R1

C1 R3

~ Vi

Vd
Ru

R2
Lu

Bridge methods
Agenda

Null methods (calibration and highly accurate

measurements)
DC bridges (Resistance measurement)
• Wheatstone
Capacitor and inductance (coil) models
AC bridges (Inductance / capacitance measurement)
• Null-type Parallel-Resistance-Capacitance bridge for capacitance
and dissipation factor measurement
• Maxwell bridge for inductance (coil) and quality factor
measurement
• Wien bridge
Approximate measurement of Inductance and
Capacitance
Deflection methods (control systems)
Deflection-type Wheatstone bridge and non-linearity
Null-type DC Wheatstone bridges are used for
accurate resistance measurement
The bridge is balanced when the voltage Vd is adjusted to zero
by tuning R1 while R2 and R3 are known and kept constant.
The null-detector is usually some type of galvanometer
The unknown resistance value can then be computed using
the values of the other resistances
Since there are no inductances (coils) or capacitances, a DC
source is sufficient
This type of bridge is used for strain gage measurements

Rx Vd R1

Vi

R2 R3
 Measurement procedure using Galvanometer and
decade resistor box

Unknown resistor Decade Box

Rx Vd R1

Vi

R2 R3
Galvanometer
R2 R3
Vd  Vi  Vi
Rx  R2 R1  R3
 R2 R3 
Vd Vi   
R
 x  R2 R1  R3 

R Known, constant
At balance: Vd 0  Rx R1 2
R3
Galvanometers are VERY SENSITIVE instruments to
detect zero current

D'Arsonval galvanometer
 Null-type AC Wheatstone bridge for impedance
measurement
The bridge is balanced when the voltage Vd is adjusted
to zero byZtuning
1 , Z 2 or Z 3

Zx Vd Z1 Z1
Zx  Z2
Vi ~ Z3
Z2 Z3
 x 1  3   2
Z x Z 3 Z1Z 2
Capacitor and Inductance (coil) models

Capacitor model with Capacitance and dissipation

resistance

Cx Rx

Inductor (coil) model with Inductance and series

resistance
Inductances have a quality factor
Ru
 Lu
Q
Lu Ru
Example: AC Bridge.

The impedances of the AC bridge in Figure are given as follows,

Z 1 20030 0 
Z 2 1500 0 
Determine the constants of 
Z 3 250 the unknown
 40 0

arm.
Z x  Z 4 unknown
Solution:
The first condition for bridge balance requires that
Z1Zx=Z2Z3
Zx =(Z2Z3/Z1)
= [(150 * 250)/200]
= 187.5 

8
Cont’d…

 The second condition for balance requires that the sums of the phase
angles of opposite arms be equal,

1+  x = 2 + 3
 x = 2 + 3 - 1
= 0 + (-40o) – 30o
= -70o
 The unknown impedance Zx, can be written as,
Zx = 187.5  / -70
= (64.13 – j176.19) 

 This indicate that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly

consisting of a series resistor and a capacitor .

9
 Null-type Parallel-Resistance-Capacitance bridge for
capacitance and dissipation factor measurement
1
Rx
jC x Rx
Zx  
Cx Rx C1 R1 1 1  j Rx C x
Rx 
jC x
Z 3 R3  Known, fixed
~ Vi 1
R1
Vd jC1 R1
R2 R3 Z1  
1 1  j R1C1
R1 
jC1
Z x Z 3 Z1Z 2 Z 2 R2  Known, fixed
D R1C1
R  Rx R  R1 
Re : Rx R1 2   2 
R3  1  j Rx C x R3  1  j R1C1 
 Independent of 
R3 
Im : C x C1 Rx R3 1  j R1C1  R1 R2 1  j RxC x 
R2 
 Maxwell bridge to measure inductance, resistance
and quality factor of low quality coils (Q<10)

Z u Ru  j Lu
R1 C1 1
R3 R1
jC1 R1
Z1  
1 1  j R1C1
R1 
jC1
~ Vi
Z 2 R2 
Vd Ru  Known, fixed
Z 3 R3 
R2
Lu
 R1 
 u
R  j Lu   R2 R3
 1  j R1C1 
Z1Z u Z 3 Z 2
R1  Ru  j Lu  R2 R3 1  j R1C1 
R2 R3 
Re : Ru  
R1  Independent of 
Im : Lu R2 R3C1 

 Lu
Q  R1C1
Ru
Hay bridge to measure inductance, resistance and
quality factor of high quality coils (Q>10)
Z x Rx  j Lx
1 1  j R3C3
Z 3 R3  
jC3 jC3
Rx
Z1 R1 
 Known, fixed
Lx
R1 Z 2 R2 

 1  j R3C3 
~ Vi
Rx  j Lx   R1 R2
Vd  j C3 
C3
R2
R3
Rx  j Lx 1  j R3C3   j R1R2C3

R1 R2C3  2 R1 R2 R3C32
Z x Z 3 Z1Z 2 Lx  Rx 
1   2 R32C32 1   2 R32C32

 Lx 1
Q 
Rx  R3C3
 Wien bridge for frequency measurement

Z 2 R2  Known, fixed

1
Rx
jC x Rx
Zx  
R2 R1 1 1  j Rx C x
Rx 
jC x
C1
~V
Z 3 R3  Known, fixed
Vd 1 1  j R1C1
Z1 R1  
R3 jC1 jC1
Cx Rx
1
2 
R1C1 Rx C x

 1   2 R12C12 
Z 2 Z x Z 3 Z1 Rx R3  2 2 
  R R C
1 2 1 

R2C1
Cx 

R3 1   2 R12C12 
Schering Bridge.
 The Scherning Bridge is useful for measuring
insulating properties, that is for phase angles of
very nearly 90o.
 Figure shows the Scherning Bridge.
 Arm 1 contains only a capacitor C . This capacitor
3
has very low losses (no resistance) and therefore
the phase angle of approximately 90o.

14
Cont’d… 1
Z1 
1 / R1  1 /  jX c1
 The impedance of the arm of the
Z 2  R2
Schering bridge is,
Z 3  jX c 3
 Substitute the value,
Z 4  R x  jX x

Z2Z3 R2 ( jX c 3 )
 Expand, Z4  
Z1 1
1 / R1  1 /  jX c1
 1 1 
 R2 ( jX c 3 )  
 R1 jX c1 
  j  1 
 R2     jC1 
 C 3   R1 
j RC jR2
Rx   2 1
 Equating the real and C 3
imaginary C 3 R1
C 3 terms,

C1
R x  R2
C2
R1
C x C 3
R2 15
Example Schering Bridge.

Find the equivalent series element for the unknown

impedance of the Schering bridge network whose
impedance measurements are to be made at null.
R1 = 470 k C1 = 0.01 mF
R2 = 100 k C3 = 0.1 mF

Solution:
Find Rx and Cx ,
C1 (100 * 10 3 ) * (0.01 * 10  6 )
R x  R2  6
10 K
C2 0.01 * 10
R1 (0.01 * 10  6 ) * (470 * 10 3 ) 6
C x C 3  3
 0 . 47 * 10 F 0.47 F
R2 100 * 10
16
The coil characteristics inductance and series resistance can be
measured by equalizing the voltage across a variable resistor
and the coil itself

Z L RL  j L
R V
Z R R

~ Vi V i  RL  j L  iR
RL
V
V i  RL 2   L   iR
2
L
 
RL 2   L  R 2
2

1
L R 2  RL 2


Series resistance of the

coil RL measured with a DVM
 Approximate method of measuring capacitance

Measure the AC Voltages for a known input

frequency across resistor R and capacitor C
1
ZC 
jC
Z R R
R VR

~ Vi 1
VC i
Cu C
VC VR iR

VC 1 1 VR
 C
VR  RC  R VC

Resistance measured with a DVM

Deflection type DC Wheatstone bridge

Rx Vd R1

Vi

R2 R3

R2 R3
Vd  Vi  Vi
Rx  R2 R1  R3
 R2 R3 
Vd Vi   
R
 x  R2 R1  R3 
Output (deflection) for R2, R3 = 1,000 Ohm showing significant
non-linearity

Output for R1 =2000, R2 =1000, R3=1000 Rx R1

2 Vd

Vi
1.5
R2 R3

Bridge balance
0.5
Vd

-0.5

-1
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Rx
Output (deflection) for R2, R3 = 10,000 Ohm showing reduced
non-linearity

Output for R1 =2000, R2 =10000, R3=10000

2
Rx Vd R1

Vi
1.5
R2 R3

Bridge balance
0.5
Vd

-0.5

-1
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Rx
Measuring the drag coefficient of a sphere using a
compensation method

Electric current returns

sphere to original position

Air flow
pushes
sphere to the right

Drag coefficient ~ Electric current

Links

Schneider, N. 1904. Electrical instruments and testing. S

pon and Chamberlain, New York.
The End