FOREST ENGINEERING

WELCOME TO ALL OF YOU

ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF FOREST ENGINEERING IN
FOREST MANAGEMENT
• In their normal Functions the forest officers have to
design, construct and maintain Building and Forest
Roads.
• In order that they are able to do so with reasonable
efficiency, it is necessary that the forest officers should
have some basic knowledge in civil engineering .
• The object of this training of forest engineering is to help
the frontline staff of forest department have a better
perception about basic principles and procedures
involved in the construction and maintenance of Building
and Roads.
The present course materials deal with basic elements
of building and forest roads in this lessons
BIRDS ENCLOSURE CONSTRUCTUCTED BY FOREST STAFF
 Basic of all engineering works is “Building
materials”
• Study of BUILDING materials used in forest engineering are :
1. Stone
2. Bricks
3. Tiles
4. Lime
5. Cement
6. Timber
7. Fine and coarse Sand
8. Metals
9. Paint and varnishes
10. Cinder and glass
 CLASSIFICATION
1. Solid materials : • Stones, bricks, tiles,
wood
2. Cementing materials : • Mortar

3.Protecting materials: • Plaster, paint

Bituminous substances: • Asphalt for water
profing
• Sodium or potassium
Solutions of salts etc: silicate and Calcium
chloride for water
profing
FOREST ROADS DESIGNED
BY FOREST STAFF.
EXAMPLES OF FOREST ROADS AND
BUILDINGS
 2.1 PROPERTIES OF CEMENT AND STORING

The cement was invented by Joseph

Aspdin in 1824 hence he is the Father of
Cement.
It named as Portland cement because it
had resemblance in its colour and
properties after setting to a variety of
sand stone which is found in a place
Portland of England.
 Defination:
Cement is a binding material with
adhesive and cohesive properties
which is capable of bounding
particles of solid matter into a
compact durable mass.
Classification:
Cement can be classified into two types :
1.Natural cement- Mixture of stones containing 20 to 40% of clay and carbonates
of lime mixed with carbonates of magnesia.
2.Artificial cement of following types
a)Normal Portland cement- Lime stone and clay burnt to a clinker as a raw
material for it and finally crushing into fine powder.
With composition: CaO-63%,Clay(SiO2-21%,Al2O3-6%,Fe2O3-4%)
b)Rapid hardening cement- More finely ground and slightly altered in chemical
composition
CaO-63%,Clay(SiO2-21%,Al2O3-6%,Fe2O3-4%) addition to CaCl2 to accelerate
setting and hardening.
c)High alumina cement- Fusing a mixture of lime stone and Bauxite .
CaO-38%,Clay(SiO2-6%, Al2O3-39%,Fe2O3-10%)
Increase of alumina % gives rapid hardening and durable towards attack of sea
water, sulphur,oil etc and fire resistance.
d)Quick setting Cement- It is generally used under running water construction .
e)Coloured cement- Colour are given to ordinary cement .
Properties of Cement-
A good cement possesses the following properties depending upon its
chemical composition and degree of hydration.
1.Physical properties
• Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
• If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
2.Rate of setting
a)initial set –Can be reuse
b)Final set-cannot be reuse
3.Rate of hardening and strength development
4.Rate of heat evolution
5.Resistance to chemicals
6.It is easily workable
7.It offers good resistance to moisture
8.It possesses good plasticity
9.It is an excellent binding material for solid.
10. Cement should be free from lumps.
11.It has Compressive strength
Storage of Cement:
Cement store should be free from condensation ,Damp prof
(Moisture prof ) Temperature not less than 400F or 4.50 C.
Precaution in storge:
1.To be store for shortest possible period.
2.Avoid damp godown
3.Do not store against walls.
4.Prevent circulation of air.
5.Bottom of stack piled on damp prof platform
6.Gypsum containing Cement store for long time .
7.Do not store in rainy season for long time.
Uses
Cement generally having key role in Masonary works like:
• Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster .
• As Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, weathershed, stairs, pillars etc.
• Construction for important engineering structures such
as bridge,culverts,dams,tunnels,light house.
• Construction of water wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts,
telephone cabins etc.
• Making joint for joints, pipes .
• Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, artistically flower .
• Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.
2.1 Mortars
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared
by adding required quantity of water to a mixture of
binding material like cement or lime and fine
aggregate like sand.
Properties of a good mortar:
1) It should be cheap.
2) It should be durable.
3) It should set quickly.
4) It should be easily workable.
5) It should be capable of developing good adhesion
with the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
6) It should be capable of resisting penetration of
rain water.
Uses of mortar:
1) To form joints of pipes.
2) To bind the building units such as bricks, stones, etc. into a solid
mass.
3) To carry out pointing and plaster work on exposed surface of
masonry.
4) To improve the general appearance of structure.
5) To hide the open joints of brickwork and stonework.
6) To fill up the cracks detected in the structure during
maintenance process.
Lime mortar
-In Lime mortar the lime is used as binding material. The lime may
be fat lime or hydraulic lime may be fat lime or hydraulic lime.
-The lime mortar has a high plasticity and it can be placed easily.
-It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces and shrinks
very little. It is sufficiently durable, but it hardens slowly.
-It is generally used for lightly loaded above-ground parts of
buildings.
Properties of lime mortar:
1) It shrinks very little.
2) It is durable.
3) It hardens slowly.
4) It has a high plasticity and can be placed easily.
5) It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces.
Cement Mortar:
- In cement mortar, the cement is used as binding materials.
-Depending upon the strength required and importance of work,
the proportion of cement to sand by volume varies from 1:2 to
1:6 or more.
-The proportion of cement with respect to sand should be
determined with due regard to the specified durability and
working conditions.
-The cement mortar is used where a mortar of high strength and

water-resisting properties if required such as underground

constructions, water saturated soils, etc.
Properties of cement mortar:
1) It is more durable.
2) It hardens very quickly.
3) A well proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4) It is richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
Special Mortars:
1) Fire resistant mortar: It is used with fire-bricks for lining
furnaces, fire places, ovens, etc.
2) Light weight mortar: This mortar is used in the sound-proof

and heat-proof constructions.

3) Sound absorbing mortar: To reduce the noise level, the
sound – absorbing plaster is formed with the help of
sound absorbing mortar.
4) X-ray shielding mortar: This type of mortar is used for
providing the plastering coat to walls and ceiling of X-ray
cabinets.
 Stone : Introduction
• Stones used in constructions are
derived from the rocks forming the
crust of the earth’s surface. Use of
stone in forest structures is limited
by local circumstances.
Uses: In building, bridges, dams,
retainig wall,etc
 ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS
1)Geographical formation- a) Igneous rocks,
b) Sendimentary rocks or Aqueous rocks,
c) Metamorphic rocks
2) Chemical composition- a) Silicious(Silica,Sio2)
b) Argilaceous (Clay,Al2O3SiO2) c)
Calcarious (Calcium carbonate CaCo3), based
on their chief constituents materials
3) Physical structure- a) Unstratified rock,
b) Stratified rocks
• IGNEOUS ROCKS or Unstratified ROCKS –
How formed – By volcanic action.These rocks are the result of
consolidation of molten materials ( lava from volcanoes) at or below
the earth surface .
Example – Granite, Basalt, Trap stone etc
• SEDIMENTARY OR AQUEOUS OR STRATIFIED ROCKS-
How formed – By deposition of sand, gravels, clay etc. by precipitation
in water. These are subsequently cemented together and silica, lime,
potash, etc. They are further consolidated by strengthened by
pressure from superincumbent layers of material and water .
Examples – Sand stones, Lime stones, Shales etc.
• METAMORPHIC ROCKS -
How formed – Igneous or sedimentary rocks are altered by- heat,
pressure or heat and pressure exerted by the movement in and
below the earth’s crust. Alternation or change occurs in (a) colour,
(b) structure, (c) texture
Example – Quartzite, clay, slate, marble,
2.1 Stone
It is a hard mineral matter of rock
Physical Classification of rocks
1) Stratified Rocks –
These types of rocks possess plane of stratification
& they can easily be split up along these planes.
Eg. Sedimentary rocks
2) Un-stratified Rocks –
These types of rocks does not possess plane of
stratification & they crystalline granular or
compact granular.
Eg. Ingenious rocks
3) Foliated Rocks –
These types of rocks have a tendency to split up in
definite direction only & having foliated structure.
Eg.Metamorphic rocks
Requirements of good building stone:-
1) Crushing – A good building stone should have better crushing strength
i.e. greater than 100 N/mm2
2) Hardness - A good building stone should have sufficient hardness.
3) Durability - A good building stones must be durable long lasting nature.
4) Fire resistance - They should have good fire resistance properties.
5) Seasoning/weathering - They also have good weathering resistance
properties.
6) Water resistance - They should have less water absorption properties.
7) Economy - They should be economical & easily available.
8) Attrition – A good building stone should have less wear & tear,
abrasion & erosion properties.
9) Facing & dressing – A good building stones should be easily molded,
craved & dressed.
10) Specific gravity - A good building stone should have higher specific
gravity i.e. more than 2.7.
11) Texture – The structure of the good building stone should be compact
fine crystalline. They don’t have any cracks, cavities & patches.
12) Toughness - A good building stone should have strong & tough.
Characteristics of stone:-
1) Appearance – Stones should have fine, compact texture & uniform colour.
2) Structure – the structure of stones should be uniform without cracks,
fractures, cavities etc.
3) Strength - stone should have better crushing strength i.e. greater than 100
N/mm2
4) Weight – The weight of stones should be considerable & suitable for
various construction sites.
Eg. For dam & retaining walls – heavy stones are used
For domes, arches – light stones are used
5) Hardness - stones should have sufficient hardness
6) Toughness - stone should have strong & tough
7) Specific gravity - stone should have higher specific gravity i.e. in between
2.3 to 2.5.
8) Seasoning – stones should be well seasoned
9) Workability – Stones should be workable for cutting, dressing with required
shapes.
10) Chemical resistance – Stones should resist alkalis, acids, corrosive gases
etc
11) Durability - stones should be durable long lasting nature
12) Water resistance - stones should have less water absorption properties
Quarrying and dressing of stone
Quarrying of stones:
The method of removal of stones from their natural bed by using different
operations is called quarrying.
Four Methods of Quarrying are :
a) Digging – This method is used when the quarry consists of small &
soft pieces of stones.
b) Heating – This method is used when the natural rock bed is horizontal &
small in thickness.
c) Wedging –This method is used when the hard rock consists of natural fissure(Line
of breakage). When natural fissures are absent then artificial fissures are
prepared by drilling holes.
d) Blasting – It is the process of removal of stones with
the help of controlled explosives is filled in the holes of
the stones.
Following steps are used in the blasting process;
1) Drilling holes – Blast holes are drilled by using
drilling machines.
2) Charging – Explosive powders are fed into the
cleaned & dried blast holes.
3) Tamping – The remaining portion of the blast holes
are filled by clay, ash, fuse & wirings.
4) Firing –The fuses of blasting holes are fired by using
electrical power supply or match sticks.
 Types of explosives(Blasting)
• Low explosives used in forestry
1. Gunpowder (Blasting powder). It is a mechanical mixture of
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal, in the proportion of
65,20,and 15 respectively.
2. Ammonal: it is a mechanical mixture of ammonia nitrate,
powdered aluminums and charcoal
• HIGH explosive
1. Dynamite: it works so fast that the change from solidto
gaseous state is instantaneously.
 USES OF EXPLOSIVE IN FORESTRY
• Explosives are used in hilly countries to blast the rocks for
making roads when the rocks come in the way of road.
• Also used for shattering rock to get stones for building
purposes or lime-making.
• They can be used for making tunnels for roads and
railways.
• Up-rooting the trees in the forest completely withou
leaving any roots inside the ground.
• Cleaning the forest area by cutting and shattering the
stumps and useless stumps.
• Used for blasting very large-sized trees to facilitate
conversion.
 Precautions while blasting
• Smoking etc. in the vicinity of explosives should be strictly
prohibited.
• Keep detonators and primers well separated from bulk
explosive.
• During the period of operations, safety distances to be
maintained.
• Never tamp with a metal instrument or use force in tamping.
• Incase a misfire, wait for 10 minutes in case of Safety fuse
and then detonate the misfired charge by firing another
charge adjacent to it.
• Never forget that if carefully handled, explosives are a boon
to us, otherwise a slight carelessness might result in
immense loss.
Dressing of stones:-
1)Rough dressing quarry – It is the process of stone dressing
which gives the broken stones in to the suitable pieces the
shapes & sizes.
2) Pitched face dressing - It is the process of stone dressing
which gives the same plane & square of the surface
3) Hammer dressing - It is the process of stone dressing which
gives the sharp less irregular corners of the surface distance
by using hammer. It is suitable for mensory work.
4) Rock face dressing - It is the process of stone dressing which
gives the four edges having 2.5 cm surface distance by using
chisels.
5) Rough tooling - It is the process of stone dressing which gives
More or less parallel , horizontal , vertical at angle of the surface.
6) Punched dressing - It is the process of stone dressing which
gives the parallel ridges with required gaps between the surfaces.
7) Fine tooling – It is the process of stone dressing which gives
the fine & smooth surface of the stones
2.1 Bricks
A small rectangular block typically made of fired or
sun-dried clay, used in building.
Brick earth & its constituents –
The main constituents or ingredients of a good brick earth are
1) Alumina (Al2O3) (20-30%) –
It gives the plasticity to the clay.
2) Silica (SiO2) (50-60%) –
It prevents cracking, shrinking of the raw bricks.
3) Lime (CaO)-
It stops the shrinkage of raw bricks and acts as a flux.
4) Magnesia (MgO)-
It gives yellow tint to the bricks and reduces shrinkage.
5) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) (5-6%) –
It gives the red colour to the bricks.
Harmful ingredients of a brick earth:
1) Lime stone:
It causes bricks to split into pieces.
2) Alkalis: It affects the overall appearance of the
building as it causes ‘efflorescence’.
3) Iron pyrites(FeS2):
It causes decomposition of bricks.
4) Pebbles of stone and gravel:
It breaks the uniformity of bricks.
5) Organic matter or vegetation:
Due to the presence of this, brick becomes
more porous.
Types of Bricks –
1) Conventional bricks or traditional bricks:
The conventional bricks are the bricks which are not standardized in size.
The dimensions of conventional bricks vary from 21 to 25 cm in length, 10
to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in height in different parts of country. The
commonly accepted normal size of a conventional brick is 23 cm X 11.4 cm
X 7.6 cm.
2) Standard bricks or modular bricks :
Indian Standard Institution (ISI) has set up the standard
size of the brick.
Such a brick is known as modular brick or standard brick.
The normal size of modular brick is taken as
20 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm.
But its actual dimensions are 19 cm X 9 cm X 9 cm.
Characteristics of Good Brick:
1) It should have uniform in colour, shape and size.
2) It should be well burnt.
3) It should be free from cracks.
4) It should produce a good metallic ringing sound
when two bricks are struck with each other.
5) It should not absorb water more than 20% of its
dry weight when dipped in water.
6) It should be adequately strong.
7) It should be fire resistant.
Classification of Bricks –
1st class bricks: These bricks are well burnt,
rectangular with sharp edges. It is used for better
work.
2nd class bricks: These bricks are well burnt, but
they are having irregular shape. It is used for
ordinary structure.
3rd class bricks: These bricks are under burnt, its
surface is rough. It is used for temporary structure
and the places where rainfall is not heavy.
4th class bricks: These are over burnt bricks having
irregular surface. It is used as aggregates for
concrete in foundation.
Types of Special Bricks:
1) Acid resistant bricks:
It is specially used for chemical plant.
2) Engineering bricks:
It is used for paving purposes.
3) Silica bricks:
It is used in the construction of chimney.
4) Refractory bricks: It is used in metallurgical process.
5) Sand-lime bricks: It is used for ornamental work.
6) Blue bricks: It is used for heavy engineering
constructional work like bridges.
7) Coloured bricks: It is used for decorative work only.
8) Fire bricks: It is used for the construction of hearth,
furnaces and chimney as they have to
resist high temperature.
Manufacturing of clay bricks –
The clay for bricks is prepared by the following steps;
1) Unsoiling :
Unsoiling is the process in which the top layer of soil, about
20cm in depth, is taken out and thrown away as it contains
impurities.
2) Digging :
After removing top soil, the clay is then dug out from the
ground.
3) Weathering :
The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening or
mellowing.
4) Blending :
The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it,
is spread out at its top. The mass is then mixed uniformly
with spades.
5) Tempering :
Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to
make the mass stiff and plastic.
6)Moulding –
It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from
the prepared brick earth.
Two types of moulding:
1.Hand Moulding:
2.Machine Moulding:
1. Hand Moulding:
In hand moulding, the bricks are moulded by hand i.e.
manually. It is further classified as –
a) Ground Moulding: In this process, the ground is leveled
and sand is sprinkled on it. The bricks are then moulded on
ground.
b) Table Moulding: The bricks are moulded on stock boards
nailed on the moulding table.
2.Machine Moulding: In this method, the bricks are moulded by using machines. It proves to be economical when bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured. These machines are broadly classified in two categories :
a)Plastic clay machines
b)Dry clay machines
Characteristics or Field tests of the good quality bricks:
1) Uniformity in shape & size: A good brick should have rectangular
plane surface and uniform in size. This check is made in the field by
observation.
2) Uniformity in colour : A good brick will have uniform colour
3) Structure: Few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-
section is observed. The section should be homogeneous, compact
and free from defects such as holes and lumps.
4) Sound test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should
produce clear ringing sound. The sound should not be dull.
5) Hardness test: Scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is
marked on the surface, the brick is sufficiently hard.
6) Water absorption: Brick specimen is weighted dry. Then they are
immersed in water for 24 hrs. It is weighted again and the
difference indicates amount of water absorption. This should not
be more than 20%.
2.1 Tiles:-
Types of tiles depending upon the materials used for their construction;
1) Clay tiles 2) Quarry tiles 3) Cement tiles 4) glazed earthenware tiles
Different types of tiles:
1) Clay tiles: These tiles are made from good clay of even texture. These
are made in various shapes and sizes according to their uses. They are
used for roofing & flooring purposes.
2) Quarry tiles: These tiles are also made from clays. Quarry tiles can be
made in different colours and mosaic. These tiles are suitable for flooring
in residential, public and industrial building where floor comes in contact
with acid or alkalies.
3) Glazed earthenware tiles: These are made of earthenware covered by a
glaze. These tiles are generally used in finishing floor s and walls of
kitchens, bathrooms, water closets etc.
4) Cement tiles: These tiles are made from cement. These tiles possess
uniform texture, high strength, and good weather resistance property &
water tightness. These are used for roofing and flooring purposes.
Classification of building tiles with their suitability -
1) Roofing tiles:
-Roofing tiles are used to cover sloping roofs.
-They are supported on wooden reapers.
-Normally these tiles are having curved surface having
ribbed sections, so that with thin section they are
sufficiently strong to resist the load.
- These tiles should be leak proof.
2) Flooring tiles:
- These tiles are used as finish surface for floors.
- The thickness of these tiles varies from 15 to 20 mm.
- These tiles are flat and they have pleasing appearance.
Characteristics of a good tile:
1) It should be free from any cracks.
2) It should be regular in shape and size.
3) It should be sound, hard and durable.
4) It should have uniform texture and colour.
5) It should have low water absorption (less
than 15%)
6) It should have sufficient resistance to
atmosphere and dampness.
Uses of tiles –
1) Tiles are used for covering slopping roofs.
2) Tiles are used as finish surface for floors of
houses.
3) Tiles are used as finish surfaces for walls of
kitchen, bath-rooms, water closet etc.
4) Tiles are used for decoration of walls and
roofs.
Different sizes of tiles -
Different sizes of tiles for roofing purposes;
1) 250mm X 200mm X 25mm
2) 2) 150mm X 100mm X 20mm
3) 3) 150mm X 75mm X 15mm

Different sizes of tiles for flooring purposes;

4) 150mm X 150mm X 18mm
5) 2) 200mm X 200mm X 25mm
6) 3) 250mm X 250mm X 30mm
 TILES
 Tiles are thin slabs made by Burning the brick earth
in kilns or by using concrete.
 The brick earth used for manufacture of tiles is
stronger and purer than that of bricks.
 Tiles are generally used for
I. Roofing
II. Flooring
III. Drainage
IV. Decorative purposes (Terracotta tiles)
 Manufacture
The manufacturing process of tiles is same as that of
brick manufacturing. But it requires special attentions
on following aspects:-
1. More care is required in he manufacture.
2. Unbaked tiles are dried only in shade.
3. Burning is done separately or on the top of bricks in
a brick kiln.
4. Needs more gradual and even burning than bricks to
prevent wrapping.
5. Needs temperature regulation during the process
of burning.
I. Fire to be gentle till all steam disappears.
II. Fire to be raised till flues are red hot.
III. Thereafter fire to be slacked for 6 hours.
IV. Fire to be raised to white heat and kept at this
level for 4 hours.
V. Flues are to be filled with fuel, mouth closed
with brick and mud and kiln allowed to burn.
The whole process takes 72 hours allowed to
burn.
 TYPES OF TILES
1. Pot Tiles
2. Pan Tiles
3. Flat Tiles
4. Mangalore Tiles
5. Allahabad Tiles
6. Ridge Tiles
1. Pot Tiles or Locking Tiles
 Have a hollow, round tapering shape.
Dimensions
 Length is about 25 cms.
 Diameter 10 cm at the broad end and 8 cm at the taper end.
 Thickness varies from 1 to 2.5 cm.
 Made by hand with the help of potters wheel.
 Clay used is tempered and much stiffer than the ordinary clay
tiles.
 Used primarily for roofing purposes

Pot tiles are fixed on roofs in the following manner :-

a) The tiles are laid on the roof from the lower to
upper part.
b) Adjacent rows are laid concave and convex sides
upper most alternatively .
c) Concave side up, the tiles are laid in a manner
that the portions having larger width are toward
the ridge and smaller width in the direction
eaves.
d) Convex side up, the portion with larger width is
in the direction of eaves and smaller in direction
of the ridge.
 Disadvantages

i. Lack of uniformity
ii. Extreme Brittleness.
iii. Roof repair very difficult.

2. Pan Tiles
 These tiles are largely flat with slightly curved edges and bent up.
 One end is broader that the other.
Dimensions
 Length is about 20 cms.
 Width (narrow end) is about 12.5cm. to 15 cm.
 Width (Broader end) is about 15cm. to 20 cm.
 Thickness varies from 0.75 cm to 1.0 cm.
 Depth of turned up portion of sides is about 1.6cm. to 2.0 cm.
3. Flat Tiles
 These tiles are flat and rectangular and shape.

Dimensions
 Length and breadth = 10 cm to 15 cm square
 Thickness =1 cm to 1.5 cm
 The size of such may be larger when they are
manufactured exclusively for terraced roofs.
Uses
 For flooring floors and drains.
 For skirting walls.
 For roofing on terraced roofs or pent roofs.
 As ceiling tiles.
Fixing
These tiles are fixed in the following manner :-
a) For roofing two holes bored near one end are used for
nailing the tiles on the battens.
b) For flooring , the tiles are fixed with the help of a suitable
adhesive.

Manufacture
It is manufactured with bricks, by placing them on
the upper part of a brick kiln or clamp.
Advantages
i. It is used for roofing and flooring.
ii. It is more durable that pot tiles.
iii. Fixing and repairing with these tiles are easy
and less cumbersome.
4. Mangalore Tiles
 It is special types of tiles made from selected clay.
 These tiles are special hip, ridge and valley tiles.
 It is Primarily used for roofing purpose.
 About 150 tiles are required to cover 30 sqmt. area.
Dimensions
 The size of these tiles is usually 40 cms x 25 cms with covers being
30 cms x 20 cms.
5. Allahabad Tiles
 It consist of following types :-
a. Semi Octagonal
b. Semi –Cylindrical
c. Ridge
d. Hip
e. Eave
Arrangement of Tiles for roofing
1. Single Allahabad tiles
 105 flats and 105 half rounds are needed for roofing a 30 sq mt area
2. Double Allahabad tiles
 210 flats, 105 half rounds and 105 hexagonal tiles are needed for roofing a 30 sq mt. Area.
Characteristic of Good Tiles
1. Should be regular intended shape and size.
2. Should be free from twist, crack, flows and blemish.
3. Should fit closely and squarely when laid in
position on work.
4. Should be well burnt and of uniform colour.
5. Should posses clear ringing sound when struck.
6. Should be sound and hard.
7. Should posses even and compact structure when
examined on broken surface.
 SAND
It is the weather and worn-out particles of rock of various sizes and grades.
 Sand may be :- i. Argillaceous
ii. Siliceous
iii. Calcareous
 Sources
Sands is found in its natural state from
1. Pits
2. River
3. Sea Shores
1. Pits Sand
 It has angular grains, sharp and rough to the touch
 It consists of silica with considerable amount of hornblende, mica, felspar,
Carbonate of lime clay etc.
 It is the best sand for muster next to river sand.
2. River Sand
• It has no sharp of angular grains.
• It has round and smooth surface.
• It is uses to generally for plastering because of its fineness and light colour.
• It is preferable to pet sand.

3. Sea Sand
• It has rounded grains mixed with alkaline salts.
• It is used only in subaqueous works.
 Classification

1. Fine sand :-
• When it passes though a screen with meshes 1/16 inch per linear inch.
• Mostly used for plastering works.
2. Coarse sand:-
• When it passes through a screen with meshes of 1/8 inch per linear inch.
• Mostly used for mortar and masonry works.
3. Gravelly Sand
When it passes through a screen with meshes of 3/16 inch per linear inch.
Mostly used for Concrete works.
 Characteristics of Good Sand
Good quality sand has the following properties
1. General Properties
(a) Sharp, clean, coarse and gritty to touch.
(b) Grains comprised of durable minerals.
(c) Size of grains should be such that there are minimum of voids.
(d) Highly siliceous in composition.
2. Sharpness
(e) Brings about adhesion of cement.
(f) Greater resistance to sliding when under compression .
(g) Voids in fine and rounded sand are small.
3. Fineness
(h) Stronger mortar is obtained from coarse sand.
(i) Coarse and fine sand may be mixed in the proper proportion if voids are not likely to be
properly filled as in the case of lean mortar.
4. Durability
(a) The strength of cement remains the same through that of lime of cement improves as more
and more time passes.
(b) Fine sand of strong stone gives a better mortar that a coarse sand containing soft materials.
(c) To ensure durability, proper mixing must be done so that each grain of sand gets a coat of
cement.
5. Impurities
Clean sand should not contain the following impurities of undesirable constituents.:-
- loam
- Pebbles and gravel
- Organic matter
Impurities may be removed either by seiving or washing in water.
6. Voids
Voids are present naturally in all classes of sand. When comacted the voids in natural sand
vary from 30to 10 per cent.