Module – 2

Vehicle Dynamics
Mrs. Preethi S
Assistant Professor
Department of EEE
NIE Mysuru
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
• In a vehicle several forces act on it and the net or resultant force governs the motion according to
the Newton's second law.
• The propulsion unit of the vehicle delivers the force necessary to move the vehicle forward.
• This force of the propulsion unit helps the vehicle to overcome the resisting forces due to gravity,
air and tire resistance.
• The acceleration of the vehicle depends on:
 Power delivered
 Existing load and aerodynamics
 Mass of the vehicle
• The vehicle motion can be completely determined by analysing the forces acting on it
in the direction of motion.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 2

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
• The tractive force (Ft) in the contact area between the tires of the driven wheels and the
road surface propels the vehicle forward.
• The tractive force (Ft) is produced by the power plant and transferred to the driving
wheels via the transmission and the final drive.
• When the vehicle moves, it encounters a resistive force that tries to retard its motion.
The resistive forces are
• Rolling resistance (FR)
• Aerodynamic drag (FD)
• Climbing resistance/Grading resistance (FC)

Tractive Force Resistive force

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 3

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Aerodynamic Drag

• Aerodynamic drag is the resistance of air to the movement of the vehicle.

• A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion. This
force is known as aerodynamic drag.
• The main causes of aerodynamic drag are:
• shape drag
• skin effect

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 4

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Aerodynamic Drag

• Shape Drag: The shape drag is due to the shape of the

vehicle. The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air
in front of it
• The air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and
its pressure is thus increased. This results in high air
High Pressure Zone
pressure in the front of the vehicle.
• The air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill the
space left by the forward motion of the vehicle. This
creates a zone of low air pressure.
• Hence, the motion of the vehicle creates two zones of
pressure. The high pressure zone in the front of the
vehicle opposes its movement by pushing. On the other
hand, the low pressure zone developed at the rear of the Low Pressure Zone
vehicle opposes its motion by pulling it backwards.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 5
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Aerodynamic Drag

Shape Drag:

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 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Aerodynamic Drag

• Skin Friction: The air close to the skin of the vehicle moves
almost at the speed of the vehicle while the air away from the
vehicle remains still.
• Between these two layers (the air layer moving at the vehicle
speed and the static layer) the molecules move at a wide range of
speeds.
• The difference in speed between two air molecules produces
friction. This friction results in the second component of
aerodynamic drag and it is known as skin effect.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 7

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Aerodynamic Drag
The aerodynamic drag coefficients and the
The aerodynamic drag is expressed as FD frontal area for different vehicle types

where,
ρ is the density of air,
CD is the aerodynamic drag coefficient,
A is the cross-sectional area of the vehicle,
v is the vehicle speed in m/s,
vair is the wind speed in m/s.

Aerodynamic
It can be seen power
that thePDaerodynamic
= FDv drag power is a function of the cube of the speed, and
this load generally is the most significant load at high speed
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 8
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance:
• The rolling resistance is the combination of all frictional load forces due to the deformation of the
tire on the road surface and the friction within the drivetrain.
• The rolling resistance FR is described by the equation
• FR= CRmg
where,
• m is the mass of the vehicle,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity, nominally 9.81 m/s2,
• CR is the coefficient of rolling resistance.
• The weight of the vehicle directly affects the rolling resistance.
• The coefficient of rolling resistance tends to be relatively constant at low speeds.
• Although it increases at high speeds, the effects are not as significant, as the vehicle losses are
dominated by drag.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 9
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Rolling Resistance
• A tire at standstill
• The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due
to hysteresis in the tire material. Pressure distribution in
• On this tyre a force (P), is acting at its centre. contact area
• The pressure in the contact area between the tire and
the ground is distributed symmetrically to the centre
line and the resulting reaction force (Pz) is aligned
along P.
• Figure shows the deformation, z, versus the load P, in
the loading and unloading process.
Force acting on a tyre vs.
• It can be seen that, due to the hysteresis, the force (P) deformation in loading and
for the same deformation (z) of the tire material at unloading
loading is greater than at during unloading.
• Hence, the hysteresis causes an asymmetric
distribution of the ground reaction forces.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 10
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance: a tire at rolling
• When the tire rolls, the leading half of the
contact area is loading and the trailing half is
unloading,
• Thus, the pressure on the leading half is greater
than the pressure on the trailing half.
• This phenomenon results in the ground
reaction force shifting forward.
• The shift in the ground reaction force creates a
moment that opposes rolling of the wheels.
• On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is
mainly caused by deformation of the ground Ground reaction force shifts forward
surface.
• In this case the ground reaction force almost
completely shifts to the leading half.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 11
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Rolling Resistance
• When a vehicle is operated on a slope road, the normal load, P, should be replaced by the
component that is perpendicular to the road surface:
FR= CRmg cos(θ)
TRf mg S
• where, θ is the road slope angle in radians. in θ
TRr
• Rolling resistance is a function of
• tire material, tire structure, tire temperature FCf
mg C
mg
FCr
• tire inflation pressure, tread geometry os θ
θ
• road roughness, road material
• presence of absence of liquids on the road
Rolling resistance coefficient can also be denoted as ‘’

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 12

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Grading Resistance

• When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a component of force that is
always directed downwards.
• This force component opposes the forward motion, i.e. the grade climbing.
• When the vehicle goes down the grade, this force component aids the vehicle motion.
• Grading resistance can be expressed as

FC = mg sin(θ)
• where θ is the angle of incline,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity TRf mg S
in θ
TRr
FCf
mg C
os θ mg
FCr
θ

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 13

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Vehicle Road-Load Coefficients
• Significant testing is conducted by vehicle manufacturers for the various regulatory agencies.
• In addition to fuel economy and emissions data, the manufacturers need to supply data on
vehicle road-load coefficients based on the “coast-down” test.
• In this test, the vehicle is allowed to coast down from 120 km/h in neutral, and three
coefficients are generated to simulate the rolling, spinning, and aerodynamic resistances.
• The vehicle road-load force Fv as a function of speed, is defined as follows:
Fv =A + Bv + Cv2
where v is the vehicle speed in m/s, and the A, B, and C coefficients are determined from the
coast-down test.
• Typically, coefficient A correlates to the rolling resistance and coefficient C to the
aerodynamic drag. Coefficient B relates to the spinning or rotational losses and tends to be
relatively small.
• Using the coast-down coefficients to predict vehicle road loads is more accurate than simply
using values for the rolling resistance and the drag forces.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 14

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed

• The electric vehicle range can be estimated once the load power is known.
• An estimation of range is quite complex and depends on many factors.
• However, a simple estimation can be made based on a few basic assumptions.
• Steps:
1. Compute the road load power from the A,B and C coefficients specified by the
manufacturer.
2. Compute the battery power Pb, which is the road-load power divided by the electric
powertrain efficiency ηpt
3. Assuming a constant power draw, compute the time in hours for which the electric
powertrain can source constant power from the battery
t = E b / Pb
4. Compute the distance ‘s’ in this time that the vehicle can travel at the constant speed v
s = vt

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 15

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed

The vehicle parameters of the Tesla Model S is plotted as a function of speed.

The approximate range drops from about 800 km at 70 km/h to 360 km at 140 km/h.

Plot of high-performance BEV range at constant

cruising speed.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 16
 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed

Problem
A high-performance vehicle has an available battery energy of 90 kWh. Let the efficiency of
the powertrain from the battery to the transmission be 85%. Estimate the range of the above
high-performance vehicle at 120 km/h. The A,B, C coefficients are given by 177.2 N, 1.445
N/m/s, 0.354 N/m2/s2 respectively.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 17

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Gradability

• The gradability is the maximum slope that a vehicle can climb at a certain speed.
• In simple terms, it is the ratio of the rise to the run, or the tangent of the incline angle.
• It is often quoted as a percentage, with tan 45° being 100%

TRf mg S
in θ
TRr
FCf
mg C
os θ mg
FCr
θ

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 18

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Vehicle Acceleration

• Nominal vehicle power requirements are typically based on vehicle acceleration

requirements, usually specified as the time to accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h or from 0 to 60
mph.
• Under these conditions, the maximum available torque and power of the propulsion system
are likely to be required.
• Per Newton’s second law of motion for a linear system, the force required to accelerate or
brake a vehicle Fa is given by

𝑑𝑉
𝐹 𝑎= 𝑀
𝑑𝑡

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 19

General Description of Vehicle Movement
Total driving resistance
• The motive force (Fm) required at the drive wheels is made up of the driving resistance forces and
the accelerating force and is defined as

𝐹 𝑚= 𝐹 𝑅 + 𝐹 𝐷 + 𝐹 𝐶 + 𝐹 𝑎
1 𝑑𝑣
𝜌 𝐴𝐶 𝐷 𝑉 2 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( θ ) + 𝑀
𝐹 𝑚=𝑀𝑔𝐶 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( θ ) +
2
2 𝑑 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝐹 𝑚= 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑣 +𝐶 𝑣 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( θ ) + 𝑀
𝑑𝑡

• The power required (Preq) = V

• The motive torque Tm is the torque required at the drive axle and is obtained by multiplying the
motive force by the wheel radius r, thus relating the linear motion to rotating motion:
Tm = . r

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 20

General Description of Vehicle Movement
Axle Torque
• From Newton’s second law of motion for a rotating system, we can express torque as
𝑑 𝜔
𝑇 𝑚= 𝐽
𝑑𝑡
where J is the moment of inertia, and ω is the angular speed
• In addition to the motive torque to move the vehicle, we must also consider the torque to
spin the rotating parts within the drivetrain.
• This is represented by a drive-axle referenced moment of inertia, J axle.
• Thus, the total torque required at the drive axle T axle is the sum
of the motive torque and the torque required to accelerate J axle:
Taxle = Tm + Jaxleαaxle
where αaxle is the angular acceleration

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 21

General Description of Vehicle Movement
Traction torque
• The axle torque can be rewritten as
𝑇 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒=𝑟 𝑚 {
𝑑𝑣 (
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐴+ 𝐵𝑣 +𝐶 𝑣 ) +𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 +
2 𝐽 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑣
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 }
• The traction torque Tt is the torque developed on the output shaft of the IC engine or electric
motor.
• The maximum traction motor or engine torque and power are typically specified by the
manufacturer.
• These values are the maximum traction power and traction torque available on the shaft of
the motor or engine. The traction torque is directly geared to the drive-axle torque.
• The powertrain gearing ratio ng is specified by the manufacturer in the case of most cars.
• The gearing and transmission efficiency ηg can significantly impact the required motive
torque.
• The axle torque is related to the traction torque T t, when motoring, as follows: Tt = ng ηg Taxle

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 22

General Description of Vehicle Movement
Regenerative Braking of the Vehicle
• The energy used to brake or slow down a vehicle in a conventional vehicle is dissipated as
heat in the braking system and lost to the vehicle.
• An electric vehicle can capture or regenerate the energy and store it on the vehicle.
• The traction motor can develop a negative torque, up to the rated value in the forward
direction, which reverses the flow of power such that the kinetic energy of the vehicle is
converted to negative mechanical power on the rotor shaft, and subsequently converted to
electrical power by the machine, which is used to recharge the battery.
• The same theory as developed for acceleration applies, except that the efficiency of the
gearing must be correctly accounted for as follows:
Taxle = (ng /ηg )Taxle

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 23

 Traction Motor Characteristics
• Given that the maximum traction machine power and torque are published, we can
investigate the vehicle acceleration.
• The torque versus speed characteristic of an electric machine is a lot simpler and more linear
than IC engine.
• The electric motor can be characterized by two modes of operation, constant-torque mode
and constant-power mode.
(a) constant-torque mode: In constant-torque mode, which is a low-speed mode, the machine
can output a constant rated rotor torque Tr(rated) and the rotor power Pr increases linearly with
speed. Thus, the rotor torque Tr and rotor power Pr are limited as follows:
Tr = Tr(rated) and Pr = Tr(rated) ωr
where ωr is the angular frequency or speed of the rotor.
• This condition holds until the rated speed ωr(rated) of the machine defined by
ωr(rated) = (Pr(rated) )/(Tr(rated) )
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 24
 Traction Motor Characteristics
• The rated speed is also the base speed of the
machine.
• The base speed of the machine is the
minimum speed at which the machine can
output rated power.
(b) Constant-power mode: In constant power
mode, which is a high-speed mode, when
operating above the rated speed, the machine
can output a constant rated power Pr(rated) and
the available rotor torque decreases inversely
with rotor speed.
Pr = Pr(rated)
Tr(rated) = (Pr(rated) )/(ωr)

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 25

 Traction Motor Characteristics
• In low-speed operation, voltage supply to the
motor increases with the increase of speed
through the electronic converter while the flux is
kept constant.
• At the point of base speed, the voltage of the
motor reaches the source voltage.
• After the base speed, the motor voltage is kept
constant and the flux is weakened, dropping
hyperbolically with increasing speed.
• Hence, its torque also drops hyperbolically with
increasing speed.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 26

 Traction Motor Characteristics
• Figure shows the torque–speed profiles of a 60
kW motor with different speed ratios x (x = 2, 4,
and 6).
• Speed ratio x is defined as the ratio of its
maximum speed to its base speed.
• With a long constant power region, the maximum
torque of the motor can be significantly increased,
and hence vehicle acceleration and gradeability
performance can be improved and the
transmission can be simplified.
• However, each type of motor inherently has its
limited maximum speed ratio.
Speed–torque profile of a 60-kW electric motor
• For example, a permanent magnet motor has a with x = 2, 4, and 6.
small x (<2) Switched reluctance motors may
achieve x > 6 and induction motors about x = 4.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 27
 EV Traction Motor Sizing
• The sizing of the electric motor involves finding the power rating of the motor and the
operating speed range.
• The voltage rating and the dimensional packaging constraints must also be specified at the
system level design stage.
• The size of an electric motor depends on the maximum torque required from the
machine.
• The higher the maximum torque required, the larger will be the size of the motor.
• In order to minimize the size and weight, electric motors are designed for high-speed
operation for a given power rating.
• Gears are used to match the higher speed of the electric motor with the lower speed of the
wheels.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 28

 EV Traction Motor Sizing
• Typical motor speeds can be in the vicinity of 15,000 rpm for typical wheel speeds of
around 1,000 rpm for lightweight passenger vehicles.
• The transmission gear achieves this speed reduction in the range of ~10–15:1 typically in
two stages of 3–4:1 of speed reduction.
• The gear sizing depends on whether the low speed or the high speed performance of the
electric vehicle is more important based on the power rating determined for the electric
vehicle.
• The design of the electric motor will be discussed in view of the specified requirements of
the
• Initial acceleration
• The rated velocity on a given slope
• The maximum steady state velocity
• The maximum gradability.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 29

 EV Traction Motor Sizing
• In the process the following parameters will be used:
• rated motor power Pm
• rated motor speed, ωrm,
• rated wheel speed ωfwh,
• rated vehicle speed vf,
• vehicle total mass m,
• vehicle frontal area AF,
• rolling resistance coefficients C0 and C1,
• aerodynamic drag coefficient CD.
• The design process starts with a set of known parameters and some educated guess and
ends with the final design values that meet the requirements after several iterations.

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 30

 EV Traction Motor Sizing
a) Initial Acceleration
• The initial acceleration is specified as 0 to vf in tf seconds.
• vf is the vehicle rated speed obtained from vf = ωfwh · rwh.
• The design problem is to solve for Ft (traction force) starting with a set of parameters including
vehicle mass, rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag coefficient, percent grade, wheel radius etc.,
• The acceleration of the vehicle in terms of these variables is given by
𝑑𝑉 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝐹 𝑅𝐿𝐹 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• The motor power rating can be obtained by solving the above differential equation for a given
force–velocity profile, and the following boundary conditions.
• At t = 0, vehicle velocity v = 0.
• At t = tf, vehicle velocity v = vf.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 31
 EV Traction Motor Sizing
a) Initial Acceleration (cont.)
• Integrating the differential equation within the interval t = 0 to t = tf for velocities 0 to vf
𝑣𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑓

𝑚∫
𝐹 𝑡 − 𝐹 𝑅𝐿( 𝑣 ) ∫
= 𝑑𝑡
0 0

• The vehicle-rated velocity is higher than the motor-rated velocity and lies in the constant
power region of motor torque-speed characteristics.
• Splitting the integral on the left side into two velocity regions of 0–vrm for the constant
𝑣
torque mode and of vrm–vf for the constant
𝑣
power mode,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑟𝑚 𝑓

𝑚∫ +𝑚∫ =𝑡 𝑓 ¿ ¿
0 ( 𝑃 ¿ ¿ 𝑚/ 𝑣 𝑟𝑚 ) − 𝐹 𝑅𝐿 (𝑣 ) 𝑣 (
𝑟𝑚
𝑃 ¿¿ 𝑚 / 𝑣) − 𝐹 𝑅𝐿( 𝑣 )

• Can be solved numerically to find the motor power rating Pm

• In a practical setting, the electric motor should be designed with a low
base speed or rated speed and a wide constant power region.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 32
 EV Traction Motor Sizing
b) Rated Vehicle Velocity
• The drivetrain designed to accelerate the vehicle from 0 to rated velocity will always have
the sufficient power to cruise the vehicle at rated speed provided the roadway slope
specified for initial acceleration has not been raised for rated velocity cruising condition.
c) Maximum Velocity
• The traction power required to cruise the vehicle at maximum vehicle velocity vmax is
1 3
𝑃 𝑡 ,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑀𝑔𝐶 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜌 𝐴 𝐶 𝐷 𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( θ ) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
( )
2
• The dominant resistance force at high speeds is the aerodynamic drag force with the power
requirement to overcome it increasing at a cubic rate.
• For vehicles designed with fast acceleration characteristics, Pm is likely to be greater than
Pt,max.
• If Pt,max > Pm derived earlier to meet the initial acceleration requirement, then Pt,max will
define the electric motor power rating.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 33
 EV Traction Motor Sizing
d) Maximum Gradability
• The maximum gradability of a vehicle for a given motor and gear ratio can be derived from

• The maximum traction force Ft available from the preliminary motor design can be plugged
into the above equation to check whether the vehicle maximum gradability conditions are
met or not.
• If the maximum electric motor power derived for acceleration or maximum vehicle velocity
is not enough to meet the maximum gradability requirement of the vehicle, then either the
motor power rating or the gear ratio has to be increased.
• Care must be taken not to violate the maximum vehicle velocity requirement when increasing
the gear ratio.
• The gear ratio and motor power are decided in a coordinated manner to meet both the
requirements, while maintaining a reasonable size for both the electric motor and the gear.
Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 34
 Problem 1

• Compute forces due to drag, rolling resistance and gradient for the following
vehicles assuming  = 1.2 kg/m3, and  = 50. For the three vehicles given in the
table, size the EV motor for
a) max. velocity v1
b) max. velocity v2

Vehicle GVW (kg) CD Area (m2)  v1 (kmph) v2 (kmph) Tyre radius (m)
2-wheeler 180 0.9 0.5 0.013 30 80 0.28
3-wheeler 600 0.45 1.6 0.013 30 80 0.20
4-wheeler 1200 0.3 2.5 0.013 30 80 0.30

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 35

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (2-wheeler)

Force for a 2 wheeler with 20 s pick up Power for a 2 wheeler with 20 s pick up
300 7000

250 6000
5000
200

Power (W)
4000
Force (N)

150
3000
100
2000
50 1000
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity (kmph) Velocity (kmph)
Rolling resistance Aerodynamic Drag Rolling power Drag power Gradient power
Grading resistance Accelerating Force Accelerating power

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 36

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (2-wheeler)

• @30 kmph, power

requirement is 1kW Power for a 2 wheeler with 20 s pick
7000
Hero Electric Scooter up
6000
• Speed = 30 kmph = 500 rpm
5000
• Eg: Hero, Ampere etc.

Power (W)
4000
3000
• Low end two wheelers around
2000
Rs. 65,000/-
1000
• @90 kmph, power 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
requirement is 9kW
Velocity (kmph)
• High battery requirement Rolling power Drag power
Gradient power Accelerating power
• High force and torque
requirement too
• Eg: Ather, around 1,20,000/- Ather
onwards. 450

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 37

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (E-rickshaw)

Force for a 3 wheeler with 20 s pick up Power for a 3 wheeler with 20 s pick up
14000
1000
900 12000
800
10000
700
600

Power (W)
8000
Force (N)

500
400 6000
300 4000
200
100 2000
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity (kmph)
Velocity (kmph)
Rolling resistance Aerodynamic Drag
Grading Resistance Accelerating Force Rolling power Drag power Gradient power
Accelerating power

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 38

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (E-rickshaw)

• @30 kmph, power requirement is around 2 kW Power for a 3 wheeler with 20 s pick up
• Torque requirement becomes 160 Nm, not 14000
feasible.
12000
• Avoiding flyovers, high range driving and high
speed highways, around 70 Nm at 25 kmph on 10000
flat road is possible.
8000

Power (W)
6000

4000

2000

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity (kmph)
Rolling power Drag power Gradient power
Accelerating power

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 39

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (E-rickshaw)

Weights (in kg)

Vehicle kerb weight :310 Kgs
Vehicle kerb weight together with rider (reference weight) :460 Kgs
Gross Vehicle Weight :600 Kgs
Description of The Traction Battery
Kind of Electro – Chemical Couple: Lithium Ion
Nominal Voltage (V): 60 V
Battery Maximum Thirty Minutes Power (Constant Power Discharge) (kW) :5.4 kW
Battery Capacity, Ah in 2 h :90 Ah
Traction Motor
Make: KAL
Working Principle: BLDC
Direct current / alternating current / number of phases: D C
Separate excitation / series / compound: Separate
Type: Dual Geared
Use : Mono motor / multi motors (number): Mono
Maximum Power (kW): 2.2 kW

Department of EEE, NIE Mysuru Electric Vehicles - Module 2 40

 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (4 wheeler)

Force for a 4 wheeler with 20 s pick up

1800 Power for a 4 wheeler with 20 s pick up
25000
1600
1400 20000
1200
15000

Power (W)
1000
Force (N)

800 10000
600
5000
400
200 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Velocity (kmph)
Velocity (kmph) Rolling power Drag power Gradient power
Accelerating power
Rolling resistance Aerodynamic drag
Grading resistance Accelerating Force

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 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power (4 wheeler)

• Power Required Power for a 4 wheeler

40000
Speed (kmph) 50 60 70 80 90 35000
Power (kW) 15 20 25 32 40 30000
at 20 sec pick up 25000

Power (W)
20000
Power (kW) 11 15 20 25 30 15000
at 40 sec pick up 10000
5000
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
• Torque Required
Speed (kmph) 50 60 70 80 90 Velocity (kmph)
Total Power (20-s pick up)
Torque (Nm) 655 720 788 860 932 Total Power (25 sec pick up)

• However, say at 60 kmph, mainly accelerating force. So torque requirement is actually 300 Nm +
• Gradient and acceleration doesn’t go together.
• Appropriate motor has to be selected based on the power and torque requirements at different
speeds.

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 General Description of Vehicle Movement
Force and Power

Tata Tigor EV XE Plus

• Max Motor Performance: 40.23 bhp @ 4500 rpm,
105 Nm
• Battery: 21.5 kWh, Lithium Ion
• Battery Placed Under Rear Seats
• Battery Charging: 2 Hrs @ 220 Volt
• Electric Motor: 3 Phase AC Induction Motor
Placed At Front Axle
• Power Consumption / Mileage: 9.91 km/kWh
Tata Nexon EV XM
• Max Motor Performance: 127 bhp 245 Nm
• Battery: 30.2 kWh, Lithium Ion Polymer, 320 Volt
• Battery Placed Under Floor Pan
• Battery Charging: 8.5 Hrs @ 220 Volt
• Electric Motor: 1 Permanent magnet
synchronous Placed At Front Axle
• Power Consumption / Mileage: 10.33 km/kWh

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 EV Traction Motor Sizing - Problem
An electric vehicle of mass 1200 kg needs an acceleration time of 10 s from 0 to 120 kmph.
The rolling resistance coefficient is 0.01, the aerodynamic drag coefficient is 0.3, and the
front area is 2 m2. Size the EV motor and plot the torque vs. speed characteristics.
Max. speed/base speed = 2
Max. speed/base speed = 4

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 Drive Cycles
• A drive cycle is a standardized drive profile which can be used to benchmark and compare
fuel economy and emissions.
• Tests are conducted by operating vehicles using a professional driver driving on a flat
treadmill-type device called a dynamometer.
• There are many types of standardized drive cycles in use around the world. The Worldwide
Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP) has been developed for adoption in a
number of countries.
• There are four basic cycles used: FTP, HFET, US06, and SC03. The fifth test is a cold-
ambient FTP, termed FTP (cold).

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Drive cycle parameters
 Drive Cycles
• The Federal Test Procedure FTP drive cycle is for city driving

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 Drive Cycles
• The Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule or HFET drive cycle simulates highway
driving.

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 THANK YOU

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 Drive Cycles
• A higher-acceleration, more aggressive cycle is based on the USO6 drive cycle.

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 Drive Cycles
• The use of air-conditioning in city driving is introduced in the SCO3 drive cycle, and the
testing is conducted at a hot ambient of 95 F. The tests factor in varying temperature
conditions and the effects of cold and hot starts.

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