Nationalisms

Unpacking the Roots and Rise of Nationalism in Europe and South Africa
What is Nationalism?
Definition of Nationalism:
• Nationalism is a political, social, and cultural belief that emphasizes the interests, values, and identity of a
specific nation or group of people. It is the idea that people who share a common identity—based on culture,
language, history, ethnicity, and sometimes religion—should have the right to govern themselves and
promote their own interests.

Key Features of Nationalism:

• 1. Promotes National Interests:
• Nationalism focuses on protecting and promoting the goals, economy, and independence of a specific nation.
• It can mean opposing foreign influence or colonial rule, especially if people feel their way of life is under
threat.

• Shared Identity and Unity:

• A nation is seen as a group of people who share:
• A common history (e.g. historical struggles, victories).
• A common language (e.g. French, Zulu, Afrikaans).
• Shared traditions, customs, and culture (e.g. dress, holidays, music).
• Sometimes shared religion or ancestry.
• This shared identity helps people feel united, even if they are spread across large areas.
• Sense of Belonging and Pride:
• Nationalism creates a strong sense of belonging and national pride.
• People feel emotionally connected to their country or ethnic group.

Types of Nationalism:
• Civic Nationalism: Based on shared political values and citizenship (e.g. USA, France).
• Ethnic Nationalism: Based on shared ethnicity, language, and ancestry (e.g. Germany in the 1800s).
• Anti-colonial Nationalism: Developed in colonized nations, like many African countries, as a response to foreign
domination.

Possible Outcomes of Nationalism:

• 1. Unification:
• Nationalism can unite people from different regions into one country.
• Example: The unification of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871).
• 2. Independence Movements:
• Colonized or oppressed people may use nationalism to fight for freedom and self-rule.
• Example: African countries fighting against European colonialism in the 20th century.
• 3. Separatism and Division:
• Nationalist groups may want to break away from a larger country if they feel different or oppressed.
Why is Nationalism Important in History?
• It has been a powerful force in shaping modern countries and political
systems.
• It has led to both positive change (like independence) and negative
outcomes (like war and racism).
• In South Africa, both African nationalism and Afrikaner nationalism
shaped the country’s political path—African nationalism challenged
apartheid, while Afrikaner nationalism helped enforce it.
Origins of Nationalism
1. Enlightenment Ideas (1600s–1700s)
• The Enlightenment was a period in Europe where philosophers and
thinkers began to question traditional authority (like kings and the
church). They promoted ideas such as:
• Individual rights and freedoms
• Equality before the law
• The right of people to choose their leaders (popular sovereignty)
These ideas encouraged people to think about themselves as citizens of a
nation rather than just subjects of a king. It inspired people to unite under
shared values and demand self-government.
Key Influence: Thinkers like John Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire believed
in the power of the people to form governments that reflected their
2. The French Revolution (1789)
• The French Revolution was one of the first major events to put Enlightenment ideas into action:
• It overthrew the absolute monarchy in France.
• It promoted the idea that “the people” are the nation.
• The revolution introduced the concept of national citizenship and equality.
• People began to identify with their country and its values, not just their local regions or royalty.

The revolutionaries created symbols like the tricolor flag and the national anthem (La
Marseillaise), which strengthened the idea of a national identity.

Impact:It showed that ordinary people could unite and rise against oppression by forming a
national movement.
3. Napoleon’s Role in Spreading Nationalism
• Napoleon Bonaparte, who rose to power after the French Revolution, spread
the ideas of nationalism across Europe through his military conquests:
• He conquered many parts of Europe and abolished feudal systems.
• His reforms introduced uniform laws, schools, and centralized governments.
• As a result, people in occupied countries began to feel united by a common
enemy (France) and developed their own nationalist identities to resist
French control.
Example: In places like Germany and Italy, people began to see themselves as
one people and started nationalist movements to unite their regions.
4. The Industrial Revolution (1760–1850s)
• The Industrial Revolution was a period of major technological and economic change,
starting in Britain and spreading to the rest of Europe. It helped nationalism grow in
several ways:
• a. Improved Communication:
• The invention of railways, newspapers, and telegraphs made it easier for people to
connect with others across regions.
• These tools helped spread nationalist ideas, news, and pride more quickly.
• b. Shared Economic Interests:
• National economies grew stronger, and people became more dependent on one another
within the same country.
• This encouraged the development of a national market and a feeling of economic unity.
• c. Urbanization and Identity:
• People moved to cities and began working together in factories.
• They started to see themselves as part of a bigger group (the nation) rather than small
local communities.
Conclusion:
• The origins of nationalism are deeply rooted in:
• New political ideas about freedom and rights.
• Revolutions that showed people could govern themselves.
• Wars and resistance that united people against foreign rule.
• Modern developments that made it easier to spread national identity.
• These factors laid the foundation for both European nationalist
movements (like those in Italy and Germany) and anti-colonial
movements in Africa and other parts of the world in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
 Nationalist Movements in Europe
Italy and Germany:
• During the 19th century, nationalism became a powerful force in Europe, leading to the unification of fragmented states into
modern nations like Italy and Germany. These movements were driven by shared language, culture, and history, and led by
strong leaders.
1. Unification of Italy (1815–1871)
• Background:
• Before unification, Italy was divided into several independent states and kingdoms (e.g., Kingdom of Sardinia, Papal States,
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies).
• Some were controlled by foreign powers like Austria.
• Italians shared a common language, religion (Catholicism), and culture, which helped build a national identity.

2. Key Figures in Italian Unification:

• 1. Giuseppe Mazzini (the thinker):
• Founded Young Italy, a nationalist movement.
• Believed Italy should be a republic.
• Inspired patriotism and national pride among Italians.
• 2. Count Camillo di Cavour (the diplomat):
• Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.
• Used diplomacy and alliances, especially with France, to remove Austrian control from northern Italy.
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi (the fighter):
• Led the Red Shirts, a volunteer army that conquered southern Italy (Sicily and Naples).
• Handed over control to King Victor Emmanuel II to unite Italy.

Steps to Unification:
1.1859–1861: Northern states united under Sardinia after defeating Austria with
France's help.
2.1860: Garibaldi took control of the south and gave it to the king.
3.1861: Kingdom of Italy was declared (excluding Rome and Venice).
4.1866: Venice was added after war with Austria.
5.1870: Rome was annexed after French troops left; became the capital.
By 1871, Italy was fully unified under King Victor Emmanuel II.
Unification of Germany (1815–1871)
Background:
• Germany was divided into over 30 independent states (German Confederation), dominated
by Austria and Prussia.
• German language and culture created a sense of unity, but political divisions remained.
• The strongest German state, Prussia, led the unification.

Key Figure in German Unification:

• Otto von Bismarck:
• Prime Minister of Prussia (1862).
• Believed in "Realpolitik" – practical politics based on power, not ideals.
• Used war, diplomacy, and manipulation to achieve unification.
• Famous for the phrase: "Blood and Iron" (war and industry would unify Germany).
 Steps to German Unification:
1. Danish War (1864):
1. Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and gained two territories (Schleswig and Holstein).
2. Austro-Prussian War (1866):
1. Prussia defeated Austria in 7 weeks.
2. Austria was excluded from German affairs.
3. Prussia formed the North German Confederation.
3. Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871):
1. Prussia defeated France, gaining support from southern German states.
2. France’s defeat made German states unite out of national pride.
4. Proclamation of German Empire (1871):
1. German princes declared King Wilhelm I of Prussia as Kaiser (Emperor) of a united Germany in the Palace of
Versailles, France.
Results of Nationalist Movements in Europe:
• Italy and Germany became modern nation-states.
• Nationalism helped unify people with shared identity but also led to rivalries and future conflicts.
• These movements inspired future nationalist struggles, including in colonized countries like those in
 Nationalism as an Imagined
Community
Who is Benedict Anderson?
• Benedict Anderson was a political scientist and historian who introduced a very influential
theory of nationalism in his 1983 book, "Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin
and Spread of Nationalism."
• He argued that nations are not natural or eternal – instead, they are socially constructed or
"imagined" by people.

• What is an Imagined Community?

• A nation is an “imagined political community” because:
• Members of a nation do not all personally know each other.
• But they believe they share a deep, meaningful connection through common history, culture, and
values.
People in a nation imagine themselves as part of one large group, even though they may
never meet most of its members.
Example: A South African living in Limpopo may never meet someone in the Western Cape, but
both still consider themselves part of the same nation and may feel emotional pride during
 How Are Nations Imagined?
1. Through Media and Print Culture:
• Newspapers, books, and magazines helped create a shared national identity.
• Reading the same news made people feel they were experiencing life together, even though they were
far apart.
• This is known as "print capitalism"—the mass production of written materials in local languages created
common experiences.
2. Language:
• Use of standardized national languages (like Afrikaans, Zulu, English) helped unify people across regions.
• Local dialects were replaced by national languages used in schools, governments, and media.
• Shared language made people feel they belonged to the same group.
3. Education:
• School systems taught a common history, national heroes, geography, and symbols.
• Children across the country were taught the same content, which helped build a national consciousness.
• Education promoted the idea that all citizens are part of one nation with shared values.
Why Is This Theory Important?
• Anderson’s theory explains how nationalism developed, especially in
the modern era, without the need for ancient bloodlines or tribal
links.
• It helps us understand how very different people can feel united
through symbolic connections, such as:
• A national flag
• A national anthem
• A shared struggle or history (e.g., anti-colonialism in African nationalism)
Real World Application:
• African nationalism used this idea to create unity among diverse ethnic groups,
even though they had different languages and customs.
• Leaders used print, radio, schools, and shared history of oppression to "imagine" a
united African identit
• Example: In South Africa, even though Zulu, Xhosa, Sotho, and other groups are
different, African nationalists imagined a united black identity to fight apartheid.

Conclusion:
• Benedict Anderson's theory helps us understand that nations are not born – they
are built. Through media, education, and shared stories, people begin to feel
connected, creating a powerful sense of unity that can lead to independence
movements or political revolutions.
What Sparked African Nationalism?
Definition Recap: African Nationalism
• African nationalism is the belief that African people have the right to self-determination, unity, and
freedom from foreign (colonial) control. It aimed to restore pride, dignity, and independence to
African societies after decades of European colonization and racial discrimination.

Main Factors That Sparked African Nationalism:

1. Colonization and Oppression
• European countries colonized almost all of Africa by the early 1900s.
• Africans were treated as inferior in their own land.
• They were forced into cheap labour, heavily taxed, and denied political rights.
• Land was taken away from Africans and given to white settlers, especially in South Africa.

This created anger and the desire to reclaim land, freedom, and political power.
2. Formation of the Union of South Africa (1910)
• The Union united British colonies and former Boer republics into one
country, but:
• It excluded black South Africans from political participation.
• The new government was controlled by the white minority.
• This led to a realization that Africans needed to unite politically to
defend their rights.
This motivated the founding of early political movements like the
SANNC (later the ANC).
3. The 1913 Land Act
• The Natives Land Act stopped black South Africans from buying or
renting land outside 7% of the land area (called native reserves).
• Africans lost access to fertile land and were pushed into poverty and
overcrowded reserves.
• It symbolized the deep injustice of colonial rule.

This act helped spark mass resistance and gave a clear reason to fight
for national rights and land.
4. Influence of Mission-Educated African Elites
• Some Africans attended mission schools and were influenced by
Western ideas of freedom, justice, and equality.
• These professionals (teachers, lawyers, doctors, journalists) became
the first African leaders.
• They were frustrated that, despite being educated and qualified, they
were still treated as inferior under colonial laws.
These elites used their knowledge to organize protests, write petitions,
and form political organizations.
5. Shared African Identity and Pan-
Africanism
• African intellectuals began promoting the idea of Pan-Africanism:
• The belief that all Africans—on the continent and in the diaspora—share a common history and
destiny.
• Pan-African conferences and newspapers spread the idea of African unity.
• This helped create a stronger sense of belonging and pride in African heritage, necessary for
building nationalism.
6. Growth of Cities and Communication
• Industrialization and urbanization led Africans to migrate to cities for work.
• In cities, they shared experiences of oppression, built networks, and started organizing politically.
• Newspapers, trade unions, and churches spread ideas and united people across regions.

Media and migration helped people feel connected as one group, just like Benedict Anderson's idea of
an imagined community
Conclusion:
• African nationalism was sparked by:
• Racial oppression
• Land dispossession
• Exclusion from politics
• Western education and exposure to new ideas
• The need for dignity, land, and freedom
• These factors motivated African leaders and ordinary people to fight for
independence, equality, and national unity—a key theme in the anti-
apartheid struggle and across the African continent.
The Establishment of the APO

What is the APO?

• APO stands for African Political Organization.
• It was the first national political organization for coloured people in South Africa.
• Founded in 1902 in Cape Town by Dr Abdullah Abdurahman.

Background: Why was the apo formed?

• After the South African War (1899–1902), the four colonies (Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange
Free State) were moving toward unification (Union of SA in 1910).
• Coloured people in the Cape had limited voting rights under the Cape's “non-racial franchise”.
• There was a fear that these rights would be lost under white-dominated Union policies.
• Racism was increasing, and coloured South Africans were being excluded from decision-making and
political discussions.
Coloured communities needed a voice to represent them and protect their rights.
Objectives of the APO:
1. To oppose racial discrimination.
2. To protect the voting rights of coloured people in the Cape.
3. To fight for better education and equal opportunities.
4. To promote unity and political awareness among coloured South Africans.

Leadership: Dr Abdullah Abdurahman

• A highly educated man and a medical doctor.
• Elected to the Cape Town City Council in 1904 – the first person of colour to do so.
• Believed in peaceful negotiation, petitions, and education as tools for change.
• Travelled overseas to petition the British government for coloured rights in South Africa.
He became a symbol of coloured political leadership and played a vital role in early South
African nationalism.
Achievements and Activities of the APO:
• Published a newspaper called the APO Newspaper to spread awareness.
• Held mass meetings, petitions, and public debates.
• Worked to improve the education of coloured children.
• Built alliances with other African and Indian political groups.

+Limitations of the APO:

• It focused mainly on coloured middle-class concerns and did not fully represent all black
South Africans.
• APO did not grow into a mass movement.
• By the 1920s, it had declined in influence, as broader African nationalist movements like the
ANC gained momentum.
Legacy of the APO:
• The APO laid the foundation for organised political resistance in South Africa.
• It was one of the first organisations to formally challenge racial injustice and political
exclusion.
• It inspired future political formations and helped unite African, coloured, and Indian
struggles.

Conclusion:
• The African Political Organization (APO) was an early and important step in South
Africa’s nationalist history. Although limited in reach, its establishment in 1902 under Dr
Abdurahman showed the beginning of organized resistance and political awareness
among non-white South Africans during a time of growing racial oppression.
The Formation of the SANNC (ANC)
& the Call to Unite African People
• Background: Why Was the SANNC Formed?
• In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created, uniting the four
colonies (Cape, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State).
• The Union:
• Placed political power in the hands of the white minority.
• Excluded black South Africans from national politics.
• Ignored African input in discussions about land and governance.
• African leaders recognized the need for a national organisation to
defend African rights and promote unity.
The exclusion from the Union government and rising racial laws (like
the 1913 Land Act) pushed Africans to mobilize and unite politically.
What Was the SANNC?
• SANNC stands for South African Native National Congress.
• It was founded in 1912 in Bloemfontein.
• It is the precursor to the African National Congress (ANC), which became the main anti-
apartheid political party in later years.

• Founding of the SANNC:

• Key founder: John Langalibalele Dube (first president).
• Other founders: Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Sol Plaatje, Rev. Walter Rubusana, and other
traditional and educated African leaders.
• The founders came from various tribes and regions—showing a move toward African
unity across ethnic lines.
Objectives of the SANNC:
1.To unite African people across ethnic and regional divisions.
2.To protect African land rights, especially after the 1913 Natives Land Act.
3.To oppose discriminatory laws passed by the Union government.
4.To promote African pride, identity, and political representation.
5.To petition the British government and appeal for justice through peaceful
means.
The 1913 Natives Land Act: A Turning Point
• This law restricted black land ownership to just 7% of South Africa’s land.
• It shocked many Africans and helped rally support for a unified response.
 Methods Used by the SANNC:
• Petitions and delegations (e.g., 1914 delegation to Britain to protest the Land Act).
• Peaceful negotiation and appeals to the British Crown.
• Promoted African education and unity through speeches, writings, and meetings.
• Used newspapers (like those by Sol Plaatje) to expose injustice.

Challenges Faced by the SANNC:

• Limited support among rural Africans in its early years.
• Focused mostly on the African elite and educated class.
• British and South African governments ignored most petitions.
• Political space for African activism was extremely limited under white rule.

Name Change to ANC:

• In 1923, the SANNC changed its name to the African National Congress (ANC).
• The ANC expanded its focus and gradually became the leading force in the fight against
apartheid, especially from the 1940s onwards.
Conclusion:
• The formation of the SANNC in 1912 was a landmark in African
nationalism. It was a direct response to racial exclusion and laws like
the Land Act. While it began as a movement led by the elite, it laid the
foundation for future mass-based resistance and the rise of the ANC
as the leading liberation party in South Africa.
 The Role of Professionals and Traditional
Leaders
Introduction:
• During the early 20th century, both educated African professionals and traditional leaders (chiefs/kings) played a vital role
in the formation and growth of African nationalism. Although they came from different backgrounds, both groups aimed to
defend African land, identity, and rights under colonial and white minority rule.
1. Role of Educated African Professionals:
• These included:
• Teachers
• Lawyers
• Doctors
• Journalists
What They Did:
• Founded political organizations like the SANNC (later ANC) and APO.
• Used Western knowledge and skills to challenge racial discrimination legally and politically.
• Wrote newspapers and pamphlets to educate and mobilize the African public.
• Believed in peaceful resistance—petitioning the British government, writing letters, and making legal appeals.

Why They Were Important:

• They were able to speak English and Afrikaans, making it possible to argue against unjust laws in court and in parliament.
• They had access to political networks and could engage with international allies, especially in Britain.
2. Role of Traditional Leaders:
• These included:
• Chiefs
• Kings
• Tribal authorities
What They did
• Many were involved in founding the SANNC in 1912.
• Used their authority in rural areas to mobilize local support for political resistance.
• Some resisted colonial control through petitions, while others tried to negotiate with colonial authorities
for better treatment of their people.

Traditional leaders used their influence over their people to keep African unity alive in rural communities,
where the majority of the population lived.
Why They Were Important:
• They connected nationalist leaders in cities with the rural majority.
• Their support gave legitimacy and cultural depth to the nationalist cause.
Working Together:
• The early nationalist movements (like the SANNC) were a coalition of both traditional leaders and
educated professionals.
• Together, they presented a united African front to oppose racial laws and defend African rights.
This alliance showed that African nationalism was not just about cities or elites, but was rooted in all
parts of African society—urban and rural, modern and traditional.

Challenges Faced:
• Some traditional leaders were co-opted by colonial governments and resisted joining the
nationalist cause.
• Educated professionals and traditional leaders sometimes disagreed on strategies.
• Professionals wanted legal-political solutions.
• Chiefs were more focused on land and tribal concerns.
• Colonial rule deliberately divided African leadership to weaken resistance.
• Conclusion:
• The rise of African nationalism was strongly supported by both mission-educated professionals and
traditional leaders. Each played a different but complementary role: professionals used political
and legal tools, while traditional leaders mobilized rural support and defended cultural identity.
Their cooperation laid the early foundation for the broader anti-colonial and anti-apartheid
The Influence of World War II on
African Nationalism
1. African Soldiers in World War II
• Thousands of African men from across the continent, including South Africa, fought in World War II
(1939–1945) on the side of the British and Allies.
• They were promised respect and better treatment after the war.
• Many served in non-combat roles (e.g., drivers, stretcher-bearers, labourers) but still risked their lives.

2. Returning Soldiers Demanded Rights

• After the war, many African soldiers returned home with:
• New political ideas
• A broader worldview
• Experience of equality and solidarity with other soldiers
• They expected better treatment, but instead:
Faced the same racism, segregation, and lack of political rights.
3. The Atlantic Charter (1941)
• Signed by Winston Churchill (UK) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (USA) during the war.
• Declared that all peoples have the right to choose their own government (self-determination).
• Though meant for Europe, African leaders used this charter to argue for African independence.

4. Dr A.B. Xuma and "African Claims in South Africa" (1943)

• Dr Alfred Bitini Xuma was President of the ANC from 1940–1949.
• In 1943, the ANC published a powerful document called "African Claims in South Africa".
• It demanded:
• Full citizenship for all Africans
• Abolition of discriminatory laws
• Equal education, land, and jobs
• 5. Growth of Mass Movements After the War
• The post-WWII period saw a rise in political activism:
• More Africans joined the ANC and trade unions.
• The ANC Youth League was formed in 1944 (led by future leaders like Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and Oliver Tambo).
• The focus shifted from petitions to mass action and resistance.
6. Impact of International Developments
• The war weakened European colonial powers like Britain and France.
• The emergence of USA and USSR as global powers changed world politics—they often criticised colonialism.
• The United Nations was formed in 1945, and its charter supported human rights and self-determination.
These global developments gave African nationalists more confidence and support.
Conclusion:
• World War II was a turning point in African nationalism. It:
• Empowered returning African soldiers
• Introduced new global ideas of freedom and equality
• Inspired leaders like A.B. Xuma to make bold political demands
• Gave momentum to movements like the ANC, which began to mobilize more aggressively

This period marked the transition from peaceful petitions to mass political resistance—laying the groundwork for
future struggles against apartheid and colonial rule.
Different Types of African
Nationalism & the Split of the ANC
and PAC
1. What is African Nationalism? (Quick Recap)
• African nationalism is the belief that:
• Africa belongs to Africans
• Africans deserve freedom, dignity, unity, and self-rule
• Colonialism, racism, and land dispossession must be resisted and reversed

2. Different Types of African Nationalism

• By the 1940s–1950s, African nationalism began to develop different approaches based on how
people believed freedom should be achieved.
• 🔹 Moderate Nationalism
• Believed in non-violent change, negotiation, and working within the law.
• Led by the older generation of leaders like Dr A.B. Xuma.
• Focused on petitions, appeals to Britain, and peaceful protest.
• Radical / Militant Nationalism
• Believed that peaceful methods had failed.
• Wanted mass action, strikes, protests, and civil disobedience.
• Rejected working with colonial systems.
• Led by younger leaders who wanted faster, more forceful change.

3. Tensions Within the ANC

• By the 1950s, conflicts developed inside the ANC between:
• Moderates (older generation)
• Radicals (younger activists)
• The Freedom Charter (1955), which called for a non-racial South Africa (open to all races),
was seen by some as too inclusive. Some Africanists believed the struggle should focus only
on African leadership and exclude white allies.
4. The Split: Formation of the PAC (Pan Africanist Congress)
• 📅 In 1959, the ANC split and a new group was formed:
• The PAC (Pan Africanist Congress), led by Robert Sobukwe.
• It rejected the Freedom Charter and the ANC’s multiracial alliances.
• PAC believed in the slogan: "Africa for Africans".
• African nationalism developed in different forms, with some groups
favouring peaceful reform and others calling for more radical action.
The split between the ANC and PAC in 1959 showed the growing
frustration among Africans. Despite their differences, both
movements fought for freedom and played major roles in ending
apartheid.
What is Afrikaner Nationalism?
• Afrikaner nationalism is the belief that:
• Afrikaners (descendants of Dutch, French, and German settlers in
South Africa) are a distinct nation.
• Their language (Afrikaans), culture, religion, and heritage must be
protected.
• South Africa should be governed by white Afrikaners, not British or
Black South Africans.
It was both a cultural and political movement that became more
powerful after 1910, especially during the 1920s–1940s.
Why did Afrikaner Nationalism Rise.
Several key reasons:
• 🔸 British Domination:
• After the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), Britain dominated South Africa.
• Afrikaners felt oppressed culturally and politically by English-speaking South Africans.
• 🔸 Loss and Suffering from the War:
• Many Afrikaners lost land and family during the Anglo-Boer War.
• The trauma led to a desire for self-determination.
• 🔸 Economic Hardship:
• Many Afrikaners were poor white farmers who moved to cities and struggled economically.
• They feared being overtaken by Black workers and wanted economic upliftment.
• 🔸 Cultural Pride:
• A new generation wanted to preserve Afrikaner identity—their history, language, and religion (Dutch
Reformed Church).
3. The Afrikaans Language Movement
• Before 1925, Afrikaans was not recognized as an official language (Dutch and English were).
• Nationalists fought to make Afrikaans an official language of South Africa.
• 1925: Afrikaans officially replaced Dutch in schools and government
• 4. Cultural and Social Movements
• Several organisations promoted Afrikaner unity and culture:

🔹 FAK (Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge):

• Promoted Afrikaans language, arts, literature, and festivals.
• Strengthened cultural identity.
• 🔹 The Broederbond (founded 1918):
• A secret Afrikaner male organisation.
• Focused on promoting Afrikaner interests in politics, education, business, and the church.
• Members held powerful government positions.
• It played a major behind-the-scenes role in establishing apartheid.
5. Role of Media
• Afrikaner nationalists used newspapers, magazines, and radio to promote their views.
• Afrikaans-language media helped spread nationalism and build unity.
• Example: Die Burger newspaper supported nationalist policies.

6. Economic Upliftment Programs

• The poor white problem led to special economic programmes:
• Job reservations for whites.
• White-only banks and businesses.
• Encouragement of Afrikaner-owned enterprises.
• Goal: Protect and uplift Afrikaners economically, while maintaining racial privilege.

7. The Idea of the “Volk”

• “Volk” = Afrikaner people as a united, God-chosen nation.
• Volk ideology tied race, class, religion, and language together.
• Justified racial separation: belief that Afrikaners had a divine right to rule.
• Promoted the idea that Afrikaners must dominate all areas of life—political, religious, cultural, and
8. Afrikaner Nationalism in Power (1948 onwards)
• In 1948, the National Party, led by D.F. Malan, won the general election.
• They introduced the policy of apartheid, based on Afrikaner nationalist
ideas.
• Apartheid enforced:
• Racial segregation
• White supremacy
• Suppression of Black political rights
• This marked peak of Afrikaner nationalism– with total control of
government, economy, and society.
• Conclusion:
• Afrikaner nationalism rose in response to British domination,
economic struggles, and cultural pride. Through language
movements, secret societies (like the Broederbond), media, and
religion, Afrikaners united into a powerful political force. This
nationalism became the ideological foundation of apartheid,
introduced in 1948, and shaped South Africa for decades to come.
1. The National Party Victory –
1948
• In 1948, the National Party (NP), led by D.F. Malan, won the general
election.
• The NP promoted Afrikaner nationalism and promised to implement
apartheid.
• The victory gave Afrikaner nationalists full control of the government,
allowing them to turn racist ideas into law.

This was the beginning of apartheid—a political system based on racial

segregation and white supremacy.
• 2. What Was Apartheid?
• “Apartheid” means "apartness" in Afrikaans.
• It was a system of laws designed to:
• Separate races completely
• Keep white Afrikaners in power
• Deny basic rights to Black, Coloured, and Indian South Africans
• Protect the economic, cultural, and religious dominance of Afrikaners
• Apartheid was built on the belief in racial superiority, especially the
idea of the Afrikaner "Volk".
4. The Role of Afrikaner Nationalism in Government Policy
• Government positions were filled by Afrikaners, many of them
members of the Broederbond.
• The state promoted Afrikaner culture, religion (Dutch Reformed
Church), and language.
• Afrikaans became the dominant official language in government and
schools.
• Media and education were controlled to teach loyalty to apartheid
and the Afrikaner cause
5. Economic Affirmative Action for Afrikaners
• Nationalist government created jobs for poor white Afrikaners,
especially in the civil service.
• State-owned companies and white-owned businesses hired Afrikaners
first.
• Government supported Afrikaner-owned banks, farms, and industries.
• Goal: “Protect the poor white” and keep Black people at the bottom of
the economy.
Economic policies helped uplift Afrikaners while deepening racial
inequality.
6. Religion and the Justification of Apartheid
• The Dutch Reformed Church supported apartheid and preached that Afrikaners were chosen by God.
• Religion was used to justify racial separation and to teach that different races had different divine
roles.
Apartheid was seen by many Afrikaner nationalists as part of a religious and cultural mission.

7. Opposition and Resistance

• As apartheid laws were introduced, opposition grew:
• The ANC and PAC became more militant.
• Protest movements and defiance campaigns began.
• Government responded with:
• Banning political organisations
• Arresting leaders
• Police violence
• Conclusion:
• When Afrikaner nationalists came to power in 1948, they used their
control to create a system of apartheid—legalised racial segregation
designed to protect Afrikaner identity and privilege. This marked the
most oppressive period in South African history, with severe
consequences for millions of non-white citizens, but also led to
stronger resistance movements that would eventually bring change.
1. What Was the Broederbond?
• The Broederbond was a secret society of white, male Afrikaners,
founded in 1918.
• Its name means "Brotherhood Bond" in Afrikaans.
• Only elite Afrikaners were invited to join—politicians, teachers,
church leaders, businessmen, and academics.
• Its main goal was to advance Afrikaner interests in all areas of South
African life: politics, economy, education, religion, and media.
2. Promotion of Afrikaner Nationalism
• The Broederbond:
• Promoted the idea of the Afrikaner “Volk”—a chosen people with a
unique language, culture, and destiny.
• Aimed to protect Afrikaner identity from English influence and non-
white South Africans.
• Believed Afrikaners should govern South Africa and shape it
according to Christian nationalist principles.
3. Control Over Education
• The Broederbond placed its members in key roles in schools, universities,
and education departments.
• It ensured that Afrikaner children were taught nationalist, religious, and
pro-apartheid values.
• Helped write textbooks and design curricula that promoted:
• Afrikaner history and heroes
• White supremacy
• The justification of apartheid
• Education became a tool to indoctrinate Afrikaner youth and spread
nationalist ideology.
4. Influence Over Media and Culture
• Controlled or influenced Afrikaans-language newspapers, magazines, and
radio stations.
• Used media to:
• Promote Afrikaner unity
• Justify apartheid
• Attack critics of nationalism and racial mixing
• Supported Afrikaans literature, music, and cultural festivals through
groups like the FAK.
• The media became a platform for spreading the message of Afrikaner
superiority and the need for racial segregation.
5. Political Power
• Many National Party leaders were members of the Broederbond
(e.g., D.F. Malan, Hendrik Verwoerd).
• Used its secret network to:
• Strategically place members in government and public service
• Control state decisions from behind the scenes
• Ensure the implementation of apartheid policies
• The Broederbond operated like a "shadow government", shaping
South African policy without public accountability.
6. Economic Empowerment: Volkskapitalisme (“People’s Capitalism”)
• A key Broederbond strategy to uplift poor Afrikaners economically.
• Encouraged Afrikaners to support Afrikaner-owned banks, businesses, and cooperatives.
• Promoted the idea that:
• Afrikaners should buy from each other
• Support Afrikaner workers and entrepreneurs
• Reduce dependence on English or foreign capital
• Examples: Volkskas Bank, SANLAM (insurance), and KWV (wine cooperative) were all part of this
plan.
Conclusion:
• The Broederbond was a powerful, secretive organisation that played a major role in building and
maintaining Afrikaner nationalism and apartheid. Through control of education, media, politics,
and the economy, it worked to protect Afrikaner identity and ensure white domination in South
Africa. Its influence was critical in shaping apartheid South Africa from behind the scenes.
Definition of the “Volk” – Class and
Race in Education, Labour &
Religion
1. What Is the “Volk”?
• “Volk” is a German/Afrikaans word meaning “people” or “nation.”
• In the context of Afrikaner nationalism, it refers to:
• The belief that Afrikaners are a distinct, God-chosen people.
• Bound together by shared language (Afrikaans), religion (Dutch Reformed
Church), history, culture, and bloodline.
• The idea that the Volk must preserve itself from foreign influences, especially
from English culture and Black African communities.
• The “Volk” ideology was influenced by European racial theories, which
believed that nations are defined by race, language, and heritage.
2. The Role of the Volk in Nationalist Ideology
• Nationalists believed that the Afrikaner Volk had a divine mission to
lead and shape South Africa.
• To protect the Volk, society needed to be organised to:
• Uplift poor white Afrikaners
• Maintain racial purity
• Preserve Afrikaner culture and dominance
3. Education: Teaching the Volk’s Superiority
• Schools and universities were controlled by Afrikaner nationalists.
• Education for white children promoted:
• Pride in Afrikaner history (e.g. the Great Trek, Boer War heroes)
• The belief in racial differences and white superiority
• Christian National Education: blending religion and Afrikaner nationalism
• 🔻 Black Education:
• Under Bantu Education, Black students were taught:
• Basic literacy and manual skills
• That they were inferior and meant for servant roles
• Designed to keep Africans in low-paying jobs and protect white privilege
4. Labour: Protecting the White Working Class
•Afrikaner nationalists were worried about:
•Poor white Afrikaners losing jobs to Black workers
•Social mixing and loss of status
➤ Responses:
:
•Job reservation policies Certain jobs reserved for whites only
•Creation of Afrikaner-owned companies (volkskapitalisme) to hire Afrikaners
•Trade unions for white workers only
⚒️Labour policies were meant to secure jobs for Afrikaners and limit economic opportunities for
Black people.
• 5. Religion: The Church and the Volk
• The Dutch Reformed Church played a central role in the idea of the Volk.
• Taught that:
• Afrikaners were chosen by God (like Biblical Israelites)
• Racial separation was part of God’s plan
• Mixing of races was immoral or sinful

6. Intersection of Class and Race

• The idea of the Volk merged race and class:
• White = Superior and deserving of upliftment
• Black = Inferior, destined for labour
• Afrikaner nationalism used this ideology to:
• Unite poor and rich Afrikaners under one cause
• Justify the economic and political oppression of Black people
The concept of the Volk was a core part of Afrikaner nationalism, combining race, class, religion, and education into a
powerful ideology. It created a society where white Afrikaners dominated and were taught to believe they had a divine
right to rule, while others were suppressed to protect the purity and survival of the Afrikaner people.
Nationalism in Power – Policies That
Led to Apartheid
1. 1948: National Party Gains Power
• In 1948, the National Party (NP) won the general elections.
• The party was led by D.F. Malan, strongly influenced by Afrikaner
nationalism and the Broederbond.
• Their election campaign was based on the promise to:
• Protect white supremacy
• Implement apartheid to maintain racial separation
• Promote Afrikaner culture, language, and economic dominance
2. Foundations of Apartheid: Key Early Laws
• The NP passed several major apartheid laws that reflected Afrikaner nationalist ideology:
• 🔹 Population Registration Act (1950)
• Categorised all South Africans by racial group: White, Black (Bantu), Coloured, or Indian.
• Formed the basis of all apartheid policies.
• 🔹 Group Areas Act (1950)
• Forced people to live in areas assigned by race.
• Led to mass removals from cities (e.g. District Six).
• 🔹 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) & Immorality Act (1950)
• Banned interracial relationships and marriages.
• Enforced the idea of racial purity and fear of “contaminating” the Volk.
• 🔹 Bantu Education Act (1953)
• Designed to provide inferior education for Black South Africans.
• Taught only basic skills for manual labour.
• Reflected the belief that Blacks should not be equals in society.
3. Christian National Education
• Introduced as the official education system for white Afrikaners.
• Taught:
• Loyalty to God and the Afrikaner Volk
• Justification for apartheid and white rule
• Promoted Afrikaans language and culture.

4. Job Reservation & Economic Policies

• Jobs were reserved for white people, especially in state-owned industries and the civil service.
• Black South Africans were restricted to low-paying labour jobs.
• Promoted volkskapitalisme: Afrikaners were encouraged to support Afrikaner-owned businesses.
• State support was given to uplift poor white Afrikaners.
5. Religion and Justification
•The Dutch Reformed Church taught that apartheid was divinely ordained.
•Supported the idea that God created different races to live separately.
•Gave moral and spiritual support to apartheid policies.
✝️Religion reinforced belief in the superiority of the Afrikaner Volk.
6. Suppression of Opposition
• Anti-apartheid organisations like the ANC and PAC were:
• Banned
• Leaders arrested or exiled
• Peaceful protests met with police violence
• The state used laws like the Suppression of Communism Act (1950) to silence any resistance.
The apartheid state became increasingly authoritarian, limiting freedom of speech and political activity.

Conclusion:
• Once in power, Afrikaner nationalists implemented a system of apartheid based on their belief in racial
hierarchy, cultural superiority, and divine destiny. These policies institutionalised racism, destroyed
Black communities, and preserved white Afrikaner dominance in every part of life—education, land,
work, religion, and law.
• Apartheid was not just political—it was deeply ideological, rooted in Afrikaner nationalism and the myth
of the Volk.
Summary & Reflection – Understanding
Nationalism

1. What is Nationalism?
• A belief that a group of people with shared language, culture, and history should have their own nation or
self-rule.
• Can lead to unification (e.g. Germany, Italy), independence, or even separatism.
• Often based on emotional connection to an imagined identity and homeland.

2. Origins and Spread

• Inspired by the Enlightenment and French Revolution (freedom, equality, sovereignty).
• Spread during Napoleon’s conquests across Europe.
• Strengthened by industrialisation, which created national economies and identities.

3. Nationalist Movements in Europe

• Italy: Unified under Garibaldi and Cavour by 1871.
• Germany: Bismarck used “blood and iron” (war and diplomacy) to unify German states in 1871.
4. Nationalism as an Imagined Community
• Theory by Benedict Anderson: Nations are not natural, but socially constructed.
• People imagine themselves as part of a larger, united group, even if they never meet.
• This shared identity is built through language, media, and education.

5. Case Study 1: African Nationalism

• Grew in response to colonialism, segregation, and economic inequality.
• Key events:
• Formation of the APO (1902) and SANNC/ANC (1912).
• 1913 Land Act: Forced Africans off their land → united resistance.
• Role of educated professionals and traditional leaders.
• Post-WWII: Soldiers return demanding rights; Atlantic Charter inspires hope.
• African Claims (1943) by A.B. Xuma called for full citizenship.
• Splits in ideology led to the rise of PAC (1959) with more militant action.
• 6. Case Study 2: Afrikaner Nationalism
• Reaction to British control and fear of Black majority rule.
• Promoted the Afrikaner “Volk” identity – a chosen people with a divine mission.
• Key organisations:
• Broederbond: Secret group controlling education, media, and government.
• FAK, Volkskas, SANLAM – uplifted Afrikaners through volkskapitalisme.
• Key elements:
• Christian National Education
• Control of jobs, schools, and cultural institutions
• Dutch Reformed Church preached racial separation
• Led to 1948 NP victory → official apartheid policies
7. Nationalism in Power: Apartheid
• Afrikaner nationalism became law under the NP government (1948).
• Apartheid was built through:
• Racial classification, segregation, and Bantu Education
• Job reservation and exclusion of Black South Africans
• Justification through religion and “Volk” ideology
• Suppression of opposition like ANC and PA
Reflection Questions:
1.How can nationalism lead both to freedom and oppression?
2.In what ways did European and African nationalism differ?
3.Why was the imagined community idea so powerful for both unity and exclusion?
4.What lessons can be learned from the rise of Afrikaner nationalism and
apartheid?

Nationalism is a powerful force—it can inspire independence, pride, and unity, but
when based on exclusion and racism, it can justify oppression and violence.
Understanding the roots and effects of nationalism helps us see how history shapes
identity, power, and justice.