FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID MACHINES

Chapter 4

Centrifugal Compressors and Fans

Tesfaye Mukuro (MTech.)

Department of Aerospace Engineering
1

Ethiopian Defence University

Centrifugal Compressor and fans
 Introduction
 Centrifugal Compressor
 The Effect of Blade Shape on Performance
 Velocity Diagrams
 Slip Factor
 Work Done
 Diffuser
 Compressibility Effects
 Mach Number in the Diffuser
 Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics
 Introduction
 This chapter will be concerned with power absorbing turbomachines, used
to handle compressible fluids. There are three types of turbomachines: fans,
blowers, and compressors.
 A fan causes only a small rise in stagnation pressure of the flowing fluid. A
fan consists of a rotating wheel (called the impeller), which is surrounded by
a stationary member known as the housing. Energy is transmitted to the
air by the power-driven wheel and a pressure difference is created,
providing airflow.
 The air feed into a fan is called induced draft, while the air exhausted from
a fan is called forced draft. In blowers, air is compressed in a series of
successive stages and is often led through a diffuser located near the exit.
 The overall pressure rise may range from 1.5 to 2.5 atm with shaft speeds up
to 30,000 rpm or more.
 Centrifugal Compressor
 The compressor, which can be axial flow, centrifugal flow, or a combination of the
two, produces the highly compressed air needed for efficient combustion.
In turbo-compressors or dynamic compressors, high pressure is achieved by
imparting kinetic energy to the air in the impeller, and then this kinetic energy
converts into pressure in the diffuser.
 Velocities of airflow are quite high and the Mach number of the flow may
approach unity at many points in the air stream. Compressibility effects may
have to be taken into account at every stage of the compressor. Pressure ratios
of 4:1 are typical in a single stage, and ratios of 6:1 are possible if materials such
as titanium are used.
 There is renewed interest in the centrifugal stage, used in conjunction with one or
more axial stages, for small turbofan and turboprop aircraft engines.
 The centrifugal compressor is not suitable when the pressure ratio requires the
use of more than one stage in series because of aerodynamic problems.
 Nevertheless, two-stage centrifugal compressors have been used successfully in
turbofan engines.
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Figure 4.1 shows part of a centrifugal compressor. It consists of a stationary
casing containing an impeller, which rotates and imparts kinetic energy to the
air and a number of diverging passages in which the air decelerates.
 The deceleration converts kinetic energy into static pressure. This process is
known as diffusion, and the part of the centrifugal compressor containing the
diverging passages is known as the diffuser.

 Centrifugal compressors
can be built with a
double entry or a single
entry impeller.
 Figure 4.2 shows a
double entry
centrifugal
compressor. How it
works?
 Centrifugal Compressor
 Air enters the impeller eye and is whirled around at high speed by the vanes on
the impeller disc. After leaving the impeller, the air passes through a diffuser
in which kinetic energy is exchanged with pressure.
2

 Energy is imparted to the air by the rotating

blades, thereby increasing the static pressure 1b

as it moves from eye radius r1 to tip radius r2. 1a

 The remainder of the static pressure rise is

achieved in the diffuser. The normal
practice is to design the compressor so that
about half the pressure rise occurs in the
impeller and half in the diffuser.
 The air leaving the diffuser is collected and
delivered to the outlet.
 The Effect of Blade Shape on Performance
 As discussed in Chapter 2, there are three types of vanes used in
impellers. They are: forward-curved, backward-curved, and radial vanes,
as shown in Fig. 4.3.
 The impellers tend to undergo high stress forces. Curved blades, such as
those used in some fans and hydraulic pumps, tend to straighten out due
to centrifugal force and bending stresses are set up in the vanes.
 The straight radial blades are not only free from bending stresses,
they may also be somewhat easier to manufacture than curved blades.
 The Effect of Blade Shape on Performance
 Figure 4.4 represents the relative
performance of three types of blades. It
is clear that increased mass flow
decreases the pressure on the backward
blade, exerts the same pressure on the
radial blade, and increases the pressure
on the forward blade.
 For a given tip speed, the forward-
curved blade impeller transfers
maximum energy, the radial blade less,
and the least energy is transferred by the
backward-curved blades.
 Hence with forward-blade impellers, a
given pressure ratio can be achieved
from a smaller-sized machine than those
with radial or backward-curved blades.
 Velocity Diagrams
 Figure 4.5 shows the impeller and velocity diagrams at the inlet and outlet.
Figure 4.5a represents the velocity triangle when the air enters the impeller in
the axial direction. In this case, absolute velocity at the inlet, C 1 =Ca1. Figure
4.5b represents the velocity triangle at the inlet to the impeller eye and air
enters through the inlet guide vanes.
 Angle θ is made by C1 and Ca1 and this angle is known as the angle of prewhirl.
The absolute velocity C1 has a whirl component Cw1.
 In the ideal case, air comes out from the impeller tip after making an angle of
900 (i.e., in the radial direction), so C w2 = U2. That is, the whirl component is
exactly equal to the impeller tip velocity.
 Figure 4.5c shows the ideal velocity triangle. But there is some slip between
the impeller and the fluid, and actual values of C w1 are somewhat less than U2.
Hence, the air is prevented from acquiring a whirl velocity equal to the
impeller tip speed. Figure 4.5d represents the actual velocity triangle.
Velocity Diagrams
 Slip Factor
 From the above discussion, it may be seen that there is no assurance that
the actual fluid will follow the blade shape and leave the compressor
in a radial direction. Thus, it is convenient to define a slip factor σ as:
σ = Cw2/U2 (4.1)
 Figure 4.6 shows the phenomenon of fluid slip with respect to a radial
blade. In this case, Cw2 is not equal to U2; consequently, by the above
definition, the slip factor is less than unity. If radial exit velocities are to
be achieved by the actual fluid, the exit blade angle must be curved
forward about 10–14 degrees.
 The slip factor is nearly constant for any machine and is related to the
number of vanes on the impeller. Various theoretical and empirical
studies of the flow in an impeller channel have led to formulas for slip
factors.
 Slip Factor
 For radial vaned impellers, the
formula for is given by Stanitz
as follows:
=1-
where n is the number of vanes.
 The velocity diagram indicates
that approaches U2 as the slip
factor is increased. Increasing
the number of vanes may
increase the slip factor but this
will decrease the flow area at
the inlet. A slip factor of about
0.9 is typical for a compressor
with 19–21 vanes.
 Work Done
 The theoretical torque will be equal to the rate of change of angular
momentum experienced by the air. Considering a unit mass of air, this torque
is given by theoretical torque,
τ =Cw2r2 (4.3)

where, Cw2 is whirl component of C2 and r2 is impeller tip radius.

 Let ω = angular velocity. Then the theoretical work done on the air may be
written as:
Theoretical work done , Wc = Cw2r2ω = Cw2U2.

 Using the slip factor, we have theoretical W c = σU22 (treating work done on
the air as positive)
 To take account windage, disk friction, and casing friction losses, a power
input factor can be introduced. This factor typically takes values between
 Work Done
 The actual work done on the air becomes:
Wc = ψσU22 (4.4)

(assuming Cw1 = 0, although this is not always the case.)

 Temperature equivalent of work done on the air is given by:
T02 - T01 = ψσU22/Cp

 where T01 is stagnation temperature at the impeller entrance; T 02 is stagnation

temperature at the impeller exit; and Cp is mean specific heat over this temperature
range.
 As no work is done on the air in the diffuser, T03 = T02, where T03 is the stagnation
temperature at the diffuser outlet.
 The compressor isentropic efficiency (ηc) may be defined as:

where T03, = isentropic stagnation temperature at the diffuser outlet

 Work Done
 The actual work done on the air becomes:
Wc = ψσU22 (4.4)
 Temperature equivalent of work done on the air is given by:
T02 - T01 = ψσU22/Cp

 where T01 is stagnation temperature at the impeller entrance; T 02 is

stagnation temperature at the impeller exit; and C p is mean specific heat
over this temperature range.
 As no work is done on the air in the diffuser, T03 = T02, where T03 is the
stagnation temperature at the diffuser outlet.
 Work Done
Due to different losses(such as
friction between air and impeller,
shock at entry, turbulence in fluid
flow) heat is increased from
impeller inlet to outlet.
The compressor isentropic
efficiency (ηc) may be defined as:
where T03' = isentropic stagnation
temperature at the diffuser outlet
 Work Done
 Rewriting the above equation :

 Let P01 be stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and; P03 is

stagnation pressure at the diffuser exit. Then, using the isentropic P–T
relationship, we get:

 Equation (4.5) indicates that the pressure ratio also depends on the inlet
temperature T01 and impeller tip speed U2. Any lowering of the inlet
temperature T01 will clearly increase the pressure ratio of the compressor
for a given work input, but it is not under the control of the designer.
 Diffuser
 The designing of an efficient combustion
system is easier if the velocity of the air
entering the combustion chamber is as low as
possible.
 Typical diffuser outlet velocities are in the
region of 90 m/s. The natural tendency of the
air in a diffusion process is to break away from
the walls of the diverging passage, reverse its
direction and flow back in the direction of the
pressure gradient, as shown in Fig. 4.7.
 Eddy formation during air deceleration causes
loss by reducing the maximum pressure rise.
Therefore, the maximum permissible included
angle of the vane diffuser passage is about 11 0.
 Diffuser
 Any increase in this angle leads to a loss of efficiency due to
boundary layer separation on the passage walls.
 It should also be noted that any change from the design mass flow
and pressure ratio would also result in a loss of efficiency. The use
of variable-angle diffuser vanes can control the efficiency loss.
 Compressibility Effects
 If the relative velocity of a compressible fluid reaches the speed of sound in the fluid,
separation of flow causes excessive pressure losses.
 Diffusion is a very difficult process and there is always a tendency for the flow to break
away from the surface, leading to eddy formation and reduced pressure rise.
 It is necessary to control the Mach number at certain points in the flow to mitigate this
problem. The value of the Mach number cannot exceed the value at which shock
waves occur. The relative Mach number at the impeller inlet must be less than unity.
 As shown in Fig. 4.8a, the air breakaway from the convex face of the curved part
of the impeller, and hence the Mach number at this point, will be very important
and a shock wave might occur.
 Now, consider the inlet velocity triangle again (Fig. 4.8b). The relative Mach
number at the inlet will be given by:

=
 Where T1 is the static temperature at the inlet. It is possible to reduce the Mach
 Compressibility Effects
 The prewhirl is given by a set of
fixed intake guide vanes preceding
the impeller. As shown in Fig. 4.8b,
relative velocity is reduced as
indicated by the dotted triangle.
 One obvious disadvantage of
prewhirl is that the work capacity of
the compressor is reduced by an
amount U1Cw1. It is not necessary to
introduce prewhirl down to the hub
because the fluid velocity is low in
this region due to lower blade
speed.
 The prewhirl is therefore
gradually reduced to zero by
twisting the inlet guide vanes.
 Mach Number in the Diffuser
 The absolute velocity of the fluid becomes a maximum at the tip of the impeller and so the
Mach number may well be in excess of unity. Assuming a perfect gas, the Mach number at the
impeller exit M2 can be written as:

 However, it has been found that as long as the radial velocity component (C r2) is subsonic,
Mach number greater than unity can be used at the impeller tip without loss of efficiency.
 In addition, supersonic diffusion can occur without the formation of shock waves provided
constant angular momentum is maintained with vortex motion in the vaneless space.
 High Mach numbers at the inlet to the diffuser vanes will also cause high pressure at the
stagnation points on the diffuser vane tips, which leads to a variation of static pressure around
the circumference of the diffuser.
 This pressure variation is transmitted upstream in a radial direction through the vaneless space
and causes cyclic loading of the impeller.
 This may lead to early fatigue failure when the exciting frequency is of the same order as one
of the natural frequencies of the impeller vanes. To overcome this concern, it is a common a
practice to use prime numbers for the impeller vanes and an even number for the diffuser
 Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics
 The performance of compressible
flow machines is usually described
in terms of the groups of variables
derived in dimensional analysis .
 These characteristics are dependent
on other variables such as the
conditions of pressure and
temperature at the compressor inlet
and physical properties of the
working fluid.
 To study the performance of a
compressor completely, it is
necessary to plot P03/P01 against the
mass flow parameter for fixed
speed intervals of .
 Centrifugal Compressor Characteristics
 Figure 4.9 shows an idealized fixed speed characteristic. Consider a valve
placed in the delivery line of a compressor running at constant speed. First,
suppose that the valve is fully closed. Then the pressure ratio will have some
value as indicated by Point A.
 This pressure ratio is available from vanes moving the air about in the
impeller. Now, suppose that the valve is opened and airflow begins.
 The diffuser contributes to the pressure rise, the pressure ratio increases, and
at Point B, the maximum pressure occurs. But the compressor efficiency at
this pressure ratio will be below the maximum efficiency.
 Point C indicates the further increase in mass flow, but the pressure has
dropped slightly from the maximum possible value. This is the design mass
flow rate pressure ratio.
 Further increases in mass flow will increase the slope of the curve until point
D. Point D indicates that the pressure rise is zero. However, the above
described curve is not possible to obtain.
 Stall
 Stalling of a stage will be defined as the aerodynamic stall, or the
breakaway of the flow from the suction side of the blade airfoil.
 A multistage compressor may operate stably in the unsurged region with
one or more of the stages stalled, and the rest of the stages unstalled. Why?
 Stall, in general, is characterized by reverse flow near the blade tip, which
disrupts the velocity distribution and hence adversely affects the
performance of the succeeding stages.
 Referring to the cascade of Fig. 4.10, it is supposed that some non-
uniformity in the approaching flow or in a blade profile causes blade B to
stall. The air now flows onto blade A at an increased angle of incidence due
to blockage of channel AB. The blade A then stalls, but the flow on blade
C is now at a lower incidence, and blade C may unstall.
 Stall
 Therefore, the stall may pass
along the cascade in the
direction of lift on the blades.
Rotating stall may lead to
vibrations resulting in fatigue
failure in other parts of the gas
turbine.
 Generally, this process shows
how stall propagates through a
compressor cascade. When
one blade stalls, it triggers a
chain reaction: neighboring
blades (like A) stall due to
altered flow, while others (like
C) may recover.
 Surging
 Surging is marked by a
complete breakdown of
the continuous steady
flow throughout the
whole compressor,
resulting in large
fluctuations of flow with
time and also in
subsequent mechanical
damage to the
compressor.
 Figure 4.11 shows
typical overall pressure
ratios and efficiencies of
a centrifugal compressor
stage.
 Choking
 When the velocity of fluid in a passage reaches the speed of sound
at any cross section, the flow becomes choked (air ceases to flow).
In the case of inlet flow passages, mass flow is constant. The
choking behavior of rotating passages differs from that of the
stationary passages, and therefore it is necessary to make separate
analysis for impeller and diffuser, assuming one dimensional,
adiabatic flow, and that the fluid is a perfect gas.
 Examples
Illustrative Example 4.1: The impeller tip speed of a centrifugal
compressor is 370m/s, slip factor is 0.90, and the radial velocity
component at the exit is 35m/s. If the flow area at the exit is 0.18 and
compressor efficiency is 0.88, determine the mass flow rate of air and
the absolute Mach number at the impeller tip. Assume air density =
1.57 and inlet stagnation temperature is 290K. Neglect the work input
factor. Also, find the overall pressure ratio of the compressor.
 Examples
Cont..
 Examples
Design Example 4.2: Air enters axially in a centrifugal compressor at a stagnation
temperature of C and is compressed from 1 to 4.5bars. The impeller has 19 radial
vanes and rotates at 17,000rpm. Isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 0.84 and
the work input factor is 1.04. Determine the overall diameter of the impeller and the
power required to drive the compressor when the mass flow is 2.5kg/s.
 Examples
Cont..

Problem 4.1: The impeller tip speed of a centrifugal compressor is 450m/s

with no prewhirl. If the slip factor is 0.90 and the isentropic efficiency of
the compressor is 0.86, calculate the pressure ratio, the work input per kg
of air, and the power required for25kg/s of airflow. Assume that the
compressor is operating at standard sea level and a power input factor of
1.
 Assignments
1. Draw and explain centrifugal compressor and its velocity triangles
2. Derive the expression for the pressure ratio of a centrifugal compressor

3. Explain the terms “slip factor” and “power input factor.

4. What are the three main types of centrifugal compressor impellers?
Draw the exit velocity diagrams for these three types.
5. Explain the phenomenon of stalling, surging and choking in centrifugal
compressors.
6. The impeller tip speed of a centrifugal compressor is 450m/s with no
prewhirl. If the slip factor is 0.90 and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is 0.86, calculate the pressure ratio, the work input per kg
of air, and the power required for25kg/s of airflow. Assume that the
compressor is operating at standard sea level and a power input factor
of 1.