Q.1What is LAN, WAN Network? Compare each other.

LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network) are two types of networks used to connect
devices:
•LAN:
• Covers a small geographic area (e.g., home, office).
• High data transfer speeds.
• Limited to a single location or building.
•WAN:
• Covers a large geographic area (e.g., city, country, or global).
• Slower data transfer speeds compared to LAN.
• Connects multiple LANs over long distances.
Key Differences:
1.Size: LAN is smaller; WAN is larger.
2.Speed: LAN is faster; WAN is slower.
3.Cost: LAN is cheaper; WAN is more expensive to set up.
4.Management: LAN is easier to manage; WAN is more complex.
Q.2What is the Internet? Draw the block diagram of the Internet. What are different types of
networks on the internet? What is ISP?
The Internet is a global network that connects millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks, allowing them to communicate and share data using standardized protocols (TCP/IP).
Block Diagram of the Internet:
rust
| User | <----> | ISP's | <----> | Routers | <----> Internet Backbone
User: Devices like computers, smartphones.
•ISP: Internet Service Providers.
•Routers: Direct data between networks.
•Backbone: High-speed networks that form the core of the Internet.
Different Types of Networks on the Internet:
1.LAN (Local Area Network): Small-scale networks (e.g., homes, offices).
2.WAN (Wide Area Network): Large-scale networks (e.g., across cities, countries).
3.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Network spanning a city or a large campus.
4.VPN (Virtual Private Network): Secure private network over the Internet.
What is ISP?
An ISP (Internet Service Provider) is a company that provides individuals and organizations access to the Internet,
typically offering services like broadband, email, and web hosting.
Q.3What is packet switching and Circuit Switching network? explain each in detail. give answer in short
Packet Switching:
•Definition: Packet switching divides data into small packets that are transmitted independently over the network. Each packet
may take a different route and is reassembled at the destination.
•How it works:
1.Data is broken into packets.
2.Each packet contains routing information (destination, sequence, etc.).
3.Packets are sent through the network independently and may take different paths.
4.At the destination, packets are reassembled in the correct order.
•Advantages:
•Efficient use of network resources.
•Better handling of data congestion.
•Fault-tolerant (if a route fails, packets can be rerouted).
Circuit Switching:
•Definition: Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path (or circuit) between the sender and receiver for the
duration of the communication session.
•How it works:
1.A physical or logical path is reserved from the sender to the receiver.
2.Data is transmitted in a continuous stream without interruption over this dedicated path.
3.Once the session ends, the circuit is released.
•Advantages:
•Constant, predictable transmission speed.
•Suitable for real-time applications like voice calls.
•Examples: Traditional landline telephone networks.
Q4. What is TCP/IP protocol stack ? Elaborate the roles of each layer in TCP-IP stack. give in short
What is TCP/IP Protocol Stack?
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol stack is a set of communication protocols used to interconnect devices on the Internet. It
defines how data is transmitted over a network and is organized into layers, each responsible for specific functions.
Layers of the TCP/IP Protocol Stack:
1.Application Layer:
1. Role: This is where end-user applications interact with the network (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
2. Function: Handles high-level protocols, data formatting, and user communication.
3. Examples: Web browsers (HTTP), email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP).
2.Transport Layer:
1. Role: Ensures reliable data transfer between hosts, providing error-checking and flow control.
2. Function: Breaks data into segments and ensures proper data delivery through protocols like TCP (reliable, connection-oriented) and UDP (unreliable,
connectionless).
3. Examples: TCP, UDP.
3.Internet Layer:
1. Role: Manages logical addressing and routing of data across multiple networks.
2. Function: Adds IP addressing to data and routes packets to their destination across diverse networks.
3. Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (used for error reporting and diagnostics).
4.Network Access Layer (or Link Layer):
1. Role: Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network and provides access to the underlying hardware.
2. Function: Responsible for data encapsulation into frames, addressing, and access to physical networks.
3. Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
Summary of Layer Functions:
•Application Layer: User-level communication (web, email).
•Transport Layer: Reliable data transmission (TCP, UDP).
•Internet Layer: Routing and logical addressing (IP).
•Network Access Layer: Physical transmission and network access (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
The TCP/IP stack allows devices to communicate efficiently by breaking down the transmission process into these manageable layers.
Q.5What is protocol layering? give in short
Protocol layering is a design approach in networking where communication functions are divided into distinct layers,
each responsible for specific tasks. Each layer communicates only with the adjacent layers, allowing modular
development and simplifying troubleshooting.
For example, in the TCP/IP stack, the layers are:
1.Application Layer: User-level protocols (HTTP, FTP).
2.Transport Layer: Reliable data transfer (TCP, UDP).
3.Internet Layer: Routing and addressing (IP).
4.Network Access Layer: Data transmission over physical media (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
This structure allows flexibility, scalability, and ease of maintenance.

Q.6What is point to point and point to multipoint communication? give in short

Point-to-Point Communication:
•Definition: Communication between two devices or nodes, directly connected.
•Example: A phone call between two people, or a computer sending data to a server.
•Use case: Used in dedicated connections like telephone lines, VPNs, and direct cable links.
Point-to-Multipoint Communication:
•Definition: Communication where one device or node communicates with multiple devices or nodes simultaneously.
•Example: A broadcast TV transmission, or a satellite sending signals to multiple receivers.
•Use case: Used in broadcasting, video conferencing, and wireless networks like Wi-Fi.
Key Difference:
•Point-to-Point: One-to-one communication.
•Point-to-Multipoint: One-to-many communication.
Q.7What are the services offered by each layer in TCP-IP protocol?
Services Offered by Each Layer in the TCP/IP Protocol:
1.Application Layer:
1. Services: Provides network services directly to end-user applications (e.g., web browsing, email, file transfer).
2. Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.
2.Transport Layer:
1. Services: Ensures reliable (TCP) or unreliable (UDP) data delivery, error checking, flow control, and data segmentation.
2. Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable).
3.Internet Layer:
1. Services: Provides logical addressing (IP), routing of data packets across networks, and error handling.
2. Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP.
4.Network Access Layer:
1. Services: Handles the physical transmission of data over the network, data framing, and access to the physical media
(Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
2. Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP, PPP.

Q.8. What is an access network? give in short

An access network is the part of a telecommunications network that connects end-user devices (like computers, smartphones, or
home routers) to the core network or the Internet. It provides the "last-mile" connectivity, enabling users to access services such
as the Internet, VoIP, or other data services.
Key Points:
•Examples: DSL, fiber-optic networks, cable networks, Wi-Fi, and cellular networks (3G, 4G, 5G).
•Function: It links users' devices to the broader network infrastructure, often through local transmission media like copper wires,
fiber optics, or wireless signals.
In short, an access network is the network segment that allows users to connect to the global Internet or other services.
Q10 Explain different types of topologies in the network. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each topology? Draw
the network diagram of each topology.
1. Bus TopologyDescription: All devices connected to a single central cable.Advantages: Low cost, easy to implement for small
networks.Disadvantages: Single point of failure, slow with many devices, difficult to troubleshoot.
2. 2. Star TopologyDescription: Devices connected to a central hub or switch.Advantages: Easy to manage and expand, fault
isolation.Disadvantages: Central device failure disrupts the network, higher cost.
3. 3. Ring TopologyDescription: Devices connected in a closed loop.Advantages: Simple and efficient, minimal
collisions.Disadvantages: Single point of failure, performance degrades as devices are added
4. Mesh TopologyDescription: Each device is connected to every other device.Advantages: High fault tolerance, reliable,
redundant paths.Disadvantages: Expensive, complex to install and maintain.
5. Tree (Hierarchical) TopologyDescription: Hybrid of star and bus, arranged in a tree structure.Advantages: Scalable, hierarchical
organization.Disadvantages: Root node failure affects the entire network, expensive.
6. Hybrid TopologyDescription: Combines two or more topologies (e.g., star-bus).Advantages: Customizable to meet specific
needs, flexible.Disadvantages: Complex design, harder to manage and troubleshoot.
Q12 Explain the layer-to-layer communication using a real-life example of airline trafficking system
Layer-to-layer communication in an airline traffic system can be explained as follows:
1.Application Layer (Layer 7): A customer requests a flight booking through an app. The app sends an HTTP request to the
airline’s server.
2.Presentation Layer (Layer 6): The data (e.g., personal info, payment details) is encrypted using SSL/TLS for secure transmission.
3.Session Layer (Layer 5): Maintains the session between the customer’s device and the airline server, ensuring the transaction
continues smoothly without interruptions.
4.Transport Layer (Layer 4): The data is broken into packets and ensures reliable delivery using TCP. If any packet is lost, it's
retransmitted.
5.Network Layer (Layer 3): Routes the packets across the network using IP addresses, from the customer’s device to the airline’s
server.
6.Data Link Layer (Layer 2): Handles framing and data transfer between devices in the local network (e.g., Wi-Fi, Ethernet).
7.Physical Layer (Layer 1): Transmits the raw data as electrical signals over physical mediums (fiber optics, cables, or radio waves).
This layered process ensures the request from the customer is securely and efficiently transmitted to the airline’s server and
back.
Q13 How many point-to-point WANs are needed to connect n LANs if each LAN is able to directly communicate with any other
LAN?
Q1 Elaborate the role of network layer in detail.
The Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model is responsible for routing, addressing, and forwarding data
packets between devices across different networks. Its key functions include:
1.Routing: Determines the optimal path for data to travel from source to destination, using routing protocols like
RIP, OSPF, and BGP.
2.Logical Addressing: Assigns unique IP addresses to devices, ensuring proper identification across networks
(e.g., IPv4/IPv6 addresses).
3.Packet Forwarding: Routers use the destination IP address to forward packets to the next hop until they
reach the destination.
4.Fragmentation: Breaks down large packets into smaller fragments if needed to fit within the network's
Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU), and reassembles them at the destination.
5.Error Handling and Diagnostics: Provides error reporting and diagnostic tools (e.g., ICMP for ping and
traceroute) to manage network issues.
In summary, the Network Layer enables inter-network communication by managing addressing, routing, and
packet delivery across diverse networks.
Q2. What are routing protocols . Explain intera domain and inter domain routing protocols.
Routing protocols are algorithms used by routers to determine the best path for forwarding packets across networks. They
enable routers to exchange information about network topology and make dynamic routing decisions.
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) – Intra-domain Routing:
These protocols operate within a single network or domain (Autonomous System, AS) and are used to route data within that
domain.
•Examples:
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector protocol that uses hop count as the metric.
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state protocol that uses a more complex algorithm to calculate the shortest path.
• EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): A hybrid protocol with features of both distance-vector and link-
state protocols.
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) – Inter-domain Routing:
These protocols are used to route data between different networks or Autonomous Systems (ASes).
•Example:
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): The primary EGP used on the internet, BGP determines the best paths for data
exchange between different ASes based on policy and route attributes.
Summary:
•IGPs manage routing within a single AS (e.g., RIP, OSPF, EIGRP).
•EGPs manage routing between different ASes (e.g., BGP).
Q3. What is Distance Vector Routing?
Distance Vector Routing is a type of routing protocol where each router maintains a table (or vector) of the minimum distance to
all other routers in the network, and periodically shares this information with its neighbors. The "distance" is typically a metric
such as hop count, cost, or delay, and the "vector" refers to the list of distances to all reachable destinations.
•Working:
• Routers send their routing tables to directly connected neighbors, which then update their own tables based on the
received information.
• Each router chooses the shortest (or best) path based on the received data and updates its own routing table.
• If a router detects a route failure, it propagates this information to its neighbors, prompting them to update their routing
tables.
•Examples:
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a common distance vector routing protocol, where each router shares its entire
routing table with neighbors every 30 seconds.
•Limitations:
• Slow convergence (i.e., it takes time for routers to adapt to network changes).
• Susceptible to routing loops (though mechanisms like split horizon and poison reverse help mitigate this).
Q4. What is Path Vector Routing?
Path Vector Routing is a type of routing protocol used primarily in inter-domain (or inter-AS) routing. In path vector routing,
each router maintains a record of the full path (a sequence of Autonomous System numbers) that data must traverse to reach
its destination, rather than just the distance.
•Working:
• Each router in a path vector protocol advertises not just the destination and distance but also the path it uses to reach
the destination (e.g., the sequence of ASes).
• Routers use the full path information to avoid loops and choose the best path.
• Path vectors are exchanged between routers (usually at the edge of an AS) to communicate route information to other
ASes.
•Examples:
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is the primary example of a path vector protocol used on the internet. BGP routers
exchange path information, such as the AS path, to ensure the routing decisions are loop-free and follow policy-based
rules.
•Advantages:
• BGP avoids routing loops by using the AS path to ensure that no AS repeats in the route.
• It provides more control over routing policies (e.g., preferring one route over another).
In summary:
•Distance Vector Routing focuses on metrics to determine the best path, with periodic updates to neighbors.
•Path Vector Routing uses a sequence of AS numbers to track and control the path taken by data, commonly used in BGP for
inter-domain routing.
Q5. What is Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Algorithm?
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link-state routing protocol used to find the shortest path for data to travel across a network.
It operates within an Autonomous System (AS), exchanging routing information between routers to build a complete network
topology. OSPF uses the Dijkstra algorithm (Shortest Path First - SPF) to calculate the shortest path based on metrics like
bandwidth, delays, and link cost.
•Key Features:
• Link-State: Routers share their link-state information with all other routers, building a consistent network topology.
• Hierarchical Design: Supports a two-tier structure of areas (backbone and non-backbone areas), improving scalability.
• Fast Convergence: OSPF quickly adapts to changes in the network (e.g., router or link failures).
• Uses Cost: OSPF uses cost, typically based on bandwidth, to determine the optimal path.
Q6. What is Subnet Mask, and What is IP Address?
•An IP address is a unique numerical identifier assigned to devices on a network. It ensures that data sent over the
internet or a local network reaches the correct destination. IP addresses come in two formats:
•IPv4: A 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
•IPv6: A 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8::ff00:42:8329).
•Subnet Mask: A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into the network and host portions. It defines which
part of the IP address represents the network and which part represents the device (host) on that network.
•Example for IPv4: 255.255.255.0 (indicates the first three octets (24 bits) are for the network, and the last octet (8
bits) is for hosts).
Q7. What is Subnetting?
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks (subnets). It helps
improve network performance, security, and manageability by isolating traffic within subnets and reducing broadcast
traffic.
•How it works:
•A subnet mask is used to define the size of the subnet and the range of IP addresses within it.
•Subnetting enables the efficient use of IP address space, especially when dealing with a large number of devices.
•Example: A network with the IP address 192.168.1.0/24 can be subnetted into smaller subnets like 192.168.1.0/26,
192.168.1.64/26, etc.

Q8. Elaborate DHCP Protocol

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used to automatically assign IP addresses and
other network configuration settings (such as DNS servers, gateway addresses) to devices on a network. This
eliminates the need for manual IP address configuration on each device.
•How it works:
1.Discover: The client sends a DHCP Discover message to the network.
2.Offer: The DHCP server responds with a DHCP Offer message, including an available IP address.
3.Request: The client requests the offered IP address.
4.Acknowledge: The server acknowledges the request and assigns the IP address.
•Benefits: Simplifies network management by automating IP address assignment and reducing the chance of IP
conflicts.
Q9. What is Link-State Routing?
Link-State Routing is a type of routing protocol where routers share their link-state information (details about their links and
network topology) with all other routers in the network, allowing each router to independently calculate the best path to each
destination.
•How it works:
• Each router constructs a Link-State Database (LSDB) using information received from neighboring routers.
• The router then uses this database to create a routing table by applying the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm (like
Dijkstra).
•Examples: OSPF and IS-IS are link-state protocols.
•Advantages:
• Faster convergence than distance vector protocols.
• More accurate routing decisions since routers have a complete view of the network topology.
Q10. What is Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)?
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a network protocol used to prevent looping in Ethernet networks by creating a loop-free logical
topology. It ensures that there is only one active path between any two devices in a network, even in networks with redundant
paths.
•How it works:
• STP uses the Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDU) to exchange information between network switches.
• Each switch elects a root bridge (the central switch) and then calculates the shortest path to the root bridge.
• If a switch detects a redundant or looped path, it places that path in a blocking state to prevent a loop.
•Key Protocol: IEEE 802.1D defines STP.
•Benefits:
• Prevents broadcast storms and network congestion caused by loops.
• Ensures network redundancy while maintaining a stable topology.