Conte

nts
1.
Scales
2. Engineering Curves
-I
3. Engineering Curves
- II
4. Loci of
Points
5. Orthographic Projections -
Basics
6. Conversion of Pictorial View into Orthographic
Views
7. Projections of Points and
Lines
8. Projection of
Planes
9. Projection of
Solids
10. Sections &
Development
11. Intersection of
Surfaces
12. Isometric
Projections
13.
Exercises
14. Solutions – Applications of
Lines
EX
IT
Scale
s
1. Basic
Information
2. Types and important
units
3. Plain Scales (3
Problems)
4. Diagonal Scales -
information
5. Diagonal Scales (3
Problems)
6. Comparative Scales (3
Problems)
7. Vernier Scales -
information
8. Vernier Scales (2
Problems)
9. Scales of Cords -
construction
10. Scales of Cords (2
Problems)
Engineering Curves – I

1.
Classification

2. Conic sections -
explanation

3. Common
Definition

4. Ellipse – ( six methods of

construction)

5. Parabola – ( Three methods of

construction)

6. Hyperbola – ( Three methods of

construction )

7. Methods of drawing Tangents & Normals ( four

cases)
Engineering Curves – II

1.
Classification
2.
Definitions
3. Involutes - (five
cases)
4. Cycloid

5. Trochoids – (Superior and

Inferior)
6. Epic cycloid and Hypo -
cycloid
7. Spiral (Two
cases)
8. Helix – on cylinder & on
cone
9. Methods of drawing Tangents and Normals (Three
cases)
Loci of
Points
1. Definitions -
Classifications
2. Basic locus cases (six
problems)
3. Oscillating links (two
problems)
4. Rotating Links (two
problems)
Orthographic Projections -
Basics
1. Drawing – The fact
about
2. Drawings -
Types
3. Orthographic (Definitions and Important
terms)
4. Planes -
Classifications
5. Pattern of planes &
views
6. Methods of orthographic
projections
7. 1st angle and 3rd angle method – two
illustrations
Conversion of pictorial views in to orthographic
views.
1. Explanation of various
terms
2. 1st angle method -
illustration
3. 3rd angle method –
illustration
4. To recognize colored surfaces and to draw three
Views
5. Seven illustrations (no.1 to 7) draw different
orthographic views
6. Total nineteen illustrations ( no.8 to
26)
Projection of Points and
Lines
1. Projections –
2. Information
Notations
3. Quadrant
4. Structure.
Object in different Quadrants – Effect on position of
views.
5. Projections of a Point – in 1st
6. quadrant.Lines – Objective &
7. Types.Simple Cases of Lines.
8. Lines inclined to one
plane.
9. Lines inclined to both
planes.
10. Imp. Observations for
11. solution
Important Diagram &
Tips.
12. Group A problems 1
to
13.5 Traces of Line ( HT & VT
)14. To locate
Traces. Group B problems: No. 6
15.
to 8
16. HT-VT additional
information.
17. Group B1 problems: No. 9
to 11
18. Group B1 problems: No. 9
to
19.1 Lines in profile
plane
20. Group C problems:
21. No.12Applications
& 13 of Lines::
Information
22. Group D: Application Problems: 14
23. Lines in Other Quadrants:( Four
 Projections of
Planes:
1. About the
topic:
2. Illustration of surface & side
inclination.
3. Procedure to solve problem &
tips:
4. Problems:1 to 5: Direct
inclinations:
5. Problems:6 to 11: Indirect
inclinations:
6. Freely suspended cases:
Info:
7. Problems: 12 &
13
8. Determination of True Shape:
Info:
9. Problems: 14 to
17
 Projections of
Solids:
1. Classification of
Solids:
2. Important
parameters:
3. Positions with Hp & Vp:
Info:
4. Pattern of Standard
Solution.
5. Problem no 1,2,3,4: General
cases:
6. Problem no 5 & 6 (cube &
tetrahedron)
7. Problem no 7 : Freely
suspended:
8. Problem no 8 : Side view
case:
9. Problem no 9 : True length
case:
10. Problem no 10 & 11 Composite
solids:
11. Problem no 12 : Frustum & auxiliary
plane:
 Section &
Development
1. Applications of
solids:
2. Sectioning a solid:
Information:
3. Sectioning a solid: Illustration
Terms:
4. Typical shapes of sections &
planes:
5. Development:
Information:
6. Development of diff.
solids:
7. Development of
Frustums:
8. Problems: Standing Prism & Cone: no.
1&2
9. Problems: Lying Prism & Cone: no.3
&4
10. Problem: Composite Solid
no. 5
11. Problem: Typical cases no.6
to 9
 Intersection of
Surfaces:
1. Essential
Information:
2. Display of Engineering
Applications:
3. Solution Steps to solve
Problem:
4. Case 1: Cylinder to
Cylinder:
5. Case 2: Prism to
Cylinder:
6. Case 3: Cone to
Cylinder
7. Case 4: Prism to Prism: Axis
Intersecting.
8. Case 5: Triangular Prism to
Cylinder
9. Case 6: Prism to Prism: Axis
Skew
10. Case 7 Prism to Cone: from
top:
11. Case 8: Cylinder to
Cone:
Isometric Projections

1. Definitions and
explanation
2. Important
Terms
3. Types.

4. Isometric of plain
shapes-1.
5. Isometric of
circle
6. Isometric of a part of
circle
7. Isometric of plain
shapes-2
8. Isometric of solids & frustums (no.5
to 16)
9. Isometric of sphere & hemi-sphere (no.17
& 18)
10. Isometric of Section of solid.
(no.19)
11. Illustrated nineteen Problem (no.20
to 38)
 SCALES

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO

ACCOMMODATE FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION CREATES A R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
SCALE MEANS DRAWING
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION.. & OBJECT ARE OF
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE SAME SIZE.
AND Other RFs are described
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED as
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR.
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING 1:10, 1:100,
1:1000, 1:1,00,000
SCALE.
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN
UNITY.
USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF
OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
=
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME

B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

 BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE = 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES

TYPES OF SCALES:
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
 PLAIN This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.
SCALE:- NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6
PROBLEM
m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.
DIMENSION OF
CONSTRUCTION:- DRAWING
DIMENSION OF
a) Calculate R.F.= OBJECT PLAIN SCALE
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100
Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000 PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM
3HM

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETER
HECTOMETE S
RS R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour
= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29
MINUTES.
14.5 KM
KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 KM
20 25

MIN 10 0 10 20 30 MINUTES
40 50
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions,
such as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.
DIAGONAL
The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit. SCALE

The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as

follows. X
Y
Let the XY in figure be a subunit. 10’ 10
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 9’ 9
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 8
8’
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions
7
and number them as shown. 7’
From geometry we know that similar triangles have 6’ 6
their like sides proportional. 5’ 5

4’
4
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z,
3
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit) 3’
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY 2
2’
:. 1
1’
Similarly
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY Z
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will

make the principles of diagonal scales clear.
 PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 SCALE
km
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 10 5 = 15
cm
Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9 th sub-division of horizontal
scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
and 569 km
complete diagonal scale.
459 km
336 km
222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM

5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 0 100 200 300 KM

R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000
400 500

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

 PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION : DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / cm
8
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9 th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10 th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub
4000 divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
6
5
M

4
3
2
1
0
M 100 50 0 100 200 300 M

R.F. = 1 / 4000 400 500

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing
centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.
SOLUTION STEPS: DIAGONAL
R.F. = 1 / 2.5 SCALE
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

13 .4 CM

10
9
8
7
6
MM

5
4
3
2
1
0
CM 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRE
S
R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
COMPARATIVE SCALES: EXAMPLE NO. 7 :
These are the Scales having same R.F. A distance of 40 miles is represented by a line
but graduated to read different units. 8 cm long. Construct a plain scale to read 80 miles.
These scales may be Plain scales or Diagonal scales Also construct a comparative scale to read
and may be constructed separately or one above the other. kilometers
upto 120 km ( 1 m = 1.609 km )
SOLUTION STEPS:
CONSTRUCTION:
Scale of Miles:
Take a line 16 cm long and divide it into 8 parts. Each will represent 10
40 miles are represented = 8 cm
miles.
: 80 miles = 16 cm
Subdivide the first part and each sub-division will measure single mile.
R.F. = 8 / 40 X 1609 X 1000 X
100
= 1 / 8, 04, 500 CONSTRUCTION:
Scale of Km:
Length of scale On the top line of the scale of miles cut off a distance of 14.90 cm and divide
= 1 / 8,04,500 X 120 X 1000 X 100 it into 12 equal parts. Each part will represent 10 km.
= 14. 90 cm Subdivide the first part into 10 equal parts. Each subdivision will show single km.

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
5 KM

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 MILES

R.F. = 1 / 804500
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MILES AND KILOMETERS
 SOLUTION STEPS:
Scale of km.
COMPARATIVE SCALE: length of scale = RF X 60 km
= 1 / 4,00,000 X 60 X 105
= 15 cm.
EXAMPLE NO. 8 : CONSTRUCTION:
A motor car is running at a speed of 60 kph. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts.
On a scale of RF = 1 / 4,00,000 show the distance ( each part will represent 10 km.)
traveled by car in 47 minutes. Subdivide 1st part in `0 equal subdivisions.
( each will represent 1 km.)

Time Scale:
Same 15 cm line will represent 60 minutes.
Construct the scale similar to distance scale.
It will show minimum 1 minute & max. 60min.

47 MINUTES

10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
MIN.

KM 5 40
10 0 10 20 30 50
KM
47
KM

R.F. = 1 / 4,00,000
COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS
EXAMPLE NO. 9 :
A car is traveling at a speed of 60 km per hour. A 4 cm long line represents the distance traveled by the car in two hours.
Construct a suitable comparative scale up to 10 hours. The scale should be able to read the distance traveled in one minute.
Show the time required to cover 476 km and also distance in 4 hours and 24 minutes.
SOLUTION: COMPARATIVE
4 cm line represents distance in two hours , means for 10 hours scale, 20 cm long line is required, as length SCALE:
of scale.This length of scale will also represent 600 kms. ( as it is a distance traveled in 10 hours)
CONSTRUCTION:
Distance Scale ( km)
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 60 km)
Sub-divide 1st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will represent 10 km)
At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE km.
Time scale:
Draw a line 20 cm long. Divide it in TEN equal parts.( Each will show 1 hour) Sub-divide 1 st part in SIX subdivisions.( Each will
represent 10 minutes) At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
And complete the diagonal scale to read minimum ONE minute.
TIME SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 MINUTE.
10

MIN.0
60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 HOURS
4 hrs 24 min. ( 264
kms )
476 kms ( 7 hrs 56
10
min.)
kM

0
kM 60 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
DISTANCE SCALE TO MEASURE MIN 1 KM KILOMETERS
Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts – a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.

Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in

which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we divide A-O B 9.9 7.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0

into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would

not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten equal
divisions to get measurements in millimeters.
A9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0
Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such
equal parts, thus representing 11 cm, and divide it into
ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will
represent 11 / 10 – 1.1 cm.

The difference between one part of AO and one division

of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm or 1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale.
The upper scale BO is the vernier.The combination of
plain scale and the vernier is vernier scale.
 Example 10:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters Vernier Scale
upto
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)
Length of scale = RF X max. Distance Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
= 16 cm Covering these parts of vernier.
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long. TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Divide it in 4 equal parts. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. 2.39 m
( each will represent decimeter ) (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11 =0.80 m
Name those properly. The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91
m

2.39
m
0.91
m
1.1 .9 .7 .5 .3 .1 0
9 7 5 3 1

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0 1 1.4 2 3 METERS

METERS
Example 11: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250
sq.Kms. Vernier Scale
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN
decameters.
AREA OF Draw a line 14 cm long. LENGTHS:
RF = ACTUAL Divide it in 7 equal parts. a) For 5.33 km :
V DRAWINGAREA Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
( each will represent km )
= 500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts. i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
V 6250 km The distance between 33 dm
( each will represent hectometer ) ( left of Zero) and
sq. 5
= 2 / 10 Name those properly. 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
(b) For 59 dm :
Length of CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
scale = RF X max. Distance i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
= 2 / 105 X 7 kms ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
and divide it in 10 equal parts. The distance between 99 dm
= 14 cm Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and and
Covering in a rectangle complete scale. - .4 km is 59 dm
(both left side of Zero)

59 5.33 km
dm
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11

90 70 50 30 10

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS
 800 900
700
600 SCALE OF CORDS
500

400

300

200

100

00
A O
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRAW SECTOR OF A CIRCLE OF 900 WITH ‘OA’ RADIUS.
( ‘OA’ ANY CONVINIENT DISTANCE )
2. DIVIDE THIS ANGLE IN NINE EQUAL PARTS OF 10 0 EACH.
3. NAME AS SHOWN FROM END ‘A’ UPWARDS.
4. FROM ‘A’ AS CENTER, WITH CORDS OF EACH ANGLE AS RADIUS
DRAW ARCS DOWNWARDS UP TO ‘AO’ LINE OR IT’S EXTENSION
AND FORM A SCALE WITH PROPER LABELING AS SHOWN.

AS CORD LENGTHS ARE USED TO MEASURE & CONSTRUCT

DIFERENT ANGLES IT IS CALLED SCALE OF CORDS.
PROBLEM 12: Construct any triangle and measure it’s angles by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem.
800 900
Then construct a triangle of given sides. ( You are supposed to measure angles x, y and z) 700
To measure angle at x: 600
Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on lower side of triangle 500
as shown from corner x. Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius
400
draw an arc upto upper adjacent side.Name the point B.
Take A-B cord in compass and place on scale of cords from Zero. 300
It will give value of angle at x
To measure angle at y: 200
Repeat same process from O1. Draw arc with radius O1A1.
100
Place Cord A1B1 on scale and get angle at y.
A O

0
80 9
To measure angle at z: 00
Subtract the SUM of these two angles from 1800 to get angle at z.
70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
60

B1
z
50
0
10

40

B
20

30
30

20
40

550 300
10

y x
50

O1 A1 A O
60
70
80
90

Angle at z = 180 – ( 55 + 30 ) =
950
PROBLEM 12: Construct 250 and 1150 angles with a horizontal line , by using scale of cords.
CONSTRUCTION: SCALE OF CORDS
First prepare Scale of Cords for the problem.
800 90
0
Then Draw a horizontal line. Mark point O on it. 700

To construct 250 angle at O. 600

Take O-A distance in compass from cords scale and mark it on on the line drawn, from O 500
Name O & A as shown. Then O as center, O-A radius draw an arc upward.. 400
Take cord length of 250 angle from scale of cords in compass and
from A cut the arc at point B.Join B with O. The angle AOB is thus 25 0 300
To construct 1150 angle at O.
This scale can measure or construct angles upto 90 0 only directly. 200
Hence Subtract 1150 from 1800.We get 750 angle ,
100
which can be constructed with this scale.
Extend previous arc of OA radius and taking cord length of 75 0 in compass cut this arc
A O
0
0
at B1 with A as center. Join B1 with O. Now angle AOB1 is 750 and angle COB1 is 1150. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

B B1

0
10
0

20
10

30
20

250

40
A O
30

50
750
1150
60
40

70
50

80

C
A O
90
60
70 8

To construct 250 angle at O. To construct 1150 angle at O.

0 90
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part- I {Conic Sections}

ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

1.Concentric Circle Method 1.Rectangle Method 1.Rectangular Hyperbola

(coordinates given)
2.Rectangle Method 2 Method of Tangents
( Triangle Method) 2 Rectangular Hyperbola
3.Oblong Method (P-V diagram - Equation given)
3.Basic Locus Method
4.Arcs of Circle Method (Directrix – focus) 3.Basic Locus Method
(Directrix – focus)
5.Rhombus Metho

6.Basic Locus Method Methods of

(Directrix – focus) Drawing
Tangents &
Normals
To These Curves.
 CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC
SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE
WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..

Ellips
e

Section Plane Section Plane

l
abo
Through Generators Hyperbola
Parallel to Axis.
Par
a

Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
 COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA &
HYPERBOLA:
These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remains constant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1

Refer Problem nos. 6. 9 & 12

SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:-
It is a locus of a point moving in a plane
such that the SUM of it’s distances from TWO fixed points
always remains constant.
{And this sum equals to the length of major axis.}
These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2
Refer Problem no.4
Ellipse by Arcs of Circles
 ELLIPSE
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD
Problem 1 :-
Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long. 3
2 4
Steps:
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular C
bisectors of each other & name their ends
as shown. 1 5
3
2 4
2. Taking their intersecting point as a
center, draw two concentric circles
1 5
considering both as respective diameters.
3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
A
name as shown. B
4. From all points of outer circle draw
vertical lines downwards and upwards 10 6
respectively.
5.From all points of inner circle draw 10 9 7 6
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical 8
lines. D
6. Mark all intersecting points properly as
those are the points on ellipse. 9 7
7. Join all these points along with the ends
of both axes in smooth possible curve. It is 8
required ellipse.
Steps:
ELLIPSE
BY RECTANGLE METHOD
1 Draw a rectangle taking
major and minor axes as sides.
2. In this rectangle draw both Problem 2
axes as perpendicular
Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
bisectors of each other..
3. For construction, select Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long.
upper left part of rectangle.
Divide vertical small side and
horizontal long side into same D 4
4
number of equal parts.( here
divided in four parts) 3 3
4. Name those as shown..
5. Now join all vertical points 2 2
1,2,3,4, to the upper end of
minor axis. And all horizontal 1 1
points i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower
end of minor axis. A 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 B
6. Then extend C-1 line upto
D-1 and mark that point.
Similarly extend C-2, C-3, C-
4 lines up to D-2, D-3, & D-4
lines.
7. Mark all these points
properly and join all along
with ends A and D in smooth C
possible curve. Do similar
construction in right side
part.along with lower half of
the rectangle.Join all points in
smooth curve.
 ELLIPSE
Problem 3:- BY OBLONG METHOD
Draw ellipse by Oblong method.
Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm long
sides with included angle of 75 0.Inscribe Ellipse in it.
STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO
THE PREVIOUS CASE
(RECTANGLE METHOD)
ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE,
HERE IS A PARALLELOGRAM.
D
4 4

3 3

2 2

1
1

A 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 B

C
PROBLEM 4. ELLIPSE
MAJOR AXIS AB & MINOR AXIS CD ARE
BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD
100 AMD 70MM LONG RESPECTIVELY
.DRAW ELLIPSE BY ARCS OF CIRLES
METHOD. As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in
a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from two fixed
STEPS: points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the length
1.Draw both axes as usual.Name the of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
ends & intersecting point
2.Taking AO distance I.e.half major
axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB . p4 C
( focus 1 and 2.) p3
3.On line F1- O taking any distance, p2
mark points 1,2,3, & 4 p1
4.Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc.
Name the point p1 A B
O
5.Repeat this step with same centers but F1 1 2 3 4 F2
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for
drawing arcs. Name the point p2
6.Similarly get all other P points.
With same steps positions of P can be
located below AB.
7.Join all points by smooth curve to get
an ellipse/ D
PROBLEM 5. ELLIPSE
DRAW RHOMBUS OF 100 MM & 70 MM BY RHOMBUS METHOD
LONG
DIAGONALS AND INSCRIBE AN ELLIPSE IN
IT.
STEPS: 2
1. Draw rhombus of given
dimensions.
2. Mark mid points of all sides &
name Those A,B,C,& D
3. Join these points to the ends of A B
smaller diagonals.
4. Mark points 1,2,3,4 as four
centers.
5. Taking 1 as center and 1-A 3 4
radius draw an arc AB.
6. Take 2 as center draw an arc CD.
7. Similarly taking 3 & 4 as centers
and 3-D radius draw arcs DA & BC.
D C

1
PROBLEM 6:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE ELLIPSE
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 } DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD

ELLIPSE
A
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F

DIRECTRI
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 45
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.

30 m
m
X
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex) V
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from F ( focus)
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an
ELLIPSE.
B
PROBLEM 7: A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M
PARABOLA
HIEGHT RECTANGLE METHOD
AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON
GROUND.
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-

STEPS: 6 6
1.Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2.Consider left part for construction. 5 5
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6 4 4
3.Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
3 3
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and 2 2
further join in smooth possible
curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right 1 1
side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence.
This locus is Parabola.
. 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Problem no.8: Draw an isosceles triangle of 100 mm long base and PARABOLA
110 mm long altitude.Inscribe a parabola in it by method of tangents. METHOD OF TANGENTS

Solution Steps: C
1. Construct triangle as per the given 14
dimensions. 1
2. Divide it’s both sides in to same no.of equal 13
12 2
parts.
3. Name the parts in ascending and descending 11 3
manner, as shown. 4
10
4. Join 1-1, 2-2,3-3 and so on.
9 5
5. Draw the curve as shown i.e.tangent to all
these lines. The above all lines being 6
8
tangents to the curve, it is called method of 7
tangents. 7
8
6
9
5
10
4
11
3

12
2

13
1

14
A B
PROBLEM 9: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line PARABOLA
AB. DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.
PARABOLA
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to A
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from P1
those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and (VERTEX) V
name it 1. F
O 1 2 3 4
4.Take O-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc ( focus
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name )
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
P2
(FP1=O1)

5.Similarly repeat this process by taking

again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3 P4 . B
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.

It will be the locus of P equidistance

from line AB and fixed point F.
Problem No.10: Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal HYPERBOLA
and vertical axes respectively.Draw Hyperbola through it. THROUGH A POINT
OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES
Solution Steps:
1) Extend horizontal
line from P to right side. 2
2) Extend vertical line
from P upward.
3) On horizontal line
from P, mark some points
taking any distance and
name them after P-1,
2,3,4 etc.
4) Join 1-2-3-4 points
to pole O. Let them cut 1
part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4
points.
5) From horizontal
1,2,3,4 draw vertical 2 1 P 1 2 3
lines downwards and
6) From vertical 1,2,3,4
points [from P-B] draw 1
horizontal lines.
7) Line from 1 40 2
horizontal and line from mm
1 vertical will meet at 3
P1.Similarly mark P2, P3,
P4 points. O
8) Repeat the procedure
by marking four points 30
on upward vertical line mm
from P and joining all
those to pole O. Name
this points P6, P7, P8 etc.
and join them by smooth
Problem no.11: A sample of gas is expanded in a cylinder HYPERBOLA
from 10 unit pressure to 1 unit pressure.Expansion follows
law PV=Constant.If initial volume being 1 unit, draw the
P-V DIAGRAM
curve of expansion. Also Name the curve.

Form a table giving few more values of P & V 10

P 9
+V C =
=
10
5
+ 12 = 10
10 8
4
+ 2.5 = 10
2.5
+4 = 10 7
2 +5 = 10
1 + 10 = 10 6
+

PRESSURE
Now draw a Graph of 5

( Kg/cm2)
Pressure against Volume.
It is a PV Diagram and it is Hyperbola.
Take pressure on vertical axis and
4
Volume on horizontal axis.
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

VOLUME:( M3 )
PROBLEM 12:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE HYPERBOLA
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }
DIRECTRIX
FOCUS
METHOD
STEPS: A
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 30m
m
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.

45
It is first point giving ratio of it’s

mm
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex)
V
F ( focus)
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an
ELLIPSE.

B
 ELLIPSE
Problem 13:
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
1. JOIN POINT Q TO F1 & F2
2. BISECT ANGLE F1Q F2 THE ANGLE BISECTOR IS NORMAL
3. A PERPENDICULAR LINE DRAWN TO IT IS TANGENT TO THE CURVE.

p4 C
p3
p2
p1

A B
O
F1 1 2 3 4 F2
L
MA
NOR

Q TAN
GEN
T
D
 ELLIPSE
Problem 14:
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE
ELLIPSE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q ) A

DIRECTRIX
1.JOIN POINT Q TO F. T
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO ELLIPSE FROM Q (vert V
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR ex) F
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE. 900 ( focus)
N

Q
N

T
 PARABOLA
Problem 15: TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE T PARABOLA
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
A

1.JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX
AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS VERTEX V
TANGENT TO THE CURVE FROM Q 900 F
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR ( focus)
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
N

Q
B N

T
 HYPERBOLA
Problem 16
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q ) A

1.JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH THIS LINE AT
POINT F T
3.EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX AT T
4. JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO CURVE FROM Q
(vert
V
F
ex)
5.TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR 900 ( focus)
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
N

N Q

T
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part-II
(Point undergoing two types of displacements)

INVOLUTE CYCLOID SPIRAL HELIX

1. Involute of a circle 1. General Cycloid 1. Spiral of 1. On Cylinder
a)String Length = πD One Convolution.
2. Trochoid 2. On a Cone
b)String Length > πD ( superior) 2. Spiral of
3. Trochoid Two Convolutions.
c)String Length < πD ( Inferior)
4. Epi-Cycloid
2. Pole having Composite
shape. 5. Hypo-Cycloid

3. Rod Rolling over

a Semicircular Pole. AND Methods of
Drawing
Tangents &
Normals
To These Curves.
 DEFINITIONS
CYCLOID:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE SUPERIORTROCHOID:
PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH IF THE POINT IN THE
ROLLS ON A STRAIGHT LINE PATH. DEFINATION
OF CYCLOID IS OUTSIDE THE
CIRCLE
INVOLUTE: INFERIOR TROCHOID.:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A FREE END OF A STRING
IF IT IS INSIDE THE CIRCLE
WHEN IT IS WOUND ROUND A CIRCULAR POLE
EPI-CYCLOID
IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING ON
SPIRAL: ANOTHER CIRCLE FROM
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT OUTSIDE
WHICH REVOLVES AROUND A FIXED POINT
AND AT THE SAME MOVES TOWARDS IT. HYPO-CYCLOID.
IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING
FROM INSIDE THE OTHER
HELIX: CIRCLE,
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT WHICH
MOVES AROUND THE SURFACE OF A RIGHT CIRCULAR
CYLINDER / CONE AND AT THE SAME TIME ADVANCES IN AXIAL
DIRECTION
AT A SPEED BEARING A CONSTANT RATIO TO THE SPPED OF
 Problem no 17: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is equal to the circumference of
circle.
Solution Steps:
1) Point or end P of string AP is
exactly πD distance away from
A. Means if this string is wound
round the circle, it will P2
completely cover given circle. B
will meet A after winding.
2) Divide πD (AP) distance into P3
8 number of equal parts. P1
3) Divide circle also into 8

2 to p
number of equal parts.
3
4) Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. to
p
up to 8 on πD line AP as well as

p
on circle (in anticlockwise

to
1
direction).
5) To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to
4 to
C-8 draw tangents (from P4 p 4
1,2,3,4,etc to circle). 3
6) Take distance 1 to P in 5
compass and mark it on tangent 2
from point 1 on circle (means 6
p
to

one division less than distance 1

5

AP). 7 A
7) Name this point P1 7 8
P
6 to

P5 to
8) Take 2-B distance in p P8 1 2 3 4 7 8
p

5 6
compass and mark it on the P7
tangent from point 2. Name it P6 πD
point P2.
9) Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P,
5 to P up to 7 to P distance in
compass and mark on
respective tangents and locate
P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e. A)
 INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
Problem 18: Draw Involute of a circle.
String length MORE than πD
String length is MORE than the circumference of
circle.

Solution Steps: P2
In this case string length is more
than Π D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3 P1
string, mark Π D distance

2 to p
horizontal i.e.along the string and
divide it in 8 number of equal parts, 3
to
and not any other distance. Rest all p
steps are same as previous

p
to
1
INVOLUTE. Draw the curve
completely.

4 to
P4 p 4
3
5
2
p
to

6
5

1
P5 7
8
7 p8 1 P
to 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
6 to

p
p

P7
165 mm
P6 (more than πD)
πD
Problem 19: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is LESS than the circumference of circle. String length LESS than πD

Solution Steps: P2
In this case string length is Less
than Π D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3
P1
string, mark Π D distance
horizontal i.e.along the string and
divide it in 8 number of equal parts,

2 to p
3
and not any other distance. Rest all to
p
steps are same as previous
INVOLUTE. Draw the curve

p
to
completely.

1
4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
p
to

6
5

1
6 to p

P5
7
to 7 P
p 8
P7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P6
150 mm
(Less than πD)

πD
 PROBLEM 20 : A POLE IS OF A SHAPE OF HALF HEXABON AND SEMICIRCLE.
ASTRING IS TO BE WOUND HAVING LENGTH EQUAL TO THE POLE PERIMETER
INVOLUTE
DRAW PATH OF FREE END P OF STRING WHEN WOUND COMPLETELY. OF
(Take hex 30 mm sides and semicircle of 60 mm diameter.) COMPOSIT SHAPED
POLE

SOLUTION STEPS:
Draw pole shape as per
dimensions. P1
Divide semicircle in 4
parts and name those
P
along with corners of
P2
hexagon.
Calculate perimeter
length.
Show it as string AP. 2

1 to
On this line mark 30mm

P
from A t

P
Mark and name it 1

to
o

A
Mark πD/2 distance on it
from 1
And dividing it in 4 parts P
P3
name 2,3,4,5. 3 to 3
Mark point 6 on line 30 4
P 2
mm from 5
Now draw tangents from
5 1
all points of pole
P
to

and proper lengths as

4

done in all previous 6 A

6
5 to

involute’s problems and to 1 2 3 4 5 6 P

P
P

complete the curve. πD/

P4
P6 2
P5
PROBLEM 21 : Rod AB 85 mm long rolls over a
semicircular pole without slipping from it’s
initially vertical position till it becomes up-
side-down vertical. B
Draw locus of both ends A & B.
A4
Solution Steps? 4
If you have studied previous problems B1
properly, you can surely solve this also.
Simply remember that this being a rod, A3
it will roll over the surface of pole. 3
Means when one end is approaching,
other end will move away from poll.
OBSERVE ILLUSTRATION CAREFULLY!

πD 2

A2
B2
2
1
3
1

A1 4
A

B3
B4
PROBLEM 22: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE CYCLOID
WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

p4
4
p3 p5
3 5

C p2 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 p6 C
8
2 6

p1
1 p7
7
P p8

πD

Solution Steps:
1) From center C draw a horizontal line equal to πD distance.
2) Divide πD distance into 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3__ etc.
3) Divide the circle also into 8 number of equal parts and in clock wise direction, after P name 1,
2, 3 up to 8.
4) From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)
5) With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal line from 1.
Name it P.
6) Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 upto C8 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4, P5 up to P8
on the
horizontal lines drawn from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.
 PROBLEM 23: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM AWAY FROM THE PERIPHERY OF A SUPERIOR TROCHOID
CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

4 p4

p3 p5
3 5

p2 C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 p6
2 6

p7
1 p1 7
P πD p8

Solution Steps:
1) Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of length Π D and divide it
in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up to C8.
2) Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is larger than radius of circle.
3) Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new circle into 8 number of
equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel to locus of C and taking CP radius wit
different positions of C as centers, cut these lines and get different positions of P and join
4) This curve is called Superior Trochoid.
PROBLEM 24: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM INSIDE THE PERIPHERY OF A
CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm
INFERIOR TROCHOID

p4
4
p3 p5
3 5
p2
C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 p 6 C8
2 6
p1 p7
1 7
P p8

πD

Solution Steps:
1) Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of length Π D and divide it
in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up to C8.
2) Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is SHORTER than radius of circle.
3) Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new circle into 8 number
of equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel to locus of C and taking CP radius
with different positions of C as centers, cut these lines and get different positions of P and join
those in curvature.
4) This curve is called Inferior Trochoid.
PROBLEM 25: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE
WHICH ROLLS ON A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of rolling Circle 50 mm
EPI CYCLOID :
And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) When smaller circle will roll on
larger circle for one revolution it
will cover Π D distance on arc and
it will be decided by included arc
angle θ.
Generating/
2) Calculate θ by formula θ = Rolling Circle
(r/R) x 3600. 4 5
3) Construct angle θ with radius C2 C3
C16 C4
OC and draw an arc by taking O as 3
center OC as radius and form C5
C
sector of angle θ. 7

C6
4) Divide this sector into 8 2
number of equal angular parts.
And from C onward name them
1 P
r = CP

C7
C1, C2, C3 up to C8.
5) Divide smaller circle
(Generating circle) also in 8 Directing Circle
number of equal parts. And next R

C
8
to P in clockwise direction name
those 1, 2, 3, up to 8. = r +360
R 0
6) With O as center, O-1 as radius
draw an arc in the sector. Take O- O
2, O-3, O-4, O-5 up to O-8
distances with center O, draw all
concentric arcs in sector. Take
fixed distance C-P in compass, C1
center, cut arc of 1 at P1.
Repeat procedure and locate P2,
PROBLEM 26: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE
WHICH ROLLS FROM THE INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of HYPO CYCLOID
rolling circle 50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) Smaller circle is
rolling here, inside the
larger circle. It has to
rotate anticlockwise to P 7
move ahead.
2) Same steps should P1
6
be taken as in case of
EPI – CYCLOID. Only 1 P2 C2 C3 C4
change is in numbering C1
direction of 8 number C C5
P3 5
of equal parts on the
2 C6
smaller circle.
3) From next to P in
4 P4 C7
anticlockwise direction, 3
name 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. P8
P5
4) Further all steps are P6 P7
that of epi – cycloid.

C8
This is called
HYPO – CYCLOID. r
= 3600
R
+ O

OC = R ( Radius of Directing Circle)

CP = r (Radius of Generating Circle)
Problem 27: Draw a spiral of one convolution. Take distance PO 40 mm.
SPIRAL
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION!
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS.

P2
Solution Steps 3 1
P1
1. With PO radius draw a circle
and divide it in EIGHT parts. P3
Name those 1,2,3,4, etc. up to 8
2 .Similarly divided line PO also in
EIGHT parts and name those
4 P4 O P
1,2,3,-- as shown. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3. Take o-1 distance from op line P7
and draw an arc up to O1 radius
P5 P6
vector. Name the point P1
4. Similarly mark points P2, P3, P4
up to P8
5 7
And join those in a smooth curve.
It is a SPIRAL of one convolution.
6
Problem 28 SPIRAL
Point P is 80 mm from point O. It starts moving towards O and reaches it in two of
revolutions around.it Draw locus of point P (To draw a Spiral of TWO
convolutions). two
IMPORTANT APPROACH FOR CONSTRUCTION! convolutions
FIND TOTAL ANGULAR AND TOTAL LINEAR
DISPLACEMENT
AND DIVIDE BOTH IN TO SAME NUMBER OF EQUAL
PARTS. 2,10
P2

3,11 P1 1,9

SOLUTION STEPS: P3

Total angular displacement here

P10
is two revolutions And P9
Total Linear displacement here P11
is distance PO. 16 13 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 P
Just divide both in same parts i.e. 4,12
P4 P8 8,16
P12
Circle in EIGHT parts. P15

( means total angular displacement P13 P14

in SIXTEEN parts)
Divide PO also in SIXTEEN parts. P7
Rest steps are similar to the previous P5

problem.
P6
5,13 7,15

6,14
 HELIX
(UPON A CYLINDER)
PROBLEM: Draw a helix of one convolution, upon a P8
cylinder. 8
Given 80 mm pitch and 50 mm diameter of a cylinder. P7
(The axial advance during one complete revolution is called 7
The pitch of the helix) P6
6
P5
SOLUTION: 5
Draw projections of a cylinder.
Divide circle and axis in to same no. of equal parts. 4 P4
(8)
3
Name those as shown. P3
Mark initial position of point ‘P’ 2 P2
Mark various positions of P as shown in animation.
Join all points by smooth possible curve. 1 P1
Make upper half dotted, as it is going behind the solid
P
and hence will not be seen from front side.
6

7 5

P 4

1 3

2
 HELIX
PROBLEM: Draw a helix of one convolution, upon a cone, 8 P8 (UPON A CONE)
diameter of base 70 mm, axis 90 mm and 90 mm pitch.
(The axial advance during one complete revolution is 7 P7
called
6 P6
The pitch of the helix)
P5
SOLUTION: 5
Draw projections of a cone
Divide circle and axis in to same no. of equal parts. 4 P4
(8)
Name those as shown. 3
P3
Mark initial position of point ‘P’
Mark various positions of P as shown in animation. 2
P2
Join all points by smooth possible curve.
1
Make upper half dotted, as it is going behind the solid P1
and hence will not be seen from front side. X P Y

7 5

P6 P5
P7 P4
P 4
P8

P1 P3
1 3
P2
2
STEPS: Involute
DRAW INVOLUTE AS USUAL.
Method of Drawing
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED. Tangent & Normal
JOIN Q TO THE CENTER OF CIRCLE C.
CONSIDERING CQ DIAMETER, DRAW
A SEMICIRCLE AS SHOWN.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE

a
MARK POINT OF INTERSECTION OF

l rm
No
THIS SEMICIRCLE AND POLE CIRCLE
AND JOIN IT TO Q. Q
THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO INVOLUTE.
Ta
n ge
DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO nt
THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO INVOLUTE.

4
3
5
C 2
6
1
7
8
P
P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

πD
STEPS:
DRAW CYCLOID AS USUAL. CYCLOID
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
Method of Drawing
WITH CP DISTANCE, FROM Q. CUT THE Tangent & Normal
POINT ON LOCUS OF C AND JOIN IT TO Q.

FROM THIS POINT DROP A PERPENDICULAR

ON GROUND LINE AND NAME IT N

JOIN N WITH Q.THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO

CYCLOID.

DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE TO

THIS LINE FROM Q.

a
Norm
IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.
CYCLOI

l
D

Q
Tang
e nt

CP
C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

P N
πD
 Spiral.
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
SPIRAL (ONE
CONVOLUSION.)
2 t
en
No
n g
Ta
l
rm

P2
a

3 1 Difference in length of any radius vectors

Q P1 Constant of the
Curve = Angle between the corresponding
radius vector in radian.
P3
OP – OP2 OP – OP2
= =
π/2 1.57

4 P4 O P = 3.185
7 6 5 4 3 2 m.m.
1 P7 STEPS:
*DRAW SPIRAL AS USUAL.
P5 P6 DRAW A SMALL CIRCLE OF RADIUS EQUAL TO
THE
CONSTANT OF CURVE CALCULATED ABOVE.

5 7 * LOCATE POINT Q AS DISCRIBED IN PROBLEM

AND
THROUGH IT DRAW A TANGENTTO THIS
SMALLER
6 CIRCLE.THIS IS A NORMAL TO THE SPIRAL.

*DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE

*TO THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.
 LOCUS
It is a path traced out by a point moving in a plane,
in a particular manner, for one cycle of operation.

The cases are classified in THREE categories for easy

understanding.
A} Basic Locus Cases.
B} Oscillating Link……
C} Rotating Link………
Basic Locus Cases:
Here some geometrical objects like point, line, circle will be described with there relative
Positions. Then one point will be allowed to move in a plane maintaining specific relation
with above objects. And studying situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.
Oscillating & Rotating Link:
Here a link oscillating from one end or rotating around it’s center will be described.
Then a point will be allowed to slide along the link in specific manner. And now studying
the situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.

STUDY TEN CASES GIVEN ON NEXT PAGES

 Basic Locus
PROBLEM 1.: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB. Cases:
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

P7
A P5
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to P3
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P.
P1
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and p
name it 1. 1 2 3 4
F
4 3 2 1
4.Take F-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2. P2
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate P4
P3 P4 .
6.Join all these points in smooth curve. P6
B P8
It will be the locus of P equidistance
from line AB and fixed point F.
 Basic Locus
PROBLEM 2 : Cases:
A circle of 50 mm diameter has it’s center 75 mm from a
vertical
line AB.. Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that P7
it always remains equidistant from given circle and line AB. P5
A
SOLUTION STEPS: P3
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to 50 D
AB from the periphery of circle. This
will be initial point P. P1
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and p
name it 1,2,3,4. C
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
4.Take C-1 distance as radius and C as
center draw an arc cutting first parallel
line to AB. Name upper point P1 and
lower point P2. P2
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3 P4 . P4
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.
B P6
It will be the locus of P equidistance P8
from line AB and given circle.

75
mm
 PROBLEM 3 : Basic Locus
Center of a circle of 30 mm diameter is 90 mm away from center of another circle of 60 mm Cases:
diameter.
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that it always remains equidistant from given two
circles.
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line,joining two 60
centers but part in between periphery D P7
of two circles.Name it P. This will be P5 30
initial point P. D
P3
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right
side, name those points 1,2,3,4 and P1
from those draw arcs from C1
As center.
3. Mark 5 mm distance to its right p
side, name those points 1,2,3,4 and C C2
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
from those draw arcs from C2 As 1
center. P2
4.Mark various positions of P as per
previous problems and name those P4
similarly. P6
5.Join all these points in smooth
curve. P8

It will be the locus of P

equidistance from given two
circles. 95 mm
 Basic Locus
Problem 4:In the given situation there are two circles of
different diameters and one inclined line AB, as shown. Cases:
Draw one circle touching these three objects.

60
D
Solution Steps: 30
1) Here consider two pairs,
D
one is a case of two circles
with centres C1 and C2 and
draw locus of point P
equidistance from them. CC1
(As per solution of case D C2 350
above). 1
2) Consider second case
that of fixed circle (C1) and
fixed line AB and draw
locus of point P
equidistance from them.
(as per solution of case B
above).
3) Locate the point where
these two loci intersect
each other. Name it x. It
will be the point
equidistance from given
two circles and line AB.
4) Take x as centre and its
perpendicular distance on
AB as radius, draw a circle
which will touch given two
circles and line AB.
 Problem 5:-Two points A and B are 100 mm apart. Basic Locus
There is a point P, moving in a plane such that the
difference of it’s distances from A and B always
Cases:
remains constant and equals to 40 mm.
Draw locus of point P.

p7
p5
p3
p1
Solution Steps:
1.Locate A & B points 100 mm apart.
2.Locate point P on AB line, P
A B
70 mm from A and 30 mm from B 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
As PA-PB=40 ( AB = 100 mm )
3.On both sides of P mark points 5
mm apart. Name those 1,2,3,4 as usual. p2
4.Now similar to steps of Problem 2,
p4
Draw different arcs taking A & B centers
and A-1, B-1, A-2, B-2 etc as radius. p6
5. Mark various positions of p i.e. and join p8
them in smooth possible curve.
It will be locus of P
70 30
mm mm
 Problem 6:-Two points A and B are 100 mm apart. FORK & SLIDER
There is a point P, moving in a plane such that the
A
difference of it’s distances from A and B always
remains constant and equals to 40 mm. M
Draw locus of point P.
p M1
p1 M2
Solution C p2
Steps:
1) Mark lower most N6
N3 N5
p3 M3

position of M on extension N2
of AB (downward) by taking
N4 p4 M4
N1
distance MN (40 mm) from N7 N p5
N8 9 900
point B (because N can N10 M5
p6
not go beyond B ). N N11 M6
2) Divide line (M initial p7 600
and M lower most ) into p8
N12
eight to ten parts and mark N13
B M7
them M1, M2, M3 up to the p9
last position of M . M8
3) Now take MN (40 mm) p10
as fixed distance in compass, M9
M1 center cut line CB in N1. p11
4) Mark point P1 on M1N1 M10
with same distance of MP p12
from M1. M11

5) Similarly locate M2P2, p13

M12
M3P3, M4P4 and join all P
points.
It will be M13
locus of P. D
Problem No.7: OSCILLATING LINK
A Link OA, 80 mm long oscillates around O,
600 to right side and returns to it’s initial vertical
Position with uniform velocity.Mean while point
P initially on O starts sliding downwards and
reaches end A with uniform velocity.
Draw locus of point P p
O
p1
Solution Steps: 1 p2 p4
Point P- Reaches End A (Downwards) p3
1) Divide OA in EIGHT equal parts and from O to A after O 2
name 1, 2, 3, 4 up to 8. (i.e. up to point A).
2) Divide 600 angle into four parts (150 each) and mark each
point by A1, A2, A3, A4 and for return A5, A6, A7 andA8.
3
p5 A4
(Initial A point).
3) Take center O, distance in compass O-1 draw an arc upto 4
OA1. Name this point as P1.
1) Similarly O center O-2 distance mark P 2 on line O-A2. 5 p6
2) This way locate P3, P4, P5, P6, P7 and P8 and join them. A3
( It will be thw desired locus of P ) 6 A5

7 p7 A2
A6
A8 A1
p8
A7
A8
 OSCILLATING LINK

Problem No 8:
A Link OA, 80 mm long oscillates around O,
600 to right side, 1200 to left and returns to it’s initial
vertical Position with uniform velocity.Mean while
point
P initially on O starts sliding downwards, reaches end A
and returns to O again with uniform velocity. Op
16
Draw locus of point P
15
p1 p4
1 p2
Solution Steps: 14 p3
( P reaches A i.e. moving downwards. 2
& returns to O again i.e.moves upwards ) 13
1.Here distance traveled by point P is PA.plus A 3 p5
AP.Hence divide it into eight equal parts.( so
12
12 A4
total linear displacement gets divided in 16 4
parts) Name those as shown. 11
2.Link OA goes 600 to right, comes back to A 5 p6
A13 11 A3
original (Vertical) position, goes 600 to left and A5
10
returns to original vertical position. Hence 6
total angular displacement is 2400. A10 p7 A2
Divide this also in 16 parts. (150 each.) 9 7
A14 A6
Name as per previous problem.(A, A1 A2 etc)
A9 8 A1
3.Mark different positions of P as per the A15 A p8
procedure adopted in previous case. A7
A8
and complete the problem.
A16
 ROTATING LINK
Problem 9:
Rod AB, 100 mm long, revolves in clockwise direction for one revolution.
Meanwhile point P, initially on A starts moving towards B and reaches B.
Draw locus of point P. A2
1) AB Rod revolves around
center O for one revolution
and point P slides along AB A1
rod and reaches end B in A3
one revolution. p1
2) Divide circle in 8 number p2 p6
p7
of equal parts and name in
arrow direction after A-A1,
A2, A3, up to A8.
3) Distance traveled by
point P is AB mm. Divide p5
this also into 8 number of p3
p8
equal parts.
4) Initially P is on end A. A B A4
P 1 4 5 6 7
When A moves to A1, point 2 3 p4
P goes one linear division
(part) away from A1. Mark it
from A1 and name the point
P1.
5) When A moves to A2, P
will be two parts away from
A2 (Name it P2 ). Mark it as
above from A2.
6) From A3 mark P3 three A7
A5
parts away from P3.
7) Similarly locate P4, P5,
P6, P7 and P8 which will be
eight parts away from A8. A6
[Means P has reached B].
8) Join all P points by
 Problem 10 : ROTATING LINK
Rod AB, 100 mm long, revolves in clockwise direction for one revolution.
Meanwhile point P, initially on A starts moving towards B, reaches B
And returns to A in one revolution of rod.
Draw locus of point P. A2

Solution
Steps A1
1) AB Rod revolves around A3
center O for one revolution and
point P slides along rod AB
reaches end B and returns to A.
2) Divide circle in 8 number of p5
equal parts and name in arrow
p1
direction after A-A1, A2, A3, up to
A8.
3) Distance traveled by point P
is AB plus AB mm. Divide AB in 4 p4
parts so those will be 8 equal p2 A4
A
parts on return. P 1+7 2+6 p +3 5 4 +B
4) Initially P is on end A. When p8 6

A moves to A1, point P goes one

linear division (part) away from
A1. Mark it from A1 and name
the point P1.
5) When A moves to A2, P will p7 p3
be two parts away from A2
(Name it P2 ). Mark it as above
from A2.
A7
6) From A3 mark P3 three parts A5
away from P3.
7) Similarly locate P4, P5, P6, P7
and P8 which will be eight parts
away from A8. [Means P has A6
reached B].
8) Join all P points by smooth
 DRAWINGS:
( A Graphical Representation)

The Fact about:

If compared with Verbal or Written Description,
Drawings offer far better idea about the Shape, Size & Appearance of
any object or situation or location, that too in quite a less time.

Hence it has become the Best Media of Communication

not only in Engineering but in almost all Fields.
 Drawings
(Some Types)

Portraits
Botanical Drawings ( human faces,
Nature Drawings ( plants, flowers etc.) expressions
( landscape, Geographical
scenery etc.) Zoological Drawings etc.)
Drawings Engineering Drawings,
(creatures, animals
( maps etc.) (projections.)
etc.)

Building Related Drawings. Machine component Drawings

Orthographic Isometric ( Mech.Engg.Term.)

Projections or Perspective(Civil Engg.Term)
(Fv,Tv & Sv.-Mech.Engg terms) (Actual Object Drawing 3-D)
(Plan, Elevation- Civil Engg.terms)
(Working Drawings 2-D type)
 ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS:
IT IS A TECHNICAL DRAWING IN WHICH DIFFERENT VIEWS OF AN OBJECT
ARE PROJECTED ON DIFFERENT REFERENCE PLANES
OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESPECTIVE REFERENCE PLANE
Different Reference planes are
Horizontal Plane (HP),
Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )
Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)
And
Different Views are Front View (FV), Top View (TV) and Side View (SV)
FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS:
1 Planes.
2 Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 Methods of drawing Orthographic
Projections
 PLANE
1 S

PRINCIPAL PLANES
HP AND VP

AUXILIARY PLANES

Auxiliary Vertical Plane Auxiliary Inclined Plane Profile Plane

(A.V.P.) (A.I.P.) ( P.P.)


A.I
A.V.P. .P.
⊥
to
⊥ to Hp & ∠ to &
Vp
Vp ∠
to
Hp

 PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS (First Angle Method)
2
THIS IS A PICTORIAL SET-UP OF ALL THREE PLANES.
ARROW DIRECTION IS A NORMAL WAY OF OBSERVING THE OBJECT.
BUT IN THIS DIRECTION ONLY VP AND A VIEW ON IT (FV) CAN BE SEEN.
THE OTHER PLANES AND VIEWS ON THOSE CAN NOT BE SEEN.

Y PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ABOVE PROBLEM:-

TO MAKE THOSE PLANES ALSO VISIBLE FROM THE ARROW DIRECTION,
A) HP IS ROTATED 900 DOUNWARD
X B) PP, 900 IN RIGHT SIDE DIRECTION.
THIS WAY BOTH PLANES ARE BROUGHT IN THE SAME PLANE CONTAINING VP.
Click to view
Animation On clicking the button if a warning comes please click YES to continue, this
program is
safe for your pc.

VP PP
Y
FV LSV

X Y
X TV

HP

ACTUAL PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS

HP IS ROTATED DOWNWARD 90 0 PP IS ROTATED IN RIGHT SIDE 90 0 OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
AND AND DRAWN IN
BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. FIRST ANGLE METHOD OF PROJECTIONS
 3 Methods of Drawing Orthographic
Projections

First Angle Projections Third Angle Projections

Method Method
Here views are drawn Here views are drawn
by placing object by placing object
in 1st Quadrant SYMBOLIC
in 3rd Quadrant.
( Fv above X-y, Tv below X-y ) PRESENTATION ( Tv above X-y, Fv below X-y )
OF BOTH METHODS
WITH AN OBJECT
STANDING ON HP ( GROUND) TV
FV ON IT’S BASE.
X Y NOTE:- X Y
HP term is used in 1 Angle method
st

& FV
TV
For the same
G L
Ground term is used
in 3rd Angle method of projections
 FIRST ANGLE
FOR
PROJECTION T.V.

IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO
V.P. P.P
BE
.
SITUATED IN FIRST
QUADRANT F. S.
MEANS V V.
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP. .
OBJECT IS
OB
INBETWEEN JE
OBSERVER & PLANE. CT

VP PP

FV LS
V FO
. RF
X Y R S.V .V.
FO
TV

HP

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE
METHOD
 THIRD ANGLE FOR
PROJECTION T.V.

IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO
BE
SITUATED IN THIRD
QUADRANT
( BELOW HP &BEING
PLANES BEHIND OF
VP. )
TRANSPERENT
AND INBETWEEN P.P. V.P.
OBSERVER & OBJECT.
OB
JE
TV CT

X Y
S F.
LSV FV .V V.
.

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
OF FO
THIRD ANGLE F.V R
R .
PROJECTIONS FO .
S.V
 ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTIONS
{ MACHINE ELEMENTS }
OBJECT IS OBSERVED IN THREE DIRECTIONS.
THE DIRECTIONS SHOULD BE NORMAL
TO THE RESPECTIVE PLANES.
AND NOW PROJECT THREE DIFFERENT VIEWS ON THOSE PLANES.
THESE VEWS ARE FRONT VIEW , TOP VIEW AND SIDE VIEW.

FRONT VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON VERTICAL PLANE ( VP )

TOP VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE ( HP )
SIDE VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON PROFILE PLANE ( PP )

FIRST STUDY THE CONCEPT OF 1ST AND 3RD ANGLE

PROJECTION METHODS

AND THEN STUDY NEXT 26 ILLUSTRATED CASES CAREFULLY.

TRY TO RECOGNIZE SURFACES
PERPENDICULAR TO THE ARROW DIRECTIONS
 FIRST ANGLE
FOR
PROJECTION T.V.

IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO
V.P. P.P
BE
.
SITUATED IN FIRST
QUADRANT F. S.
MEANS V V.
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP. .
OBJECT IS
OB
INBETWEEN JE
OBSERVER & PLANE. CT

VP PP

FV LS
V FO
. RF
X Y R S.V .V.
FO
TV

HP

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE
METHOD
 FOR
THIRD ANGLE T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO
BE
SITUATED IN THIRD
QUADRANT
( BELOW HP &BEING
PLANES BEHIND OF
VP. )
TRANSPERENT P.P. V.P.
AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & OBJECT. OB
JE
CT
TV
X Y S. F.
V. V.
LSV FV

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
OF
FO
RF
THIRD ANGLE .V.
R
PROJECTIONS FO .
S.V
 FOR T.V.
S. 1
F. V.
V
.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

FO
R
F.V
. .
S.V
R
FO

x y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR
T.V. 2
S.
F. V.
V
.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y
FO
RF
.V. .V.
R S
FO

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.

F.
S. 3
V.
V
.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

FO
. R
S.V
FO
R
F.V
. X Y

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 4
FOR
T.V.

S
F .
. V
. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
V
.

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y
FO
RF
S.V. .V.
R
FO

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR
5
T.V.
F. S.
V V.
.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

S.V.
R
FO FO
RF
.V. X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 6
FOR
T.V. S.
F.
V V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
.

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y
FO
S.V. RF
.V.
R
FO

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 7
FOR S.
T.V. V.
F.
V
.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

FO
RF
.V.

S.V. X Y
R
FO

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 STUDY 8
FOR
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW

50

X Y

20

25
FO
RF
.V.
25 20

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 9
FOR
T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

FO
RF
.V.
S.V.
R
FO

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 0
FOR
T.V.

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

R S.V.
FO
FO
R
F.
V.

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR
1
T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 1

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

FO
RF X Y
.V.

S.V.
R
FO

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
FOR 2
T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

FO
RF
S.V. .V.
R
FO

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS FOR
T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

35
FV

35

10
x y

10 20 30

FO
RF 40
.V.
70

TV
O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
4

FOR ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

T.V.
FV

30 30 SV
10

30

10

30
x y

FO
. RF
S.V .V.
OR

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 1
STUDY 5
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FOR T.V.
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y

10
40 60

FO
RF
S.V. .V. 40
R TV
60
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
1
T.V.
6
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y
10

FO
RF
S.V. .V.
R
FO 40 60

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN 40 TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD 60
 1
7

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

30
SQUARE
40 20

50

FO 20
RF
.V. .V. X 10 Y
R S
FO 30
O 60
F.V
. S.V
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN .
DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR 1
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS T.V. 8

F
V 40

X 10 Y
O
30 45
D
FO
RF
.V.

O
10
50
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
80

T
V
 1
FOR 9
T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FV 40

X O 10 Y
100
10
25
FO
TV
RF
10 30 10 .V.
25
30 R O
20
D
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
0
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
30
FOR
T.V.
FV
REC
T.
SLO
10 T 50
35

10
X Y

20
D

FO
RF TV
.V.

60
D 30
D
TOP VIEW

O
 2
1

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
10

25 15

25
40 10

25

FO
RF 25
.V. .V.
R S
FO O O
80 25

F.V S.V
. .

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
2
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 2

450

30
FV

40

X Y

30
FO D
RF
.V.

40 TV

O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
15
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT 40
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
3

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FO HEX PART
RF
.V. 20
30

20
40
. 20
R S.V
FO O 50
20
15

O 30
100 60
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
DRAW FV ABD SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR 2
T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 4
20 40

FRONT VIEW

F.V
. 30

10
X Y
O

10

30
FO
RF
.V. 10

30
O 80
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN T.V. TOP VIEW
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 2
5

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

10 10 15

25

25
X Y
O 50 10

FV LS
S.V. FO
RF
V R
FO .V.

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND LSV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
2 PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
6 DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FO
RF
.V.

30 20 10 20

15
10

15

S.V. O
R 15
FO 30

15
X Y
50
F.V. LEFT
S.V.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
OF POINTS, LINES, PLANES, AND SOLIDS.

TO DRAW PROJECTIONS OF ANY OBJECT,

ONE MUST HAVE FOLLOWING INFORMATION
A) OBJECT
{ WITH IT’S DESCRIPTION, WELL DEFINED.}
B) OBSERVER
{ ALWAYS OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESP. REF.PLANE}.
C) LOCATION OF OBJECT,
{ MEANS IT’S POSITION WITH REFFERENCE TO H.P. & V.P.}

TERMS ‘ABOVE’ & ‘BELOW’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO H.P.

AND TERMS ‘INFRONT’ & ‘BEHIND’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO V.P
FORM 4 QUADRANTS.
OBJECTS CAN BE PLACED IN ANY ONE OF THESE 4 QUADRANTS.

IT IS INTERESTING TO LEARN THE EFFECT ON THE POSITIONS OF VIEWS ( FV, TV )

OF THE OBJECT WITH RESP. TO X-Y LINE, WHEN PLACED IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON HEXT PAGES AND NOTE THE RESULTS.TO MAKE IT EASY
HERE A POINT A IS TAKEN AS AN OBJECT. BECAUSE IT’S ALL VIEWS ARE JUST POINTS.
 NOTATIONS

FOLLOWING NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED WHILE NAMEING

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS.

OBJECT POINT A LINE AB

IT’S TOP VIEW a a

b
IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ a’
b’
IT’S SIDE VIEW a” a” b”

SAME SYSTEM OF NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED

INCASE NUMBERS, LIKE 1, 2, 3 – ARE USED.
 2nd
Quadra
nt V
2 nd
Quad. P 1ST Quad.

F.V. 1s t
Y Quadra
nt Observe
r

X Y HP
X
3rdQua O bs
drant erve
r

3rd Quad. 4th Quad.

4t h
Quadra
nt

THIS QUADRANT PATTERN,

IF OBSERVED ALONG X-Y LINE ( IN RED ARROW DIRECTION)
WILL EXACTLY APPEAR AS SHOWN ON RIGHT SIDE AND HENCE,
IT IS FURTHER USED TO UNDERSTAND ILLUSTRATION
 Point A is POINT A IN VP POINT A IN
Placed In 2ND QUADRANT 1ST QUADRANT
VP a’
different A A
quadrants a’
and it’s Fv & Tv a
are brought in
same plane for HP OBSERVER

Observer to see
clearly. HP OBSERVER
Fv is visible as
it is a view on
VP. But as Tv is a
is a view on
Hp,
it is rotated
downward 900,
In clockwise
direction.The a
In front part of
Hp comes
below HP
xy line and the HP OBSERVER
OBSERVER

part behind Vp
comes above.
a
Observe and a’
note the A a’
process. POINT A IN A POINT A IN
3 QUADRANT
RD
VP 4TH QUADRANT
VP
 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FIRST QUADRANT.
POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A IN HP
& INFRONT OF VP & IN VP & INFRONT OF VP
For For
Tv Tv
PICTORIAL PICTORIAL For
PRESENTATION A PRESENTATION Tv
a’ a’
Fo
A rF Y
Y v
Y Fo a’
rF a
v
a
X a X X A
Fo
rF
v
ORTHOGRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS
OF ALL ABOVE CASES.

Fv above xy, Fv above xy, Fv on xy,

Tv below xy. Tv on xy. Tv below xy.
VP VP VP

a’ a’

X Y X Y X
a’ Y
a

a a

HP HP HP
 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.
INFORMATION REGARDING A LINE means
IT’S LENGTH,
POSITION OF IT’S ENDS WITH HP & VP
IT’S INCLINATIONS WITH HP & VP WILL BE GIVEN.
AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS - MEANS FV & TV.

SIMPLE CASES OF THE LINE

1. A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO VP)

2. LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

3. LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

4. LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

5. LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON NEXT PAGE

SHOWING CLEARLY THE NATURE OF FV & TV
OF LINES LISTED ABOVE AND NOTE RESULTS.
 For Tv Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial V.P
Presentation) a’
Note: a’
Fv is a vertical line .
A Showing True Length Fv

P.
1

V.
F &
. V b’
Tv is a point.
A Line b’
perpendicular Y
X Y
to Hp B Fo
rF
v
& TV a b
Tv a b
// to Vp X

H.
P.
Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial For Tv Note: V.P
Presentation) Fv & Tv both .
2 are a’ Fv b’
. b’
P.

. // to xy
A Line
V.

F.V B &
// to Hp a’ both show T. L.
& A Y X Y
// to Vp Fo
rF
v
b a b
Tv
X V.
T.
a
H.
P.
 Fv inclined to V.P
xy .
3 b’
b’

P.
. Tv parallel to

V.

V.
V.
A Line inclined to Hp xy.

F.
B

F.
a’ θ
and θ Y
parallel to Vp a’ X Y
θ
(Pictorial a b
A b T.V.
presentation) X

V.
T.
a
H.
P.
Orthographic
Projections
Tv inclined to V.P
4 xy .
.
Fv parallel to
P.

a’ Fv b’
.
V.

A Line inclined to Vp b’
F.V xy.
and a’
Ø
parallel to Hp A B X Y
(Pictorial a Ø
presentation)
Ø Tv
a b
T.V.
b
H.
P.
 For
For
5 Tv
Tv
.
A Line inclined to
both b’
b’
Hp and Vp V.P.

F.V.
V.P. (Pictorial B
F.V.

B
α
α
Y
presentation) Y
On removal of object a’
a’ i.e. Line AB

Fo
Fo

r
Fv as a image on Vp.

Fv
A

r
Fv
A Tv as a image on Hp,
β
β X
X a T.V. b
a T.V. b
V.P
. b’
FV
a’ α

X Y
Orthographic Projections Note These Facts:-
Fv is seen on Vp clearly. Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.
To see Tv clearly, HP is a β (No view is parallel to xy)
rotated 900 downwards, Both Fv & Tv are reduced
Hence it comes below xy. TV lengths.
(No view shows True Length)
H. b
P.
 Orthographic Projections Note the procedure Note the procedure
Means Fv & Tv of Line AB When Fv & Tv known, When True Length is known,
are shown below, How to find True Length. How to locate Fv & Tv.
(Views are rotated to determine (Component a-1 of TL is drawn
with their apparent Inclinations
True Length & it’s inclinations which is further rotated
α&β
with Hp & Vp). to determine Fv)
V.P V.P V.P
. b’ . b’ b 1’ . b b 1’
’
FV FV Fv
TL
T α
a’ α a’ θ L a’ θ 1’

X Y X Y X Y

1
a β b2 a Ø
a β TV β
TL
TV TV Tv

H. b H. b H. b b1
P. P. P.

Here TV (ab) is not // to XY line In this sketch, TV is rotated Here a -1 is component

Hence it’s corresponding FV and made // to XY line. of TL ab1 gives length of Fv.
a’ b’ is not showing Hence it’s corresponding Hence it is brought Up to
True Length & FV a’ b1’ Is showing Locus of a’ and further rotated
True Inclination with Hp. True Length to get point b’. a’ b’ will be Fv.
& Similarly drawing component
True Inclination with Hp. of other TL(a’ b1‘) Tv can be drawn.
The most important diagram showing graphical relations 1) True Length ( TL) – a’ b1’ & a b
among all important parameters of this topic. 2) Angle of TL with θ Important
TEN parameters
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Hp of
3) Angle - TL with Ø to be remembered
And use in solving various problems. Vp of
4) Angle – FV with
α with Notations
xy –of TV with used here onward
V.P 5) Angle β
. Distance between
End Projectors. 6) LTVxy(length
– of FV) – Component (a-
b 1’
b’ 7) LFV1)(length of TV) – Component (a’-
1’) of A- Distances of a & a’ from xy
8) Position
F 9) Position of B- Distances of b & b’ from xy
TL
v
α 10) Distance between End Projectors
θ 1’
a’
LT
V NOTE
X Y θ& α this
Construct with
LF a’
a
V
1 Ø& β Construct with
Ø a
b’ & b1’ on same
β
locus.
b & b on same
1
locus.
TL
Tv

Also
b b1
H. True Remember
Length is never rotated. It’s horizontal component
P. is drawn & it is further rotated to locate view.

Views are always rotated, made horizontal & further

extended to locate TL, θ & Ø
 GROUP (A)
GENERAL CASES OF THE LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP
PROBLEM 1) & VP
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is 300 & ( based on 10 parameters).
400 Inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 12mm above Hp and 10 mm b’ b’1
in front of Vp.
Draw projections. Line is in 1st
quadrant. FV
SOLUTION STEPS: TL
1) Draw xy line and one projector.
2) Locate a’ 12mm above xy line
θ
& a 10mm below xy line.
3) Take 300 angle from a’ & 400 from
a’
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on both
lines. Name those points b1’ and b1
X Y
respectively. a Ø
LFV
1
4) Join both points with a’ and a resp.
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus) from
both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b1 from point b1 and name it 1.
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv TV TL
as we have seen already.)
7) Extend it up to locus of a’ and
rotating a’ as center locate b’
as shown. Join a’ b’ as Fv. b b1
8) From b’ drop a projector down
ward & get point b. Join a & b
PROBLEM 2:
Line AB 75mm long makes 450 inclination with Vp while it’s Fv makes 55 0.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp.If line is in 1 st quadrant
draw it’s projections and find it’s inclination with Hp.
b b’1 LOCUS OF
Solution Steps:- ’
1.Draw x-y line.
2.Draw one projector for a’ & a
3.Locate a’ 10mm above x-y &

FV
Tv a 15 mm below xy. TL
4.Draw a line 450 inclined to xy 55 0
from point a and cut TL 75 mm
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1 a’
5.Take 550 angle from a’ for Fv
above xy line. X y
6.Draw a vertical line from b1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
a LFV
It is horizontal component of 1

45 0
TL & is LFV.
7.Continue it to locus of a’ and

Φ
rotate upward up to the line
of Fv and name it b’.This a’ b’
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b’ on
locus from point b1 and

TV
name intersecting point b.

TL
Line a b is Tv of line AB.
9.Draw locus from b’ and from
a’ with TL distance cut point b1‘
10.Join a’ b1’ as TL and measure LOCUS OF
it’s angle at a’. b b1 b
It will be true angle of line with HP.
 PROBLEM 3: Fv
of line AB is 500 inclined to xy and measures 55
mm long while it’s Tv is 600 inclined to xy line. If
end A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of
Vp, draw it’s projections,find TL, inclinations of line
with Hp & Vp. b b’1
’

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.

FV
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and TL
a 15 mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points. 500
4.Draw Fv 500 to xy from a’ and θ
a’
mark b’ Cutting 55mm on it.
X
5.Similarly draw Tv 600 to xy
from a & drawing projector from
y
b’
Locate point b and join a b. a
Φ
6.Then rotating views as shown, 600
locate True Lengths ab1 & a’b1’
and their angles with Hp and Vp.

TL

b1
b
 PROBLEM 4 :-
Line AB is 75 mm long .It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long
respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first quadrant.Find angle with Hp and Vp. b b’1
’

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.

FV
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and TL
a 15 mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Cut 60mm distance on locus of a’ θ LTV 1
& mark 1’ on it as it is LTV. a’ ’
5.Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is
X Y
LFV.
a LFV
6.From 1’ draw a vertical line upward 1
Φ
and from a’ taking TL ( 75mm ) in
compass, mark b’1 point on it.
Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’1
8. With same steps below get b1 point
and draw also locus from it.
TV

TL
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ with it
to get Fv.
10. Locate tvθ similarly
& Φ
and measure b1
Angles b
 PROBLEM 5 :-
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
End C is in Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp and Vp. d’ d’1 LOCUS OF d’ & d’1

SOLUTION STEPS:
TL

FV
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate c’ on xy and
c 50mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Draw locus of d 15 mm below xy
5.Cut 50mm & 75 mm distances on c’ θ
locus of d from c and mark points X Y
d & d1 as these are Tv and line CD d d1 LOCUS OF d & d1
lengths resp.& join both with c.
6.From d1 draw a vertical line upward
up to xy I.e. up to locus of c’ and TL
draw an arc as shown.
7 Then draw one projector from d to TV
meet this arc in d’ point & join c’ d’
8. Draw locus of d’ and cut 75 mm
on it from c’ as TL
θ & Φ c Φ
9.Measure Angles
 GROUP (B)
PROBLEMS INVOLVING TRACES OF THE
LINE.

TRACES OF THE LINE:-

THESE ARE THE POINTS OF INTERSECTIONS OF A LINE ( OR IT’S EXTENSION )

WITH RESPECTIVE REFFERENCE PLANES.

A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES H.P.,

THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON H.P.( IT IS CALLED H.T.)

SIMILARLY, A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES V.P.,

THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON V.P.( IT IS CALLED V.T.)

V.T.:- It is a point on Vp.

Hence it is called Fv of a point in Vp.
Hence it’s Tv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as v )
H.T.:- It is a point on Hp.
Hence it is called Tv of a point in Hp.
Hence it’s Fv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as ’h’ )
 b’

STEPS TO LOCATE HT.

FV
(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN.)
1. Begin with FV. Extend FV up to XY line. a’
2. Name this point h’ v h
( as it is a Fv of a point in Hp) x ’ y
3. Draw one projector from h’.
4. Now extend Tv to meet this projector. VT’ HT
This point is HT a

TV
STEPS TO LOCATE VT.
Observe & note :-
(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN.) 1. Points h’ & v always on x-y line. b

1. Begin with TV. Extend TV up to XY line. 2. VT’ & v always on one projector.
2. Name this point v
3. HT & h’ always on one projector.
( as it is a Tv of a point in Vp)
3. Draw one projector from v. 4. FV - h’- VT’ always co-linear.
4. Now extend Fv to meet this projector.
This point is VT 5. TV - v - HT always co-linear.

These points are used to

solve next three
problems.
PROBLEM 6 :- Fv of line AB makes 450 angle with XY line and measures 60 mm.
Line’s Tv makes 300 with XY line. End A is 15 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 10 mm
below Hp. Draw projections of line AB,determine inclinations with Hp & Vp and locate HT, VT.

b’ b’1

a’ θ
450

1
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Draw xy line, one projector and x 5 v h
y
’ 300
locate fv a’ 15 mm above xy. 1
Take 45 angle from a’ and
0 HT
0
marking 60 mm on it locate point b’. VT’
Draw locus of VT, 10 mm below xy
a ∅
& extending Fv to this locus locate VT.
as fv-h’-vt’ lie on one st.line.
Draw projector from vt, locate v on xy.
From v take 300 angle downward as
Tv and it’s inclination can begin with v.
b b1
Draw projector from b’ and locate b I.e.Tv
point.
Now rotating views as usual TL and
it’s inclinations can be found.
Name extension of Fv, touching xy as h’
and below it, on extension of Tv, locate HT.
PROBLEM 7 :
One end of line AB is 10mm above Hp and other end is 100 mm in-front of Vp.
It’s Fv is 450 inclined to xy while it’s HT & VT are 45mm and 30 mm below xy
respectively.
Draw projections and find TL with it’s inclinations with Hp & VP. b b’1 LOCUS OF b’ & b’1
’

TL

FV
a’ 450
θ
10 v h
X ’ Y
30
45
VT’ HT
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Draw xy line, one projector and
locate a’ 10 mm above xy. 10
Draw locus 100 mm below xy for points b & b1 0
a Φ
Draw loci for VT and HT, 30 mm & 45 mm
below xy respectively. TL
Take 450 angle from a’ and extend that line backward
to locate h’ and VT, & Locate v on xy above VT. TV
Locate HT below h’ as shown.
Then join v – HT – and extend to get top view end b.
Draw projector upward and locate b’ Make a b & a’b’ b b1 LOCUS OF b & b1
dark.
Now as usual rotating views find TL and it’s inclinations.
PROBLEM 8 :- Projectors drawn from HT and VT of a line AB
are 80 mm apart and those drawn from it’s ends are 50 mm
apart.
End A is 10 mm above Hp, VT is 35 mm below Hp
while it’s HT is 45 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections,
locate traces and find TL of line & inclinations with Hp and Vp. VT

b b’1
’

SOLUTION STEPS:- 5
FV
1.Draw xy line and two projectors, TL 5
80 mm apart and locate HT & VT ,
35 mm below xy and 55 mm above xy Locus of a’ a’ θ
respectively on these projectors.
2.Locate h’ and v on xy as usual. X 1
0
50 v
y
h b
’ b1
3.Now just like previous two problems,
Extending certain lines complete Fv & Tv
3 TV
And as usual find TL and it’s inclinations.
5 TL
a Φ
HT

80
 Instead of considering a & a’ as projections of first point,
if v & VT’ are considered as first point , then true inclinations of line
with
Hp & Vp i.e. angles θ & Φ can be constructed with points VT’ & V
respectively.
b’ b 1’

FV
TL Then from point v & HT
a’
angles β & Φ can be drawn.
v &
X Y
Φ From point VT’ & h’
angles α & θ can be drawn .
θ

VT
’

THIS CONCEPT IS USED TO

a
SOLVE
T NEXT THREE PROBLEMS.
TV

b b1
PROBLEM 9 :-
Line AB 100 mm long is 300 and 450 inclined to Hp & Vp respectively. b 1’
End A is 10 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 20 mm below Hp b’
.Draw projections of the line and it’s HT.
FV
100
mm
Locus of a & a1’ a’ a1’

SOLUTION STEPS:- 1
v h’
Draw xy, one projector 0 X Y
and locate on it VT and V. Φ(45 0

2 )
Draw locus of a’ 10 mm above xy. θ (300)
0
Take 300 from VT and draw a line.
Where it intersects with locus of a’ VT’
name it a1’ as it is TL of that part. HT
From a1’ cut 100 mm (TL) on it and locate point b1’
Now from v take 450 and draw a line downwards a a1
& Mark on it distance VT-a1’ I.e.TL of extension & name it a1
Extend this line by 100 mm and mark point b1.
Draw it’s component on locus of VT’ TV 10
& further rotate to get other end of Fv i.e.b’ mm 0
Join it with VT’ and mark intersection point
(with locus of a1’ ) and name it a’
Now as usual locate points a and b and h’ and HT.
b b1
 PROBLEM 10 :-
A line AB is 75 mm long. It’s Fv & Tv make 45 0 and 600 inclinations with X-Y line resp
End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 20 mm below Xy line. Line is in first quadrant.
Draw projections, find inclinations with Hp & Vp. Also locate HT. b’ b 1’

FV
75
mm
Locus of a & a1’ a’ a1’

1
X v h’
5 Y
600
2 Φ
0 θ
450
VT’
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Similar to the previous only change HT
is instead of line’s inclinations,
views inclinations are given. a a1
So first take those angles from VT & v
Properly, construct Fv & Tv of extension,
then determine it’s TL( V-a1) 75
TV
and on it’s extension mark TL of line mm
and proceed and complete it.

b b1
 PROBLEM 11 :- The projectors drawn from VT & end A of line AB are 40mm apart.
End A is 15mm above Hp and 25 mm in front of Vp. VT of line is 20 mm below Hp.
If line is 75mm long, draw it’s projections, find inclinations with HP & Vp

b’ b 1’

FV

m
m
75
a’ a1’

15
X v Y
20 Φ
25 θ
VT
’
a

Draw two projectors for VT & end A 40m

TV
Locate these points and then m
b b1
YES !
YOU CAN COMPLETE IT.
 GROUP (C)
CASES OF THE LINES IN A.V.P., A.I.P. & PROFILE
PLANE.

b’ Line AB is in AIP as shown in above figure no 1.

A.I. It’s FV (a’b’) is shown projected on Vp.(Looking in arrow direction)
P. Here one can clearly see that the
Inclination of AIP with HP = Inclination of FV with
a’ α B XY line

A
X α

β
A A.V
.P.

Line AB is in AVP as shown in above figure no 2..

β
a b
It’s TV (a b) is shown projected on Hp.(Looking in arrow direction)
Here one can clearly see that the
Inclination of AVP with VP = Inclination of TV with
XY line
LINE IN A PROFILE PLANE ( MEANS IN A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTH HP & VP)
For T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PATTERN OF LINE IN PROFILE PLANE

VP VT PP
a’ a”
A a’
Φ
FV LSV

b’ b b”
’ θ
X Y
HT

a
B Fo
rF
.V. TV
a
b
b HP

Results:-
1. TV & FV both are vertical, hence arrive on one single
projector.
2. It’s Side View shows True Length ( TL) θ +Φ=
3. Sum of it’s inclinations with HP & VP equals to 90 (
0
900
4. It’s HT & VT arrive on same projector and can be easily )
located
OBSERVE CAREFULLY ABOVE GIVEN
FromILLUSTRATION
Side View. AND 2nd SOLVED PROBLEM.
PROBLEM 12 :- Line AB 80 mm long, makes 300 angle with Hp
and lies in an Aux.Vertical Plane 45 0 inclined to Vp. b Locus of b’ b 1’
End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 10 mm below X-y line. ’
Draw projections, fine angle with Vp and Ht.

Locus of a’ & a1’ a’ a1’

15 v h
X 45 0
’ Y
10 θ
Φ
VT HT

AVP 450 to VP

Simply consider inclination of Locus of

AVP
b b1 b’
as inclination of TV of our line,
well then?
You sure can complete it
as previous problems!
Go ahead!!
 PROBLEM 13 :- A line AB, 75mm long, has one end A in Vp. Other end B is 15 mm above Hp
and 50 mm in front of Vp.Draw the projections of the line when sum of it’s
Inclinations with HP & Vp is 900, means it is lying in a profile plane.
Find true angles with ref.planes and it’s traces.

VT (VT) a”
a’
SOLUTION STEPS:- Φ Side View
After drawing xy line and one projector Front view ( True Length )

VP
Locate top view of A I.e point a on xy as
It is in Vp, b b”
Locate Fv of B i.e.b’15 mm above xy as ’a θ (HT)
X H Y
it is above Hp.and Tv of B i.e. b, 50 mm P
below xy asit is 50 mm in front of Vp
Draw side view structure of Vp and Hp top view
and locate S.V. of point B i.e. b’’
From this point cut 75 mm distance on Vp and
Mark a’’ as A is in Vp. (This is also VT of line.) b
From this point draw locus to left & get a’ HT
Extend SV up to Hp. It will be HT. As it is a Tv
Rotate it and bring it on projector of b.
Now as discussed earlier SV gives TL of line
and at the same time on extension up to Hp &
Vp
gives inclinations with those panes.
 APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIONS OF LINES
IN SOLVING CASES OF DIFFERENT PRACTICAL SITUATIONS.

In these types of problems some situation in the field

or
some object will be described .
It’s relation with Ground ( HP )
And
a Wall or some vertical object ( VP ) will be given.

Indirectly information regarding Fv & Tv of some line or lines,

inclined to both reference Planes will be given
and
you are supposed to draw it’s projections
and
further to determine it’s true Length and it’s inclinations with ground.

Here various problems along with

actual pictures of those situations are given
for you to understand those clearly. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS
Now looking for views in given ARROW directions, WITH THE SOLUTIONS
YOU are supposed to draw projections & find GIVEN IN THE END.
answers, ALL THE BEST !!
Off course you must visualize the situation properly.
PROBLEM 14:-Two objects, a flower (A) and an orange (B) are within a rectangular compound wall,
whose P & Q are walls meeting at 90 0. Flower A is 1M & 5.5 M from walls P & Q respectively.
Orange B is 4M & 1.5M from walls P & Q respectively. Drawing projection, find distance between
them
TV Consider suitable scale..
If flower is 1.5 M and orange is 3.5 M above the ground.

B Wall
Q

Wall P

FV
PROBLEM 15 :- Two mangos on a tree A & B are 1.5 m and 3.00 m above ground
and those are 1.2 m & 1.5 m from a 0.3 m thick wall but on opposite sides of it.
If the distance measured between them along the ground and parallel to wall is 2.6
m,
Then find real distance between them by drawing their projections.
TV

0.3M THICK
A

FV
PROBLEM 16 :- oa, ob & oc are three lines, 25mm, 45mm and 65mm
long respectively.All equally inclined and the shortest
is vertical.This fig. is TV of three rods OA, OB and OC
whose ends A,B & C are on ground and end O is 100mm
above ground. Draw their projections and find length of
each along with their angles with ground.

TV

O
65
mm C
25m
A m

FV
45
mm

B
PROBLEM 17:- A pipe line from point A has a downward gradient 1:5 and it runs due East-
South.
Another Point B is 12 M from A and due East of A and in same level of A. Pipe line from B runs
200 Due East of South and meets pipe line from A at point C.
Draw projections and find length of pipe line from B and it’s inclination with ground.

5
Dow
nwa
rd G 1
rad
ien
N t 1:
5
A
12 M
B E

S
PROBLEM 18: A person observes two objects, A & B, on the ground, from a tower, 15 M
high,
At the angles of depression 300 & 450. Object A is is due North-West direction of observer and
object B is due West direction. Draw projections of situation and find distance of objects from
observer and from tower also.

O
300

450
N

A
S

B
W
PROBLEM 19:-Guy ropes of two poles fixed at 4.5m and 7.5 m above ground,
are attached to a corner of a building 15 M high, make 300 and 450 inclinations
with ground respectively.The poles are 10 M apart. Determine by drawing their
projections,Length of each rope and distance of poles from building.
TV

15 M

A 300

4.5 M

450

FV 10 M 7.5M
PROBLEM 20:- A tank of 4 M height is to be strengthened by four stay rods from each corner
by fixing their other ends to the flooring, at a point 1.2 M and 0.7 M from two adjacent walls
respectively,
as shown. Determine graphically length and angle of each rod with flooring.
TV

4M

0 1.2
. M
7

M FV
PROBLEM 21:- A horizontal wooden platform 2 M long and 1.5 M wide is supported by four chains
from it’s corners and chains are attached to a hook 5 M above the center of the platform.
Draw projections of the objects and determine length of each chain along with it’s inclination with
ground.

TV
Ho H
ok

5
M

A C

M
2

5
M

1.

FV
B
PROBLEM 22.
A room is of size 6.5m L ,5m D,3.5m high.
An electric bulb hangs 1m below the center of ceiling.
A switch is placed in one of the corners of the room, 1.5m above the flooring.
Draw the projections an determine real distance between the bulb and switch.

Ceil
ing

TV

Bul
ll
b e wa
Si d
Front wall

H
Swit
ch

D
L

Observer
PROBLEM 23:-
A PICTURE FRAME 2 M WIDE AND 1 M TALL IS RESTING ON HORIZONTAL WALL RAILING
MAKES 350 INCLINATION WITH WALL. IT IS ATTAACHED TO A HOOK IN THE WALL BY TWO STRINGS.
THE HOOK IS 1.5 M ABOVE WALL RAILING. DETERMINE LENGTH OF EACH CHAIN AND TRUE ANGLE BETWEEN THEM

TV

350
1.5 M

1M

FV

2M

Wall railing
 PROBLEM NO.24
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
SOME CASES OF THE LINE End C is 15 mm below Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS. End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp and Vp.
REMEMBER:
BELOW HP- Means- Fv below xy
BEHIND V p- Means- Tv above xy. d’ d’1 LOCUS OF d’ & d’1

TL

FV
X Y
θ d d1 LOCUS OF d & d1
c’

TL

TV

c Φ
PROBLEM NO.25
End A of line AB is in Hp and 25 mm behind Vp.
End B in Vp.and 50mm above Hp.
Distance between projectors is 70mm.
Draw projections and find it’s inclinations with Ht, Vt.

LOCUS OF b’ & b’1

b’ b’1

FV

a TL
Φ

TV TL
X a’ θ b b1 Y
LOCUS OF b & b1

7
0
PROBLEM NO.26
End A of a line AB is 25mm below Hp and 35mm behind Vp.
Line is 300 inclined to Hp.
There is a point P on AB contained by both HP & VP.
Draw projections, find inclination with Vp and traces.

a Φ
b’ b’1 LOCUS OF b’ & b’1

35 FV TL

p p’
X p’1
y
25
θ=300
T

TL
V

a’

LOCUS OF b & b1
b b1
PROBLEM NO.27
End A of a line AB is 25mm above Hp and end B is 55mm behind Vp.
The distance between end projectors is 75mm.
If both it’s HT & VT coincide on xy in a point,
35mm from projector of A and within two projectors,
b
Draw projections, find TL and angles and HT, VT. b1

55

TV
a’ TL
θ
2
5
X Vt Y
Ht

FV
TL
Φ
a
35 b b’1
’

75
 PROJECTIONS OF PLANES
In this topic various plane figures are the
objects.
What is usually asked in the
problem?
To draw their projections means F.V, T.V. &
S.V.
What will be given in the
problem?
1. Description of the plane
figure.
2. It’s position with HP and VP.
In which manner it’s position with HP & VP will be described?

1.Inclination of it’s SURFACE with one of the reference planes will be

given.
2. Inclination of one of it’s EDGES with other reference plane will be
given Study the illustration showing
(Hencesurface
this will
& be
sideainclination
case of an object
given inclined
on next page. to both reference Planes.)
 CASE OF A RECTANGLE – OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL
STEPS.
SURFACE PARALLEL TO HP SURFACE INCLINED TO HP ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO VP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

For T.V.
For T.V.

For
Tv
F F
V V F
- - V
1 2 -
F 3
F v or
F
F. or

Fo V.
F.
r
V.
T
V- T

T
V
-3
1 V
-2
ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC
TV-True Shape FV- Inclined to XY FV- Apparent Shape
FV- Line // to xy TV- Reduced Shape TV-Previous Shape
VP d’ ’ VP
VP c c1’
d1 ’

a’ d’ a1’ b1 ’
b’ c’ a’’
b
d1
a d a1 d1
c1
b c b1 c1 a1

HP A HP B HP b1
C
 PROCEDURE OF SOLVING THE PROBLEM:
IN THREE STEPS EACH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED:( As Shown In Previous Illustration )
STEP 1. Assume suitable conditions & draw Fv & Tv of initial position.
STEP 2. Now consider surface inclination & draw 2nd Fv & Tv.
STEP 3. After this,consider side/edge inclination and draw 3rd ( final) Fv & Tv.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

(Initial Position means assuming surface // to HP or VP)
1.If in problem surface is inclined to HP – assume it // HP
Or If surface is inclined to VP – assume it // to VP
2. Now if surface is assumed // to HP- It’s TV will show True Shape.
And If surface is assumed // to VP – It’s FV will show True Shape.
3. Hence begin with drawing TV or FV as True Shape.
4. While drawing this True Shape –
keep one side/edge ( which is making inclination) perpendicular to xy line
( similar to pair no. A on previous page illustration ).

Now Complete STEP 2. By making surface inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other
B view.
(Ref. 2 pair
nd
on previous page illustration )
Now Complete STEP 3. By making side inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 3nd pair C on previous page illustration )

APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

Problem 1: Read problem and answer following questions
Rectangle 30mm and 50mm sides 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
is resting on HP on one small side 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to HP
which is 300 inclined to VP,while 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
the surface of the plane makes 450 4. Which side will be vertical? ---One small side.
inclination with HP. Draw it’s Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle below X-Y
projections. drawing one small side vertical.

Surface // to Surface inclined to

Hp Hp
d’c’ c’1 d’1

a’b’ c’d’
a’ b’ 450 b’1 a’1 Y
X 300
a a1 d1

a1
d Side
Incline
d

b1
to Vp
b c b1 c1

d1
c1
Problem 2: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long, is in VP and 300 inclined 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
to HP while it’s surface is 450 inclined 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
to VP.Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.

(Surface & Side inclinations directly

given)
Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
keeping longest side vertical.
a’ a’1

c’ c’1
side inclined to
c’Hp
1

a’1

b’1
b’1
b’
300
X a
b 450 a1 b1 Y
a c
b c1
c
Surface // to Surface inclined to
Vp Vp
Problem 3: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest side 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? ------- VP
100 mm long is in VP and it’s surface 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
450 inclined to VP. One end of longest 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
side is 10 mm and other end is 35 mm 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.
above HP. Draw it’s projections
Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
(Surface inclination directly given.
keeping longest side vertical.
Side inclination indirectly given)

First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.

Note the manner in which side inclination is given.
a’ a’1 End A 35 mm above Hp & End B is 10 mm above Hp.
So redraw 2nd Fv as final Fv placing these ends as said.
c’ c’1
c’1

a’1

35
b’1
b’1
b
X ’
1 Y
a a1
0
b 450 b1
a c
b c1
c
Problem 4: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
resting on HP on one of it’s sides with it’s 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
surface 450 inclined to HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw it’s projections when the side in HP 4. Which side will be vertical? -------- any side.
makes 300 angle with VP Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN.
d d’1
’
c’e’
e’1 c’1
b a’
X b a c’e’ d 450 b’1 Y
’ a’1
’ ’ ’
a1
e e1 300

e1
a a1 b1

d1
d
d1 c1
b b1

c c1
 Problem 5: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
on HP on one of it’s sides while it’s opposite 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
vertex (corner) is 30 mm above HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw projections when side in HP is 30 0 4. Which side will be vertical? --------any side.
inclined to VP. Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
SURFACE INCLINATION INDIRECTLY GIVEN
X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
SIDE INCLINATION DIRECTLY GIVEN:

ONLY CHANGE is
the manner in which surface inclination is described:
One side on Hp & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above Hp. d’ d’1
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above
arrangement. c’e c’1
30 e’1
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’ 30 mm above xy. ’

X b a’ c’e’ d a’
b’ a’1 b’1 Y
’ ’
300
e1 a1
e
e1
a a1 b1

d d1
d1 c1
b b1

c c1
 c’ c’1
d’ b’1
Problem 8: A circle of 50 mm diameter is a’ b’ d’ c’ b’
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC a’ 300 a’1 d’1 Y
X
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it’s Tv d1
450
a1 d1
d
is 450 inclined to Vp.Draw it’s projections.

a ca c1
1

b1 c1
Read problem and answer following questions
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP b b1
2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV The difference in these two problems is in step 3 only.
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3 rd step.
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. it’s TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c 1
Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
Problem 9: A circle of 50 mm diameter is final TV was completed.Study illustration carefully.
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter AC
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it makes c’ c’1
’ b’1
450 inclined to Vp. Draw it’s projections. a’ b’ d’ c’ b ’d
a’ a’1 d’1
d d1 d1
a1 300
Note the difference in T
a ca c1
construction of 3rd step 1 Lc
b1 1
in both solutions.
b b1
 Read problem and answer following questions
Problem 10: End A of diameter AB of a circle is in HP 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
A nd end B is in VP.Diameter AB, 50 mm long is 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
300 & 600 inclined to HP & VP respectively. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw projections of circle. 4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AB
Hence begin with TV,draw CIRCLE below
X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y

The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.

But in the 3rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of dia.AB is definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of it’s inclinations with HP & VP is 90 0.
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane.
Hence it’s both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND note the case carefully..

300
X Y
600
SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET
TL GIVING NAMES TO VARIOUS
POINTS AS USUAL,
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT
 Problem 11: Read problem and answer following questions
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP and 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
Its apposite parallel side is 25mm above Hp 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
and
In Vp. Draw it’s projections.
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long. 4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface
inclination
is described:
One side on Hp & it’s opposite side 25 mm above Hp.
Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above
arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’e’ 25 mm above xy. e’ e’1 d’1
d’
f’
25 c’ f’1 c1’
X a’b’ c’ f’ d’e’ b’ a’1 b’1 Y
a’ e1 d1
f f1
f1 c1
a e a1 e1
a1 b1 As 3rd step
b d b1 d1 redraw 2nd Tv
c1
keeping
c
side DE on xy line.
Because it is in VP
as said in problem.
 FREELY SUSPENDED
CASES. IMPORTANT
1.In this case the plane of thePOINTS
figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
Problem 12: 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm long 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
freely suspended from one corner (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig.
of vertical )
Base side.It’s plane is 450 inclined 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
to AS shown in 1st FV.
Vp. Draw it’s projections.
a’1
a
C ’

b’1
b’ g’ g’1
H
G c’ c’1
H/3
X Y

A B b
c
a,
b a,g g 450
First draw a given triangle c
With given dimensions,
Locate it’s centroid position
And Similarly solve next
join it with point of problem
suspension. of Semi-circle
 IMPORTANT
Problem 13 1.In this case the plane of thePOINTS
figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
:A semicircle of 100 mm diameter 2.It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
is suspended from a point on its 3.Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
straight edge 30 mm from the midpoint 4.Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV.
of that edge so that the surface makes (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig.
an angle of 450 with VP. vertical )
Draw its projections. 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended position.
AS shown in 1st FV.

A
a’
20
mm p’
P

G b’
CG g’

c’

e’
d’
X Y

b
14R
0.4

e
c
First draw a given semicircle

a
With given diameter,
b c a p,g d

p,
Locate it’s centroid position

g
And e

d
join it with point of
suspension.
 To determine true shape of plane figure when it’s projections are given.
BY USING AUXILIARY PLANE METHOD
WHAT WILL BE THE PROBLEM?
Description of final Fv & Tv will be given.
You are supposed to determine true shape of that plane
figure.
Follow the below given steps:
1. Draw the given Fv & Tv as per the given information in problem.
2. Then among all lines of Fv & Tv select a line showing True Length
(T.L.)
(It’s other view must be // to xy)
3. Draw x1-y1 perpendicular to this line showing T.L.
4. Project view on x1-y1 ( it must be a line view)
5. Draw x2-y2 // to this line view & project new view on it.
It will be the required answer i.e. True Shape.
The facts you must know:-
If you carefully study and observe the solutions of all previous
problems,
You will find
IF ONE VIEW IS A LINE VIEW & THAT TOO PARALLEL TO XY
LINE,
THEN AND THEN IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL SHOW TRUE SHAPE:

NOW FINAL VIEWS ARE ALWAYS SOME SHAPE, NOT LINE VIEWS:
SO APPLYING ABOVE METHOD:
Study Next
WE FIRST CONVERT ONE VIEW IN INCLINED LINE VIEW .(By using x1y1 aux.plane) Four Cases
THEN BY MAKING IT // TO X2-Y2 WE GET TRUE SHAPE.
 Problem 14 Tv is a triangle abc. Ab is 50 mm long, angle cab is 300 and angle cba is 650.
a’b’c’ is a Fv. a’ is 25 mm, b’ is 40 mm and c’ is 10 mm above Hp respectively. Draw projections
of that figure and find it’s true shape.
As per the procedure-
1.First draw Fv & Tv as per the data.
2.In Tv line ab is // to xy hence it’s other view a’b’ is TL. So draw x 1y1 perpendicular to it.
3.Project view on x1y1.
a) First draw projectors from a’b’ & c’ on x 1y1.
b) from xy take distances of a,b & c( Tv) mark on these projectors from x 1y1. Name points a1b1 &
c1.
c) This line view is an Aux.Tv. Draw x2y2 // to this line view and project Aux. Fv on it.
for that from x1y1 take distances
Y1 of a’b’ & c’ and mark from x 2y= on new projectors.
4.Name points a’1 b’1 & c’1 and join them. This will be a1bthe
1 required true shape.
Y2
900
b’ b’1
15 TL
a’

15
C1
10 C’ X1
X X2 a’1
Y
c E
c’1 TRUE SHAP

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
300 650 AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES
a b
OF PREVIOUS TV
50 mm REMEMBER!!
 Problem 15: Fv & Tv of a triangular plate are shown.
Determine it’s true shape.

USE SAME PROCEDURE STEPS 50

OF PREVIOUS PROBLEM: 25
BUT THERE IS ONE c’
DIFFICULTY: 15
a’
1’
NO LINE IS // TO XY IN ANY VIEW.
MEANS NO TL IS AVAILABLE. 20
b’
10
IN SUCH CASES DRAW ONE LINE X Y
// TO XY IN ANY VIEW & IT’S OTHER 15
x1
VIEW CAN BE CONSIDERED AS TL a c
FOR THE PURPOSE. TL
40 900
1 c’1
HERE a’ 1’ line in Fv is drawn // to xy. y2
HENCE it’s Tv a-1 becomes TL. a’1
b
c1
THEN FOLLOW SAME STEPS AND b’1
DETERMINE TRUE SHAPE. y1
(STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION) x2

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE b1

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES TRUE d1
OF PREVIOUS TV SHAP
E
REMEMBER!!
 PROBLEM 16: Fv & Tv both are circles of 50 mm diameter. Determine true shape of an elliptical
plate.

ADOPT SAME PROCEDURE.

a c is considered as line // to xy.
Then a’c’ becomes TL for the
purpose.
50D y1
Using steps properly true shape can b’ b1 y2
be
Easily determined.
TL ac1 1
Study the illustration. a’ c’ b’1
c’1
d’ d
X1 1
X d Y
X2

ALWAYS, FOR NEW FV

a’1
TAKE DISTANCES OF d’1
PREVIOUS FV AND a c TRUE
FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES SHAPE
OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!! 50 b
D.
 Problem 17 : Draw a regular pentagon of
30 mm sides with one side 300 inclined to
xy.
This figure is Tv of some plane whose Fv is TR
UE
A line 450 inclined to xy. b1 SH
Determine it’s true shape. AP
a1 E
c1
IN THIS CASE ALSO TRUE LENGTH
IS NOT AVAILABLE IN ANY VIEW. X1

BUT ACTUALLY WE DONOT

REQUIRE a’ e1 d1
TL TO FIND IT’S TRUE SHAPE, AS
ONE b’
VIEW (FV) IS ALREADY A LINE VIEW. e’
SO JUST BY DRAWING X1Y1 // TO
c’ Y1
THIS
d’
VIEW WE CAN PROJECT VIEW ON IT 450
AND GET TRUE SHAPE: X 300 Y
e
STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION..
d
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV a
TAKE DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS FV AND FOR
NEW TV, DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS TV c
REMEMBER!! b
 SOLID
To understand and remember
S various solids in this subject properly,
those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A Group B
Solids having top and base of same Solids having base of some shape
and just a point as a top, called
shape
apex.

Cylinde Cone
r

Prism Pyramid
s s

Triangular Square Pentagonal Triangular Square Pentagonal

Hexagonal Hexagonal
Cube Tetrahedron
( A solid having ( A solid having
six square faces) Four triangular faces)
 SOLIDS
Dimensional parameters of different solids.

Square Prism Square Cylinde Cone

Pyramid
Apex r Apex
Top
Rectangular Slant
Face Edge Triangular
Longer Base Face Base Base
Base
Edge

Corner of Edge Edge Corner of

Generators
base of of base
Imaginary lines
Base Base
generating curved surface
of cylinder & cone.

Sections of solids( top & base not Frustum of cone & pyramids.
parallel) ( top & base parallel to each
other)
 STANDING ON H.P RESTING ON H.P LYING ON H.P
On it’s base. On one point of base On one generator.
(Axis perpendicular to (Axis circle.
inclined to (Axis inclined to
Hp Hp Hp
And // to Vp.) And // to Vp) And // to Vp)

F.V. F.V. F.V.

X Y
While observing Fv, x-y line represents Horizontal Plane. (Hp)

X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Plane. (Vp) Y

T.V. T.V. T.V.

STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P LYING ON V.P

On it’s base. On one point of base On one generator.
Axis perpendicular to circle. to Vp
Axis inclined Axis inclined to
Vp And // to Hp Vp
And // to Hp And // to Hp
 STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN SOLIDS
Problem is solved in three steps:
STEP 1: ASSUME SOLID STANDING ON THE PLANE WITH WHICH IT IS MAKING INCLINATION.
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO HP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON HP)
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO VP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON VP)
IF STANDING ON HP - IT’S TV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP:
IF STANDING ON VP - IT’S FV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR TOP.
BEGIN WITH THIS VIEW:
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A RECTANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CYLINDER OR ONE OF THE PRISMS):
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A TRIANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CONE OR ONE OF THE PYRAMIDS):
DRAW FV & TV OF THAT SOLID IN STANDING POSITION:
STEP 2: CONSIDERING SOLID’S INCLINATION ( AXIS POSITION ) DRAW IT’S FV & TV.
STEP 3: IN LAST STEP, CONSIDERING REMAINING INCLINATION, DRAW IT’S FINAL FV & TV.

GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF SOLUTION:

GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID. GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID.
CONE CYLINDER CONE CYLINDER
AXIS AXIS
AXIS AXIS INCLINED HP INCLINED HP
AXIS AXIS VERTICAL INCLINED HP
VERTICAL INCLINED HP

er er AXIS
AXIS AXIS TO AXIS
AXIS AXIS TO
INCLINED VP VP INCLINED INCLINED
INCLINED VP VP
VP VP

Three steps Three steps Three steps Three steps

If solid is inclined to If solid is inclined to If solid is inclined to Vp If solid is inclined to
Hp Hp Problems Vp
Study Next Twelve and Practice them
 CATEGORIES OF ILLUSTRATED PROBLEMS!

PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, 4 GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP

PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON

PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE VIEW.

PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)

PROBLEM NO. 9 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.

PROBLEM NO. 10 & 11 CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS. (AUXILIARY PLANE)

PROBLEM NO. 12 CASE OF A FRUSTUM (AUXILIARY PLANE)

 Solution Steps :
Problem 1. A square pyramid, 40 mm Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
1.Assume it standing on Hp.
base sides and axis 60 mm long, has a 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
triangular face on the ground and the 3.Draw square of 40mm sides with one side vertical Tv &
vertical plane containing the axis makes taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
an angle of 450 with the VP. Draw its 5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’c’d’ face on xy. And project it’s Tv.
projections. Take apex nearer to VP 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2 nd Tv.Make it 450 to xy as
shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project final Fv.

o’

a’b’
a’1 b’1

Y
X a’b’ c’d’ d’1 c’1 o’1
o 1 d1
c’d’

a d
a1 o’

a1
d1 a1

o1 d1 c1
o
b c c1 b 1(APEX b
1
b1 NEARER (APEX o1
For dark and dotted lines c1 TO V.P). AWAY
FROM V.P.)
1.Draw proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an observer.
3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining)from it-
 Solution Steps:
Problem 2: Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on Hp:
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis 1.Assume it standing on Hp.
is resting on one generator on Hp 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( circle )
3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
which makes 300 inclination with Vp
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
Draw it’s projections. 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’e’ on xy. And
For dark and dotted lines
1.Draw proper outline of new vie project it’s Tv below xy.
DARK. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
2. Decide direction of an observer. as per the procedure.
3. Select nearest point to observer 7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
and draw all lines starting from ( generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project final
it-dark. Fv.
4. Select farthest point to observer o
’ a’1

a’
and draw all lines (remaining)
h’1 b’1

’
from it- dotted.

h ’b
’
c ’g
g’1
’
d ’f
f’1 c’1
X a’ h b c’ g f d e’ o’
e’1 d’ Y o1
e’

1 30
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
g g1
g1 o1
h f f1 h1 h1
f1 a1
a e e1 a1 o1
e1 b1

b d d1 b1
d1
c c1 c1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 3: Resting on Vp on one point of base, means inclined to Vp:
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm 1.Assume it standing on Vp
2.It’s Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
axis is resting on one point of a base 3.Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis project Tv.
circle on Vp while it’s axis makes 450 ( a Rectangle)
with Vp and Fv of the axis 350 with Hp. 4.Name all points as shown in illustration.
5.Draw 2nd Tv making axis 450 to xy And project it’s Fv above xy.
Draw projections.. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project final Tv.

4’
4’d’ d’ 4’
d’ 3’

3’ 1’
1’ a’ c’ a’ c’ 3’ c’
1’
a’ 2’
2’ b’
X b’ 2’ 350 b’ Y
c

a bd c 450 c1
d1
b1
bd

a1
3
3
a

4
2
24

1 24 3
1
1
 Solution Steps :
1.Assume it standing on Hp but as said on apex.( inverted ).
Problem 4:A square pyramid 30 mm base side 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
3.Draw a corner case square of 30 mm sides as Tv(as shown)
and 50 mm long axis is resting on it’s apex on Hp,
Showing all slant edges dotted, as those will not be visible from top.
such that it’s one slant edge is vertical and a
4.taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
triangular face through it is perpendicular to Vp. 5.Name all points as shown in illustration.
Draw it’s projections. 6.Draw 2nd Fv keeping o’a’ slant edge vertical & project it’s Tv
7.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
8.Then redrew 2nd Tv as final Tv keeping a1o1d1 triangular face
perpendicular to Vp I.e.xy. Then as usual project final Fv.

a’ a’1
a’ b’d’ c’ b’d
’ d’1 b’1
c’ c’1

X o’ o’ o’1 Y
d d1
d1 c1
a bo c ao1 b1 c1
1

a1 1 b1
o
 Solution Steps:
Problem 5: A cube of 50 mm long 1.Assuming standing on Hp, begin with Tv,a square with all sides
edges is so placed on Hp on one equally inclined to xy.Project Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
corner that a body diagonal is 2.Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’( This can become // to xy)
parallel to Hp and perpendicular 3.From 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
to 4.Draw 2nd Fv in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’ diagonal
Vp Draw it’s projections. must be horizontal. .Now as usual project Tv..
6.In final Tv draw same diagonal is perpendicular to Vp as said in problem.
Then as usual project final FV.
a’ a’1
b’d’ d’
d’
a’ b’d’ c’ 1
p’ c’ 1
3’
p’
c’1

3’ 1’ 1’
X 1’
Y

c1
d d1

b1
d1
a c a1 c1

a1
b b1
Problem 6:A tetrahedron of 50 mm long Solution Steps
edges is resting on one edge on Hp As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
while one triangular face containing this Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case as
edge is vertical and 450 inclined to Vp. shown:
Draw projections. First project base points of Fv on xy, name those & axis
line.
IMPORTANT: From a’ with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis line & mark
Tetrahedron is a o’
special type (as axis is not known, o’ is finalized by slant edge length)
of triangular Then complete Fv.
pyramid in which In 2nd Fv make face o’b’c’ vertical as said in problem.
base sides & And like all previous problems solve completely.o’1
slant edges are o’ o’
equal in length. TL
Solid of four a’ a’1
faces. 90 0

X b’ b’ c’ b’1
Like cube it is a’ c’ c’1 Y
also 450
described by One c c1
c
dimension only..
1
Axis length a o a1 o1 o
generally not
1
given. b
b b1 1
a
 FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are shown
below.

H
CG

H/ CG
2 H/
4
GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS
( Cylinder & ( Cone &
Prisms) Pyramids)
 Solution Steps:
Problem 7: A pentagonal pyramid In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
30 mm base sides & 60 mm long 1.Hence assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,corner
axis, case.
is freely suspended from one corner 2.Project Fv & locate CG position on axis – ( ¼ H from base.) and name g’
of and
base so that a plane containing it’s Join it with corner d’
axis 3.As 2nd Fv, redraw first keeping line g’d’ vertical.
remains parallel to Vp. 4.As usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking from.
Draw it’s three views. LINE d’g’ VERTICAL
d”
o’ d
’
c’e’ e” c”
FOR SIDE VIEW
g
H ’ a’b
a” b”
g ’
H/4 ’ o”
IMPORTANT: a’ b’ c’ e’ d’ Y
X
When a solid is e1
e
freely a1
suspended from a a
d1
corner, then line o do
1

joining point of b b1
contact & C.G. c c1
remains vertical.
( Here axis shows
inclination with
Hp.)
So in all such cases,
assume solid
Solution Steps: Problem 8:
1.Assuming it standing on Hp begin with Tv, a square of corner case. A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed
2.Project corresponding Fv.& name all points as usual in both views. on Hp on one corner that a body
3.Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2 nd Fv making it vertical (I’ on diagonal
xy) through this corner is perpendicular to
4.Project it’s Tv drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure. Hp
5.With standard method construct Left-hand side view. and parallel to Vp Draw it’s three views.
( Draw a 450 inclined Line in Tv region ( below xy).
Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and
reflect vertically upward, above xy.After this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these a’ a’’
lines. Name points of intersections and join properly.
For dark & dotted lines
locate observer on left side of Fv as shown.)
b’ d’ b’
d’
a’ b’d’ c’ ’ ’

c’
c’’
X 1’
1’ Y
d d 1’
1

a c a c
1 1

b b
Problem 9: A right circular cone, This case resembles to problem no.7 & 9 from projections of planes topic.
40 mm base diameter and 60 mm In previous all cases 2nd inclination was done by a parameter not showing TL.Like
long axis is resting on Hp on one Tv of axis is inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is 40 0
point of base circle such that it’s inclined
axis makes 450 inclination with to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected. So the same construction done in
Hp and 400 inclination with Vp. those
Draw it’s projections. Problems is done here also. See carefully the final Tv and inclination taken there.
So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual.
o’ o’1

o’
a’1
h’1

a’
b’1

h ’b
’ g’1 c’1
c’g
’
f’1 d’1
X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’
450 d ’f
’ e e’1
y
’ Axis True Length
g g1 o1 400
h f h1 f1
Axis Tv
d1 c1
a e a1 1 e1 Length
o1 e1
Locus of
f1 1 b1 Center 1
b1 d1
b d
c c1 g1 a1
Axis Tv h1
Length
Problem 10: A triangular prism,
40 mm base side 60 mm axis
is lying on Hp on one rectangular face
with axis perpendicular to Vp.
One square pyramid is leaning on it’s face F.V.
centrally with axis // to vp. It’s base side is
30 mm & axis is 60 mm long resting on Hp
on one edge of base.Draw FV & TV of
both solids.Project another FV
on an AVP 450 inclined to VP. X Y
y
450
Steps : 1

)
Vp
Draw Fv of lying prism

to
50
( an equilateral Triangle)

4
T.V.

VP
And Fv of a leaning pyramid.

(A
Project Tv of both solids.
Draw x1y1 450 inclined to xy
and project aux.Fv on it. Aux.F.V.
Mark the distances of first FV
from first xy for the distances
of aux. Fv from x1y1 line.
Note the observer’s directions
Shown by arrows and further
steps carefully.
1
X
Problem 11:A hexagonal prism of
base side 30 mm longand axis 40 mm long,
is standing on Hp on it’s base with
one base edge // to Vp.
A tetrahedron is placed centrally
on the top of it.The base of tetrahedron is
a triangle formed by joining alternate corners
of top of prism..Draw projections of both o’
solids.
Project an auxiliary Tv on AIP 450 inclined to TL
Hp.
STEPS:
Draw a regular hexagon as Tv of
standing prism With one side // to xy Y1

)
Hp
and name the top points.Project it’s Fv – a’ b’ f’ c’ e’ d’

to
a rectangle and name it’s top.

504
Now join it’s alternate corners

IP
Fv

(A
a-c-e and the triangle formed is base
of a tetrahedron as said. X Y Aux.Tv
Locate center of this triangle e1 o1
450
& locate apex o
f e
Extending it’s axis line upward f1 d1
mark apex o’
By cutting TL of edge of tetrahedron
equal to a-c. and complete Fv Tva o d a1 c1
of tetrahedron.
Draw an AIP ( x1y1) 450 inclined to xy b1
And project Aux.Tv on it by using similar b c
Steps like previous problem. X1
Problem 12: A frustum of regular hexagonal pyramid is standing on it’s larger
base
On Hp with one base side perpendicular to Vp.Draw it’s Fv & Tv.
Project it’s Aux.Tv on an AIP parallel to one of the slant edges showing TL.
Base side is 50 mm long , top side is 30 mm long and 50 mm is height of frustum.

Fv
AIP // to slant edge
1’ 2’5’ 3’4’ Y1
Showing true length
i.e. a’- 1’
4
5
TL

3
1 2

X a’ b’ e’ c’ d’ Y Aux.Tv
e d1
c1
d e1
Tv 5
4 X1 a1 b1
a 1
3
2
c

b
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
OF
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDES.

1. SECTIONS OF SOLIDS.
2. DEVELOPMENT.
3. INTERSECTIONS.

STUDY CAREFULLY
THE ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON
NEXT SIX PAGES !
 SECTIONING A SOLID. The action of cutting is
An object ( here a solid ) is cut by called
some imaginary cutting plane SECTIONING a solid
to understand internal details of that &
object. The plane of cutting is called
Two cutting actions means section planes are SECTION PLANE.
recommended.
OBSERVER
ASSUME
ON
UPPER PART CT
SE ANE
A) Section Plane perpendicular to Vp and inclined to Hp. REMOVED PL FV.
IN
( This is a definition of an Aux. Inclined Plane i.e. A.I.P.) (A)
NOTE:- This section plane appears
as a straight line in FV.

B) Section Plane perpendicular to Hp and inclined to Vp.

( This is a definition of an Aux. Vertical Plane i.e. A.V.P.) (B)
NOTE:- This section plane appears
as a straight line in TV.
Remember:- ASSUME
LOWER SE
C
1. After launching a section plane PART PL TON
IN
AN
E
REMOVED OBSERVER TV
either in FV or TV, the part towards observer .

is assumed to be removed.
2. As far as possible the smaller part is
assumed to be removed.
 For TV
ILLUSTRATION SHOWING
IMPORTANT TERMS Fo
rT
IN SECTIONING. ru
eS
ha
pe

SECTION
PLANE

TRUE SHAPE
Of SECTION

x y

Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)

SECTIONAL T.V.
Typical Section Planes
&
Typical Shapes
Of
Sections. Section Plane Ellips
Section PlaneTriangle Through Generators
e
Through Apex

ola
rab
Pa
Section Plane Parallel Section Plane Hyperbola
to end generator. Parallel to Axis.

Ellips Trapezium
e

Cylinder through Sq. Pyramid through

generators. all slant edges
 DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS.
MEANING:-
ASSUME OBJECT HOLLOW AND MADE-UP OF THIN SHEET. CUT OPEN IT FROM ONE SIDE AND
UNFOLD THE SHEET COMPLETELY. THEN THE SHAPE OF THAT UNFOLDED SHEET IS CALLED
DEVELOPMENT OF LATERLAL SUEFACES OF THAT OBJECT OR SOLID.

LATERLAL SURFACE IS THE SURFACE EXCLUDING SOLID’S TOP & BASE.

ENGINEERING APLICATION:
THERE ARE SO MANY PRODUCTS OR OBJECTS WHICH ARE DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE BY
CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, BECAUSE OF THEIR SHAPES AND SIZES.
THOSE ARE FABRICATED IN SHEET METAL INDUSTRY BY USING
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE. THERE IS A VAST RANGE OF SUCH OBJECTS.

EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers,
Large Pipe sections, Body & Parts of automotives, Ships, Aeroplanes and many more.

WHAT IS
To learn methods of development of surfaces of
OUR OBJECTIVE
different solids, their sections and frustums.
IN THIS TOPIC ?
1. Development is different drawing than PROJECTIONS.
But before going ahead, 2. It is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D plain drawing.
note following 3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
Important points. 4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can remain
hidden
And hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Study illustrations given on next page carefully.
 Development of lateral surfaces of different solids.
(Lateral surface is the surface excluding top & base)
Cylinder: A Rectangle
Pyramids: (No.of triangles)
Cone: (Sector of circle) S

H S
L L
πD
D θ
H= Height D= base diameter

Prisms: No.of Rectangles R=Base circle radius. L= Slant edge.

L=Slant height. S = Edge of
R 360
θ = L 0 base

+
H

S S H= Height S = Edge of base

Cube: Six
Squares.
Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles

All sides
equal in
length
 FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side

Top side

L L
L1 L1

R 360
θ = L 0
+

R= Base circle radius of cone

L= Slant height of cone L= Slant edge of pyramid
L1 = Slant height of cut part. L1 = Slant edge of cut part.

STUDY NEXT NINE PROBLEMS

OF SECTIONS & DEVELOPMENT
 Problem 1: A pentagonal prism , 30 mm base side & 50 mm axis Solution Steps:for sectional views:
is standing on Hp on it’s base whose one side is perpendicular to Vp. Draw three views of standing prism.
It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp, through mid point of Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
axis. Project points where edges are getting
Draw Fv, sec.Tv & sec. Side view. Also draw true shape of section Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in illustration.
and C
PE Join those points in sequence and
Development A of surface of remaining solid.
SH show
UE B
T R D Section lines in it.
Y1
Make remaining part of solid dark.

A A B C D
E E A
d’ d” c”
c’

X1 e’ e” b”
b’

a’
X a”
Y
e DEVELOPMENT
d
For True Shape: a For Development:
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw development of entire solid. Name from
Draw projectors on it from c
cut-open edge I.e. A. in sequence as shown.
cut points. b Mark the cut points on respective edges.
Mark distances of points Join them in sequence in st. lines.
of Sectioned part from Tv, Make existing parts dev.dark.
on above projectors from
x1y1 and join in sequence.
Draw section lines in it.
It is required true shape.
Problem 2: A cone, 50 mm base diameter and 70 mm axis is Solution Steps:for sectional views:
standing on it’s base on Hp. It cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined Draw three views of standing cone.
to Hp through base end of end generator.Draw projections, Locate sec.plane in Fv as described.
sectional views, true shape of section and development of surfaces Project points where generators are
of remaining solid. getting Cut on Tv & Sv as shown in
illustration.Join those points in
sequence and show Section lines in it.
Make remaining part of solid dark.
OF
E Y1 A
AP SECTIONAL S.V
SH N
E o

E N
U IO B

AN IO
TR EC T

PL C T
’
S

SE
DEVELOPMENT C

X1 E
X a hb c g f d e Y
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ g” h”f” a”e” b”d” c” F
g ’
For True Shape: h G
f
Draw x1y1 // to sec. plane
Draw projectors on it from For Development: H
cut points.
a e Draw development of entire solid.
Mark distances of points Name from cut-open edge i.e. A. A
of Sectioned part from Tv, in sequence as shown.Mark the
on above projectors from
b d
cut points on respective edges.
x1y1 and join in sequence. c Join them in sequence in
Draw section lines in it. SECTIONAL T.V
curvature. Make existing parts
It is required true shape. dev.dark.
 Problem 3: A cone 40mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one generator on Hp( lying on Hp)
which is // to Vp.. Draw it’s projections.It is cut by a horizontal section plane through it’s base
center. Draw sectional TV, development of the surface of the remaining part of cone.

Follow similar solution steps for Sec.views - True shape – Development as per previous
problem!
o DEVELOPMENT
’ A

a’
B

’
h ’b
HORIZONTAL

c ’g
SECTION PLANE C

’
d ’f ’ D
X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’ o Y
e’

’ O E
g g1
h f f1 h1 F

a e e1 a1 o1 G
O
H
b d d1 b1
A
c c1
SECTIONAL T.V
(SHOWING TRUE SHAPE OF SECTION)
 Note the steps to locate Problem 4: A hexagonal prism. 30 mm base side &
Points 1, 2 , 5, 6 in sec.Fv: 55 mm axis is lying on Hp on it’s rect.face with axis
Those are transferred to // to Vp. It is cut by a section plane normal to Hp
1st TV, then to 1st Fv and and
a’ b’ c’f d’ e’ Then on 2nd Fv. 300 inclined to Vp bisecting axis.
’
Draw sec. Views, true shape & development.
3
SECTIONAL F.V. Use similar steps for sec.views & true shape.

a’ b’
4
NOTE: for development, always cut open object
2 5 from
From an edge in the boundary of the view in which

c’f
’
sec.plane appears as a line.
1 6 Here it is Tv and in boundary, there is c1
X Y edge.Hence

d’ e’
f 8 7 it is opened from c and named C,D,E,F,A,B,C.
1,2 f
5,6 3,8
e
1
a1 e1
a
A.V.P300 inclined to Vp
4, 7
Through mid-point of
b d b1 d1 axis.
AS SECTION PLANE IS IN T.V.,
c X1 c1 CUT OPEN FROM BOUNDRY EDGE C1 FOR DEVELOPMENT.
8
1
C D E F A B C

2 7

Y1
3 6
TR
UE
SH
AP
E OF
SE 4 5
CT
IO
N
DEVELOPMENT
 Problem 5:A solid composed of a half-cone and half- hexagonal pyramid is
3 shown in figure.It is cut by a section plane 45 0 inclined to Hp, passing
UE 2 through
TR APE 4
SH mid-point of axis.Draw F.v., sectional T.v.,true shape of section and
Y1 development of remaining part of the solid.
5
( take radius of cone and each side of hexagon 30mm long and axis 70mm.)
1 O’ Note:
6 A Fv & TV 8f two solids

T
sandwiched

N
ME
7 B Section lines style in both:

OP
Development of

L
4’

VE
half cone & half pyramid:

DE
3’
X1 5’ C
2’ 6’ F.V. 2
4 3

1 D
1’ 7’
X Y
d’e’ c’f’ g’b a’ O
f ’
E
g 7
6
e 5
SECTIONAL 7 4 5 6
4
TOP VIEW. a
F
1 3
d 2 b G

c
A
Problem 6: Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
in it a largest VIEWS FROM GIVEN
circle.If the semicircle is development of a cone and inscribed DEVELOPMENT.
circle is some
curve on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that
curve. E
D F
o R=Base circle radius. 4
’ L=Slant height. 3 5
R 360 C G
θ L 0 =

+
1’
L 7’ 2 6
B H
6’
2’
1 7
3’ 5’ 4’
θ
X a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ d’f’ e’ Y
A A
O
g L
6
h f Solution Steps:
5
Draw semicircle of given diameter, divide it in 8 Parts and inscribe in it
a largest circle as shown.Name intersecting points 1, 2, 3 etc.
a 7
o Semicircle being dev.of a cone it’s radius is slant height of cone.( L )
4 e
Then using above formula find R of base of cone. Using this data
1
draw Fv & Tv of cone and form 8 generators and name.
Take o -1 distance from dev.,mark on TL i.e.o’a’ on Fv & bring on o’b’
b 3 d and name 1’ Similarly locate all points on Fv. Then project all on Tv
2
on respective generators and join by smooth curve.
c
Problem 7:Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a largest TO DRAW PRINCIPAL
rhombus.If the semicircle is development of a cone and rhombus is some VIEWS FROM GIVEN
curve DEVELOPMENT.
on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve.

Solution
o Steps:
’ Similar to
E
D F previous
4 Problem:
C 3 5 G
2 6
1 7
2’ 6’
B H
3’ 5’
a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’
X 1’ 7’ 4’ Y θ
g A A
O L
7 6
h f
5
R=Base circle radius.
L=Slant height.
R 360
a 4 e θ = L 0

+
b 3
d
2
1
c
Problem 8: A half cone of 50 mm base diameter, 70 mm axis, is standing on it’s half base on HP with it’s flat face
parallel and nearer to VP.An inextensible string is wound round it’s surface from one point of base circle and
brought back to the same point.If the string is of shortest length, find it and show it on the projections of the cone.

TO DRAW A CURVE
ON
PRINCIPAL VIEWS Concept: A string wound
FROM from a point up to the same
DEVELOPMENT. o’ Point, of shortest length
A Must appear st. line on it’s
Development.
B
Solution steps:
Hence draw development,
1 C Name it as usual and join
A to A This is shortest
2’ 3’ 4’ D Length of that string.
1’ 2
Further steps are as usual.
3 On dev. Name the points of
Intersections of this line
X Y 4 E with
a’ b’ c’ d’ e’
O Different generators.Bring
a o e
4 Those on Fv & Tv and join
by smooth curves.
3 Draw 4’ a’ part of string
1 2 dotted
b d
As it is on back side of
c cone.

A
Problem 9: A particle which is initially on base circle of a cone, standing
on Hp, moves upwards and reaches apex in one complete turn around the
cone.
Draw it’s path on projections of cone as well as on it’s development.
Take base circle diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm long.
It’s a construction of curve
o Helix of one turn on cone:
7’ ’ DEVELOPMENT Draw Fv & Tv & dev.as usual
HELIX CURVE
6’ On all form generators & name.
A Construction of curve Helix::
5’
4’
B Show 8 generators on both views
3’ Divide axis also in same parts.
2’ 1
Draw horizontal lines from those
1’ C
points on both end generators.
2 1’ is a point where first horizontal
X Y
a’ h’b’ c’ gg’ f’ d’ e’ D Line & gen. b’o’ intersect.
3
2’ is a point where second horiz.
h f O 4 E Line & gen. c’o’ intersect.
7
6 6 5 In this way locate all points on Fv.
5
7
F Project all on Tv.Join in
a e
O 4 curvature.
For Development:
3 G
Then taking each points true
b 1 d
2 Distance From resp.generator
c H from apex, Mark on development
& join.
A
 INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS
WHEN ONE SOLID PENETRATES ANOTHER SOLID THEN THEIR SURFACES INTERSECT
AND
AT THE JUNCTION OF INTERSECTION A TYPICAL CURVE IS FORMED,
WHICH REMAINS COMMON TO BOTH SOLIDS.

THIS CURVE IS CALLED CURVE OF INTERSECTION

AND
IT IS A RESULT OF INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS.

PURPOSE OF DRAWING THESE CURVES:-

WHEN TWO OBJECTS ARE TO BE JOINED TOGATHER, MAXIMUM SURFACE CONTACT BETWEEN BOTH
BECOMES A BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR STRONGEST & LEAK-PROOF JOINT.
Curves of Intersections being common to both Intersecting solids,
show exact & maximum surface contact of both solids.

Study Following Illustrations

Carefully.
Minimum Surface
Contact. (Maximum Surface Contact)
( Point Contact) Lines of Intersections. Curves of
Intersections.

Square Pipes. Circular Square Pipes. Circular

Pipes. Pipes.
 SOME ACTUAL OBJECTS ARE SHOWN, SHOWING CURVES OF INTERSECTIONS.
BY WHITE ARROWS.

A machine component having An Industrial Dust collector. Intersection of a Cylindrical

two intersecting cylindrical Intersection of two cylinders. main and Branch Pipe.
surfaces with the axis at
acute angle to each other.

Pump lid having shape of a

Two Cylindrical hexagonal Prism and
A Feeding Hopper Forged End of a
surfaces. Hemi-sphere intersecting
In industry. Connecting Rod.
each other.
 FOLLOWING CASES ARE SOLVED.
REFFER ILLUSTRATIONS COMMON SOLUTION STEPS
AND One solid will be standing on HP
NOTE THE COMMON Other will penetrate horizontally.
CONSTRUCTION Draw three views of standing solid.
FOR ALL Name views as per the illustrations.
Beginning with side view draw three
1.CYLINDER TO CYLINDER2.
Views of penetrating solids also.
2.SQ.PRISM TO CYLINDER On it’s S.V. mark number of points
And name those(either letters or nos.)
3.CONE TO CYLINDER The points which are on standard
generators or edges of standing solid,
4.TRIANGULAR PRISM TO CYLNDER ( in S.V.) can be marked on respective
generators in Fv and Tv. And other
5.SQ.PRISM TO SQ.PRISM
points from SV should be brought to
6.SQ.PRISM TO SQ.PRISM
Tv first and then projecting upward
( SKEW POSITION) To Fv.
7.SQARE PRISM TO CONE ( from top ) Dark and dotted line’s decision should
be taken by observing side view from
8.CYLINDER TO CONE it’s right side as shown by arrow.
Accordingly those should be joined
Note: by curvature or straight lines.
Incase cone is penetrating solid Side view is not necessary.
Similarly in case of penetration from top it is not required.
Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely penetrated CASE 1.
by another of 40 mm dia.and 70 mm axis horizontally Both axes intersect CYLINDER STANDING
& bisect each other. Draw projections showing curves of intersections. &
CYLINDER PENETRATING

1’ 2’ 4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’ a”
b h” b”
’h’
c’g’ g” c”

d’f’ f” d”
a’ e”
X Y

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely penetrated CASE 2.
by a square prism of 25 mm sides.and 70 mm axis, horizontally. Both axes CYLINDER STANDING
Intersect & bisect each other. All faces of prism are equally inclined to Hp. &
Draw projections showing curves of intersections. SQ.PRISM PENETRATING
1’ 2’ 4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’ a’ a”

b’ d” b”
d’ b’
d’
c’ c’
c”
X Y

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder of 80 mm diameter and 100 mm axis
CASE 3.
is completely penetrated by a cone of 80 mm diameter and CYLINDER STANDING
120 mm long axis horizontally.Both axes intersect & bisect &
each other. Draw projections showing curve of intersections. CONE PENETRATING

7’

6’
8’

1’
5’

2’
4’
3’
X Y

28

37

46
5
Problem: A sq.prism 30 mm base sides.and 70mm axis is completely penetrated CASE 4.
by another square prism of 25 mm sides.and 70 mm axis, horizontally. Both axesSQ.PRISM STANDING
Intersects & bisect each other. All faces of prisms are equally inclined to Vp. &
Draw projections showing curves of intersections. SQ.PRISM PENETRATING

1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’ a’ a”

b’ b’ d” b”
d’ d’

c’ c’
c”
X Y
4

1 3

2
Problem: A cylinder 50mm dia.and 70mm axis is completely penetrated
by a triangular prism of 45 mm sides.and 70 mm axis, horizontally.
One flat face of prism is parallel to Vp and Contains axis of cylinder.
Draw projections showing curves of intersections.

CASE 5. CYLINDER STANDING & TRIANGULAR PRISM PENETRATING

1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a a a

b b
b c
c
d
e e d
e
f f f
X Y
4

1 3

2
Problem: A sq.prism 30 mm base sides.and 70mm axis is CASE 6.
completely penetrated by another square prism of 25 mm side SQ.PRISM STANDING
s.and 70 mm axis, horizontally. Both axes Intersect & bisect &
each other.Two faces of penetrating prism are 30 0 inclined to Hp. SQ.PRISM PENETRATING
Draw projections showing curves of intersections. (300 SKEW POSITION)
1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’ a”
f f”
’
e’
e”
b”
b’
c’
d’ d” c”
X 300 Y
4

1 3

2
 CASE 7.
CONE STANDING & SQ.PRISM PENETRATING
(BOTH AXES VERTICAL)

2’

1’

3’

5’

4’
6’
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ e’ Y
g

h 8
f
9 7
10 Problem: A cone70 mm base diameter and 90 mm axis
6
a 1
e is completely penetrated by a square prism from top
2
with it’s axis // to cone’s axis and 5 mm away from it.
3 5 a vertical plane containing both axes is parallel to Vp.
4
Take all faces of sq.prism equally inclined to Vp.
b d
Base Side of prism is 0 mm and axis is 100 mm long.
c Draw projections showing curves of intersections.
5 mm OFF-
SET
Problem: A vertical cone, base diameter 75 mm and axis 100 mm long, CASE 8.
is completely penetrated by a cylinder of 45 mm diameter. The axis of the CONE STANDING
cylinder is parallel to Hp and Vp and intersects axis of the cone at a point &
28 mm above the base. Draw projections showing curves of intersection. CYLINDER PENETRATING
o’ o”

1 1
2 8,2 8 1
2
7 3
3 3
7,
4 64 6 4
5 5 5
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ e’ g” g”h” a”e” b”d” c” Y
g

h f

a e

b d

c
 ISOMETRIC DRAWING TYPICAL CONDITION.
IT IS A TYPE OF PICTORIAL PROJECTION IN THIS 3-D DRAWING OF AN OBJECT,
IN WHICH ALL THREE DIMENSIONS OF ALL THREE DIMENSIONAL AXES ARE
AN OBJECT ARE SHOWN IN ONE VIEW AND MENTAINED AT EQUAL INCLINATIONS
IF REQUIRED, THEIR ACTUAL SIZES CAN BE WITH EACH OTHER.( 1200)
MEASURED DIRECTLY FROM IT.

3-D DRAWINGS CAN BE DRAWN NOW OBSERVE BELOW GIVEN DRAWINGS.

IN NUMEROUS WAYS AS SHOWN BELOW. ONE CAN NOTE SPECIFIC INCLINATION
ALL THESE DRAWINGS MAY BE CALLED AMONG H, L & D AXES.
3-DIMENSIONAL DRAWINGS, ISO MEANS SAME, SIMILAR OR EQUAL.
OR PHOTOGRAPHIC HERE ONE CAN FIND
OR PICTORIAL DRAWINGS. EDUAL INCLINATION AMONG H, L & D AXES.
HERE NO SPECIFIC RELATION EACH IS 1200 INCLINED WITH OTHER TWO.
AMONG H, L & D AXES IS MENTAINED. HENCE IT IS CALLED ISOMETRIC DRAWING
D L
D
D L
L

H
H H
PURPOSE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING IS TO UNDERSTAND
OVERALL SHAPE, SIZE & APPEARANCE OF AN OBJECT PRIOR TO IT’S PRODUCTION.
 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:

ISOMETRIC AXES, LINES AND PLANES:

D L
The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting at point A and making
1200 angles with each other are termed Isometric Axes.
A
The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.

The planes representing the faces of of the cube as well as

other planes parallel to these planes are called Isometric Planes.
H
ISOMETRIC SCALE:
When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions
are visible then in the process all dimensions become proportionally
inclined to observer’s eye sight and hence appear apparent in lengths.

This reduction is 0.815 or 9 / 11 ( approx.) It forms a reducing scale which

Is used to draw isometric drawings and is called Isometric scale.

In practice, while drawing isometric projection, it is necessary to convert

true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring and marking the sizes.
This is conveniently done by constructing an isometric scale as described
on next page.
 TYPES OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

ISOMETRIC VIEW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Drawn by using True scale Drawn by using Isometric
( True dimensions ) scale
( Reduced dimensions )

D
4

H 2 C H
E
U H S 4 L
TR G T D
L EN
D 1 L 3

2 THS
NG
. LE CONSTRUCTION OF ISOM.SCALE.
0 OM From point A, with line AB draw 30 0 and
1 IS
450 inclined lines AC & AD resp on AD.
450 Mark divisions of true length and from
0 300
A B each division-point draw vertical lines
Isometric scale [ Line AC ] upto AC line.
The divisions thus obtained on AC
required for Isometric give lengths on isometric scale.
Projection
1 SHAP Isometric view if the Shape is
ISOMETRIC
OF E F.V. or T.V.
D
PLANE H
RECTANGLE D
FIGURES A D A L
AS THESE ALL ARE L
C C
2-D FIGURES D
WE REQUIRE ONLY A
TWO ISOMETRIC
AXES. B C B B
B
IF THE FIGURE IS H
TRIANGLE 3 B
FRONT VIEW, H & L 1 B 1 L 3
AXES ARE REQUIRED.
L
A A
3 D
IF THE FIGURE IS TOP
VIEW, D & L AXES 1
ARE REQUIRED. 2 A 2 2
4
Shapes containing PENTAG H E
Inclined lines 1 ON E 4 1 D 4
should be enclosed
D
in a rectangle as D
E
A A
shown. D L
L 1 3
Then first draw 3 A C
C
isom. of that
2 3 B B
rectangle and then B C 2 2
inscribe that shape
 STUDY 2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A

CIRCLE IF IT IS A TV OR FV.

FIRST ENCLOSE IT IN A SQUARE.

IT’S ISOMETRIC IS A RHOMBUS WITH
D & L AXES FOR TOP VIEW.
THEN USE H & L AXES FOR ISOMETRIC

B
WHEN IT IS FRONT VIEW.
FOR CONSTRUCTION USE RHOMBUS
METHOD SHOWN HERE. STUDY IT.
2

C
4
A B

3 4

3
A

1
D C

D
1
 3
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
25 R

DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE FIGURE

SHOWN WITH DIMENTIONS (ON RIGHT SIDE)
CONSIDERING IT FIRST AS F.V. AND THEN T.V.
50
MM
IF FRONT VIEW

100 MM

IF TOP VIEW
 ISOMETRIC SHAP IF F.V. IF T.V. 4
OF E
PLANE HEXAGO
N
FIGURES

AS THESE ALL ARE

2-D FIGURES
WE REQUIRE ONLY
TWO ISOMETRIC
AXES. CIRCLE

IF THE FIGURE IS
FRONT VIEW, H & L
AXES ARE
REQUIRED.

IF THE FIGURE IS For Isometric of Circle/Semicircle use Rhombus method. Construct Rhombus
TOP VIEW, D & L of sides equal to Diameter of circle always. ( Ref. topic ENGG. CURVES.)
AXES ARE
REQUIRED. SEMI CIRCLE
For Isometric of
Circle/Semicircle
use Rhombus method.
Construct it of sides equal
to diameter of circle always.
( Ref. Previous two pages.)
 5
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC VIEW OF PENTAGONAL
PYRAMID STANDING ON H.P.
(Height is added from center of
pentagon)

ISOMETRIC VIEW OF BASE OF

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P.

4
4
D
D E
E
D L D L
1 3 1 3
A C
A C
B
2
B
2
 6
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
PENTAGONALL PRISM
LYING ON H.P.

4
H E
1 D

L
3
C
B
2
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
HEXAGONAL PRISM
STANDING ON H.P.
 7
STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
CYLINDER STANDING ON H.P.

CYLINDER LYING ON H.P.

 8
STUDY
HALF CYLINDER
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
STANDING ON H.P.
( ON IT’S SEMICIRCULAR BASE)

HALF CYLINDER
LYING ON H.P.
( with flat face // to H.P.)
 9
STUDY ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A
FRUSTOM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER BASE.

60
FV

X Y

40 20

TV
 1
STUDY
0
ILLUSTRATIO
N

PROJECTIONS OF FRUSTOM OF ISOMETRIC VIEW

PENTAGONAL PYRAMID ARE GIVEN. OF
FRUSTOM OF PENTAGONAL PYRAMID
DRAW IT’S ISOMETRIC VIEW.

SOLUTION STEPS:
60

20
60
FV
FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC
OF IT’S BASE.

x y THEN DRAWSAME SHAPE

AS TOP, 60 MM ABOVE THE
E
1 4 BASE PENTAGON CENTER.
A
THEN REDUCE THE TOP TO
20 MM SIDES AND JOIN WITH
TV 40 20 D THE PROPER BASE
CORNERS.

40
2 3
C
 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A1
STUDY FRUSTOM OF CONE STANDING 1
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER BASE.

60
FV

X Y

40 20

TV
 1
PROBLEM: A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND
STUDY 50 MM LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED ON THE TOP OF A
2
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS CUBE OF 50 MM LONG EDGES.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.

50

30

50
 1
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

c
PROBLEM: A TRIANGULAR PYRAMID
OF 30 MM BASE SIDES AND 50 MM a
LONG AXIS, IS CENTRALLY PLACED o
ON THE TOP OF A CUBE OF 50 MM p a
LONG EDGES. b
DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF THE PAIR.
o c
p

SOLUTION HINTS.
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC OF A CUBE IS SIMPLE. DRAW IT AS USUAL.

BUT FOR PYRAMID AS IT’S BASE IS AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE,

IT CAN NOT BE DRAWN DIRECTLY.SUPPORT OF IT’S TV IS REQUIRED.

SO DRAW TRIANGLE AS A TV, SEPARATELY AND NAME VARIOUS POINTS AS SHOWN.

AFTER THIS PLACE IT ON THE TOP OF CUBE AS SHOWN.
THEN ADD HEIGHT FROM IT’S CENTER AND COMPLETE IT’S ISOMETRIC AS SHOWN.
 1
STUDY PROBLEM: 4
A SQUARE PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS BY A CYLINDER WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.

FV 30

10

30

30
D

50 +

50

TV
 1
STUDY PROBLEM: 5
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS A CIRCULAR PLATE IS PIERCED THROUGH CENTRALLY
BY A SQUARE PYRAMID WHICH COMES OUT EQUALLY FROM BOTH FACES
OF PLATE. IT’S FV & TV ARE SHOWN. DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW.

FV 30

10

30

40
SQUARE

60
TV
D
 1
STUDY 6
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS view.

10

20
40

FV

40

X
Y

TV

50 30
D D
 STUDY 1
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF SPHERE & HEMISPHERE
7

450 r

n
io
ct
R

ire
300 R r

D
r

o-
r

Is
Isom.
Scale P

C
r r
R C
R TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
R OF A HEMISPHERE
P r
P Adopt same procedure.
C = Center of Sphere. Draw lower semicircle only.
Then around ‘C’ construct
P = Point of contact Rhombus of Sides equal to
R = True Radius of Sphere Isometric Diameter.
r = Isometric Radius. For this use iso-scale.
Then construct ellipse in
TO DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A this Rhombus as usual
SPHERE And Complete
1. FIRST DRAW ISOMETRIC OF SQUARE PLATE.
2. LOCATE IT’S CENTER. NAME IT P. Isometric-Projection
3. FROM PDRAW VERTICAL LINE UPWARD, LENGTH ‘ r mm’ of Hemi-sphere.
AND LOCATE CENTER OF SPHERE “C”
4. ‘C’ AS CENTER, WITH RADIUS ‘R’ DRAW CIRCLE.
THIS IS ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF A SPHERE.
 1
PROBLEM:
A HEMI-SPHERE IS CENTRALLY PLACED 8 STUDY
ON THE TOP OF A FRUSTOM OF CONE. Z
ILLUSTRATIONS
DRAW ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY.

r
50 D
R r
30 D
r
50
P

50 D

FIRST CONSTRUCT ISOMETRIC SCALE.

USE THIS SCALE FOR ALL DIMENSIONS
IN THIS PROBLEM.

450
R
300
r
 1
STUDY A SQUARE PYRAMID OF 40 MM BASE SIDES AND 60 MM AXIS 9
IS CUT BY AN INCLINED SECTION PLANE THROUGH THE MID POINT
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS OF AXIS AS SHOWN.DRAW ISOMETRIC VIEW OF SECTION OF PYRAMID.

3’ 4’

3 1’2’

X Y
1 a d
1
4

2
o

3
b 2 c
 2
0
STUDY
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS view.

50

O
X Y

20

25

O
25 20
 2
STUDY 1
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS view.

35
FV

35

10
x y
O

10 20 30

40

70

TV
O
 2
STUDY 2
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

FV

30 10 30 SV

30

10

30
x y

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
 2
STUDY 4
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y

10
40 60

40
TV
60
 2
STUDY F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 5
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y
10

40 60

40 TV

60
2
6 STUDY
F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT L.H.SIDE VIEW

VIEW
20

20

20
x y
O 50

20

30

O
20 20 20

TOP VIEW
 2
STUDY 7
Z
ILLUSTRATION
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.
S

30
SQUARE
40 20

50

20
10

O 30
60
F.V
. S.V
.
O
 2
STUDY 8
Z
ILLUSTRATION
F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric
view.
S

F
V 40

10
O
30 45
D

10
50
O

80

T
V
 2
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric 9
Z
ILLUSTRATION view.
S

FV 40

X O 10 Y
100
10
25
TV
10 30 10
25
30 R O
20
D
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 0
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S
30

FV
REC
T.
SLO
10 T 50
35

10
X Y
O
20
D

TV

60
D 30
D
O
 3
STUDY 1
Z
ILLUSTRATION
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.
S

10

25 15

25
40 10

25

25

O O
80 25

F.V S.V
. .
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 2
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S

450

30
FV

40

X Y
O
30
D

40 TV

15
40
O
 3
STUDY 3
Z
ILLUSTRATION
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.
S

HEX PART
30
20
20
40
20

O 50
20
15

O 30
100 60
 3
STUDY F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view. 4
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S 20 40

F.V
. 30

10
X Y
O

10

30

10

30
O 80

T.V
.
 F.V. and S.V.of an object are given. 3
Draw it’s isometric view. 5

10 10 15 STUDY
Z
ILLUSTRATION
25 S

25
X Y
O 50 10
FV LS
V

3
6
NOTE THE SMALL CHZNGE IN 2ND FV & SV.
DRAW ISOMETRIC ACCORDINGLY.

10

X Y
O FV LS
V
 3
STUDY 7
Z
ILLUSTRATION
S

F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.

Draw it’s isometric view.

30 20 10 20

15
10

15

O
15
30

15
X O Y
50
F.V LEFT
. S.V.
 3
STUDY 8
Z
ILLUSTRATION
F.V. and S.V.of an object are given.
Draw it’s isometric view.
S

30 10

60

30
O

O 40 40
F.V. S.V.
 EXERCISES:

PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

1. A line AB is in first quadrant. Its ends A and B are 25mm and 65mm in front of VP
respectively. The distance between the end projectors is 75mm. The line is inclined at 30 0 to
VP and its VT is 10mm above HP. Draw the projections of AB and determine its true length
and HT and inclination with HP.
2. A line AB measures 100mm. The projections through its VT and end A are 50mm apart.
The point A is 35mm above HP and 25mm in front VP. The VT is 15mm above HP. Draw the
projections of line and determine its HT and Inclinations with HP and VP.
3. Draw the three views of line AB, 80mm long, when it is lying in profile plane and inclined
at 350 to HP. Its end A is in HP and 20mm in front of VP, while other end B is in first
quadrant. Determine also its traces.
4. A line AB 75 mm long, has its one end A in VP and other end B 15mm above HP and
50mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of line when sum of inclinations with HP and VP
is 900. Determine the true angles of inclination and show traces.
5. A line AB is 75mm long and lies in an auxiliary inclined plane (AIP) which makes an
angle of 450 with the HP. The front view of the line measures 55mm. The end A is in VP and
20mm above HP. Draw the projections of the line AB and find its inclination with HP and
VP.
6. Line AB lies in an AVP 500 inclined to Vp while line is 30 0 inclined to Hp. End A is 10
mm above Hp. & 15 mm in front of Vp.Distance between projectors is 50 mm.Draw
projections and find TL and inclination of line with Vp. Locate traces also.
APPLICATIONS OF LINES
Room , compound wall cases
7) A room measures 8m x 5m x4m high. An electric point hang in the center of ceiling and 1m
below it. A thin straight wire connects the point to the switch in one of the corners of the room and
2m above the floor. Draw the projections of the and its length and slope angle with the floor.
8) A room is of size 6m\5m\3.5m high. Determine graphically the real distance between the top
corner and its diagonally apposite bottom corners. consider appropriate scale
9) Two pegs A and B are fixed in each of the two adjacent side walls of the rectangular room 3m x
4m sides. Peg A is 1.5m above the floor, 1.2m from the longer side wall and is protruding 0.3m
from the wall. Peg B is 2m above the floor, 1m from other side wall and protruding 0.2m from the
wall. Find the distance between the ends of the two pegs. Also find the height of the roof if the
shortest distance between peg A and and center of the ceiling is 5m.
10) Two fan motors hang from the ceiling of a hall 12m x 5m x 8m high at heights of 4m and 6m
respectively. Determine graphically the distance between the motors. Also find the distance of
each motor from the top corner joining end and front wall.
11) Two mangos on a two tree are 2m and 3m above the ground level and 1.5m and 2.5m from a
0.25m thick wall but on apposite sides of it. Distances being measured from the center line of the
wall. The distance between the apples, measured along ground and parallel to the wall is 3m.
Determine the real distance between the ranges.
POLES,ROADS, PIPE LINES,, NORTH- EAST-SOUTH WEST, SLOPE AND GRADIENT CASES.
12)Three vertical poles AB, CD and EF are lying along the corners of equilateral triangle lying on the
ground of 100mm sides. Their lengths are 5m, 8m and 12m respectively. Draw their projections and find
real distance between their top ends.
13) A straight road going up hill from a point A due east to another point B is 4km long and has a slop of
250. Another straight road from B due 30 0 east of north to a point C is also 4 kms long but going
downward and has slope of 150. Find the length and slope of the straight road connecting A and C.
14) An electric transmission line laid along an uphill from the hydroelectric power station due west to a
substation is 2km long and has a slop of 30 0. Another line from the substation, running W 45 0 N to
village, is 4km long and laid on the ground level. Determine the length and slope of the proposed
telephone line joining the the power station and village.
15) Two wire ropes are attached to the top corner of a 15m high building. The other end of one wire rope
is attached to the top of the vertical pole 5m high and the rope makes an angle of depression of 45 0. The
rope makes 300 angle of depression and is attached to the top of a 2m high pole. The pole in the top view
are 2m apart. Draw the projections of the wire ropes.
16) Two hill tops A and B are 90m and 60m above the ground level respectively. They are observed from
the point C, 20m above the ground. From C angles and elevations for A and B are 45 0 and 300
respectively. From B angle of elevation of A is 45 0. Determine the two distances between A, B and C.
PROJECTIONS OF PLANES:-
1. A thin regular pentagon of 30mm sides has one side // to Hp and 30 0 inclined to Vp while its surface is 45 0
inclines to Hp. Draw its projections.
2. A circle of 50mm diameter has end A of diameter AB in Hp and AB diameter 300 inclined to Hp. Draw its
projections if
a) the TV of same diameter is 450 inclined to Vp, OR b) Diameter AB is in profile plane.
3. A thin triangle PQR has sides PQ = 60mm. QR = 80mm. and RP = 50mm. long respectively. Side PQ rest on
ground and makes 300 with Vp. Point P is 30mm in front of Vp and R is 40mm above ground. Draw its
projections.
4. An isosceles triangle having base 60mm long and altitude 80mm long appears as an equilateral triangle of
60mm sides with one side 300 inclined to XY in top view. Draw its projections.
5. A 300-600 set-square of 40mm long shortest side in Hp appears is an isosceles triangle in its TV. Draw
projections of it and find its inclination with Hp.
6. A rhombus of 60mm and 40mm long diagonals is so placed on Hp that in TV it appears as a square of 40mm
long diagonals. Draw its FV.

7. Draw projections of a circle 40 mm diameter resting on Hp on a point A on the circumference with its surface 30 0
inclined to Hp and 450 to Vp.
8. A top view of plane figure whose surface is perpendicular to Vp and 60 0 inclined to Hp is regular hexagon of 30mm
sides with one side 300 inclined to xy.Determine it’s true shape.
9. Draw a rectangular abcd of side 50mm and 30mm with longer 35 0 with XY, representing TV of a quadrilateral plane
ABCD. The point A and B are 25 and 50mm above Hp respectively. Draw a suitable Fv and determine its true
shape.
10.Draw a pentagon abcde having side 50 0 to XY, with the side ab =30mm, bc = 60mm, cd =50mm, de = 25mm and
angles abc 1200, cde 1250. A figure is a TV of a plane whose ends A,B and E are 15, 25 and 35mm above Hp
respectively. Complete the projections and determine the true shape of the plane figure.0
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
1. Draw the projections of a square prism of 25mm sides base and 50mm long axis. The prism is
resting with one of its corners in VP and axis inclined at 30 0 to VP and parallel to HP.
2. A pentagonal pyramid, base 40mm side and height 75mm rests on one edge on its base on the
ground so that the highest point in the base is 25mm. above ground. Draw the projections when the
axis is parallel to Vp. Draw an another front view on an AVP inclined at 30 0 to edge on which it is
resting so that the base is visible.
3. A square pyramid of side 30mm and axis 60 mm long has one of its slant edges inclined at 45 0 to
HP and a plane containing that slant edge and axis is inclined at 30 0 to VP. Draw the projections.
4. A hexagonal prism, base 30mm sides and axis 75mm long, has an edge of the base parallel to the
HP and inclined at 450 to the VP. Its axis makes an angle of 60 0 with the HP. Draw its projections.
Draw another top view on an auxiliary plane inclined at 50 0 to the HP.
5. Draw the three views of a cone having base 50 mm diameter and axis 60mm long It is resting on a
ground on a point of its base circle. The axis is inclined at 40 0 to ground and at 300 to VP.
6. Draw the projections of a square prism resting on an edge of base on HP. The axis makes an angle
of 300 with VP and 450 with HP. Take edge of base 25mm and axis length as 125mm.
7. A right pentagonal prism is suspended from one of its corners of base. Draw the projections (three
views) when the edge of base apposite to the point of suspension makes an angle of 30 0 to VP. Take
base side 30mm and axis length 60mm.s
8. A cone base diameter 50mm and axis 70mm long, is freely suspended from a point on the rim of its
base. Draw the front view and the top view when the plane containing its axis is perpendicular to HP
and makes an angle of 450 with VP.
CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS.
9. A cube of 40mm long edges is resting on the ground with its vertical faces equally inclined to
the VP. A right circular cone base 25mm diameter and height 50mm is placed centrally on the top
of the cube so that their axis are in a straight line. Draw the front and top views of the solids.
Project another top view on an AIP making 45 0 with the HP
10.A square bar of 30mm base side and 100mm long is pushed through the center of a cylindrical
block of 30mm thickness and 70mm diameter, so that the bar comes out equally through the block
on either side. Draw the front view, top view and side view of the solid when the axis of the bar is
inclined at 300 to HP and parallel to VP, the sides of a bar being 45 0 to VP.
11.A cube of 50mm long edges is resting on the ground with its vertical faces equally inclined to
VP. A hexagonal pyramid , base 25mm side and axis 50mm long, is placed centrally on the top of
the cube so that their axes are in a straight line and two edges of its base are parallel to VP. Draw
the front view and the top view of the solids, project another top view on an AIP making an angle
of 450 with the HP.
12.A circular block, 75mm diameter and 25mm thick is pierced centrally through its flat faces by a
square prism of 35mm base sides and 125mm long axis, which comes out equally on both sides of
the block. Draw the projections of the solids when the combined axis is parallel to HP and inclined
at 300 to VP, and a face of the prism makes an angle of 30 0 with HP. Draw side view also.
 SECTION & DEVELOPMENT
1) A square pyramid of 30mm base sides and 50mm long axis is resting on its base in HP. Edges of base is equally
inclined to VP. It is cut by section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 450 to HP. The plane cuts the axis at 10mm
above the base. Draw the projections of the solid and show its development.
2) A hexagonal pyramid, edge of base 30mm and axis 75mm, is resting on its edge on HP which is perpendicular toVP.
The axis makes an angle of 300to HP. the solid is cut by a section plane perpendicular to both HP and VP, and passing
through the mid point of the axis. Draw the projections showing the sectional view, true shape of section and
development of surface of a cut pyramid containing apex.
3) A cone of base diameter 60mm and axis 80mm, long has one of its generators in VP and parallel to HP. It is cut by a
section plane perpendicular HP and parallel to VP. Draw the sectional FV, true shape of section and develop the lateral
surface of the cone containing the apex.
4) A cube of 50mm long slid diagonal rest on ground on one of its corners so that the solid diagonal is vertical and an
edge through that corner is parallel to VP. A horizontal section plane passing through midpoint of vertical solid diagonal
cuts the cube. Draw the front view of the sectional top view and development of surface.
5) A vertical cylinder cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP in such a way that the true shape of
a section is an ellipse with 50mm and 80mm as its minor and major axes. The smallest generator on the cylinder is
20mm long after it is cut by a section plane. Draw the projections and show the true shape of the section. Also find the
inclination of the section plane with HP. Draw the development of the lower half of the cylinder.
6) A cube of 75mm long edges has its vertical faces equally inclined to VP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to
VP such that the true shape of section is regular hexagon. Determine the inclination of cutting plane with HP.Draw the
sectional top view and true shape of section.
7) The pyramidal portion of a half pyramidal and half conical solid has a base ofthree sides, each 30mm long. The
length of axis is 80mm. The solid rest on its base with the side of the pyramid base perpendicular to VP. A plane parallel
to VP cuts the solid at a distance of 10mm from the top view of the axis. Draw sectional front view and true shape of
section. Also develop the lateral surface of the cut solid.
8) A hexagonal pyramid having edge to edge distance 40mm and height 60mm has its base in HP and an edge
of base perpendicular to VP. It is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to VP and passing through a point on
the axis 10mm from the base. Draw three views of solid when it is resting on its cut face in HP, resting the
larger part of the pyramid. Also draw the lateral surface development of the pyramid.
9) A cone diameter of base 50mm and axis 60mm long is resting on its base on ground. It is cut by a section
plane perpendicular to VP in such a way that the true shape of a section is a parabola having base 40mm. Draw
three views showing section, true shape of section and development of remaining surface of cone removing its
apex.
10) A hexagonal pyramid, base 50mm side and axis 100mm long is lying on ground on one of its triangular
faces with axis parallel to VP. A vertical section plane, the HT of which makes an angle of 300 with the
reference line passes through center of base, the apex being retained. Draw the top view, sectional front view
and the development of surface of the cut pyramid containing apex.
11) Hexagonal pyramid of 40mm base side and height 80mm is resting on its base on ground. It is cut by a
section plane parallel to HP and passing through a point on the axis 25mm from the apex. Draw the projections
of the cut pyramid. A particle P, initially at the mid point of edge of base, starts moving over the surface and
reaches the mid point of apposite edge of the top face. Draw the development of the cut pyramid and show the
shortest path of particle P. Also show the path in front and top views
12) A cube of 65 mm long edges has its vertical face equally inclined to the VP. It is cut by a section plane,
perpendicular to VP, so that the true shape of the section is a regular hexagon, Determine the inclination of the
cutting plane with the HP and draw the sectional top view and true shape of the section.
 PROBLEM 14:-Two objects, a flower (A) and an orange (B) are within a rectangular compound wall,
whose P & Q are walls meeting at 90 0. Flower A is 1.5M & 1 M from walls P & Q respectively.
Orange B is 3.5M & 5.5M from walls P & Q respectively. Drawing projection, find distance between
them If flower is 1.5 M and orange is 3.5 M above the ground. Consider suitable scale..

b’ b’1

r)
n s we
3,5 (a
TL
M a’
1.5
x M y
Wa Wa
B
ll P ll P
1.5
M a
3.6
1M
M
A
Wall Q
b
5.5
Wall Q M F.V.
PROBLEM 15 :- Two mangos on a tree A & B are 1.5 m and 3.00 m above ground
and those are 1.2 m & 1.5 m from a 0.3 m thick wall but on opposite sides of it.
If the distance measured between them along the ground and parallel to wall is
2.6 m,
Then find real distance between them by drawing their projections.

TV
b’ b 1’
B
3.00
a’
m

1.5 A
m 0.3M THICK
WAL
(G X L Y
L)
b
0.3 1.5
m m
Wall FV
thickness
1.2
m
a
2.6
m
REAL DISTANCE BETWEEN
MANGOS A & B IS = a’ b1’
 PROBLEM 16 :-
oa, ob & oc are three lines, 25mm, 45mm and 65mm
Tv
long respectively.All equally inclined and the shortest
is vertical.This fig. is TV of three rods OA, OB and
OC
whose ends A,B & C are on ground and end O is
100mm O
above ground. Draw their projections and find length
o’
of
each along with their angles with ground. C

100 A

TL2 TL1
TL3

Fv
b1’ b’ a’ a1’ c’ c1’
x y
a B
25

o Answers:
65 TL1 TL2 & TL3
b 45
c
 PROBLEM 17:- A pipe line from point A has a downward gradient 1:5 and it runs due South - East.
Another Point B is 12 M from A and due East of A and in same level of A. Pipe line from B runs
150 Due East of South and meets pipe line from A at point C.
Draw projections and find length of pipe line from B and it’s inclination with ground.

12
a’ 5 m b’
1 Dow
n
1:5 ward G 5
TL r adie
(a nt 1
FV n sw
er)

N
A 12 M
c’ c’1 c’2 B E
x y
N

W b
a 450 EA
ST
C
150

TV
S
TL ( answer) = a’
c D c’2
U
E
SO
U = Inclination of pipe line BC
TH
-E
AS
T
SOUTH
PROBLEM 18: A person observes two objects, A & B, on the ground, from a tower, 15 M high,
At the angles of depression 300 & 450. Object A is is due North-West direction of observer and
object B is due West direction. Draw projections of situation and find distance of objects
from
observer and from tower also. o’
300
45
0

15
M O
a’1 a’ b’ 300
450

a N

N
W E A
b o S
Answers: B
Distances of objects
from observe W
o’a’1 & o’b’
From tower S
oa & ob
 PROBLEM 19:-Guy ropes of two poles fixed at 4.5m and 7.5 m above ground,
are attached to a corner of a building 15 M high, make 30 0 and 450 inclinations
with ground respectively.The poles are 10 M apart. Determine by drawing their
projections,Length of each rope and distance of poles from building.

c 1’ c’ c’2 TV

C
300
b’
a’ 15M
450
15 M
7.5M
4.5M
300
A
4.5
M 450
12M
B
a b FV
10 M 7.5M

c
Answers:
Length of Rope BC=
b’c’2
Length of Rope AC=
a’c’1
Distances of poles from building = ca & cb
PROBLEM 20:- A tank of 4 M height is to be strengthened by four stay rods from each corner
by fixing their other ends to the flooring, at a point 1.2 M and 0.7 M from two adjacent walls
respectively,
as shown. Determine graphically length and angle of each rod with flooring.

FV
a’

TV
True Length
Answers:
Length of each rod
= a’b’1
A
Angle with Hp.
=
X b’1 Y
b’
4M
a
B 1.2 M
0
0.7 M .
7
b M FV
1.2 M

TV
PROBLEM 21:- A horizontal wooden platform 2 M long and 1.5 M wide is supported by four chains
from it’s corners and chains are attached to a hook 5 M above the center of the platform.
Draw projections of the objects and determine length of each chain along with it’s inclination
with ground.
h’

TV
H Ho
TL 5 ok
M

d’1 5
x M
a’d’ b’c’ y (G
L)

d c
D
1.5
h M
A C
a b
2
2

M .5
Answers: M
M

1
Length of each chain FV
= a’d’1 B
Angle with Hp.
=
 PROBLEM 22.
A room is of size 6.5m L ,5m D,3.5m high.
An electric bulb hangs 1m below the center of ceiling.
A switch is placed in one of the corners of the room, 1.5m above the flooring.
Draw the projections an determine real distance between the bulb and
switch.
6.5 Ceil
m ing
TV
1m b’ b’1 Bul
b Side wall
3.5 Front wall
m a’

1.5 H
x y Swit
ch
a
D
L

Observer

5m b

B- Bulb
A-Switch
Answer :- a’ b’1
PROBLEM 23:-
A PICTURE FRAME 2 M WIDE AND 1 M TALL IS RESTING ON HORIZONTAL WALL RAILING
MAKES 350 INCLINATION WITH WALL. IT IS ATTAACHED TO A HOOK IN THE WALL BY TWO STRINGS.
THE HOOK IS 1.5 M ABOVE WALL RAILING. DETERMINE LENGTH OF EACH CHAIN AND TRUE ANGLE BETWEEN THEM

h’
T
(cha V
ins)

a’b’ 1.5M
A 350
1.5 M
1M B
1M

c’d’ (wall railing) D

FV
X Y
a1 ad 2M
C Wall railing
(frame)

(cha
ins) Answers:
Length of each chain= hb1
b1 b True angle between chains =
c