax pattern that is

later melted away?
a) Investment casting
b) Sand casting
c) Die casting
d) Centrifugal casting

5. Which casting process involves the use of a

permanent mold made of metal?
a) Investment casting
b) Sand casting
c) Die casting
d) Centrifugal casting
 Cont’d…

6. What are the commonly used metals and alloys in the casting process?

7. What are the main steps involved in the casting process?

8. What are the different types of casting processes?

9. How does sand casting work, and what are its advantages and

disadvantages?

10. What is investment casting, and what are its key features and

applications?

11. Explain the shell molding process and its advantages.

12. What is die casting, and what are its benefits and limitations?
 ? ??
S n s?
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