INTRODUCTION TO
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Module 1
DEFINITION & CLASSIFICATION
An instrument is a device in which we can
determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring
quantity can be voltage, current, power and
energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two
categories.
ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENT
An absolute instrument determines the
magnitude of the quantity to be measured in
terms of the instrument parameter. Each time
the value of the measuring quantities varies,
we have to calculate the magnitude of the
measuring quantity, analytically which is time
consuming.
These types of instruments are suitable for
laboratory use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer, absolute
electrometer, Rayleigh current balance.
SECONDARY INSTRUMENT
These are the instruments whose output is
measured to give the value of the quantity
directly. The quantity to be measured is
determined by the deflection value of these
instruments.
They are calibrated against an absolute
instrument.
Examples: Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter,
etc.
SECONDARY INSTRUMENT..CONTD.
INDICATING: This instrument uses a dial and pointer to
determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
examples: ammeter, voltmeter, etc.
RECORDING: This type of instruments records the
magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously
over a specified period of time.
examples: seismograph, etc.
INTEGRATING: This type of instrument gives the total
amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time.
examples: energy-meter, etc.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT
In case of measuring instrument, the effect of
unknown quantity is converted into a
mechanical force, which is transmitted to the
pointer moving over a calibrated scale.
For satisfactory operation, the following
systems must be present in an instrument:
1. Deflecting system producing deflecting torque.
2. Controlling system producing controlling torque.
3. Damping system producing damping torque.
DEFLECTING SYSTEM:
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the
pointer will be at its zero position. To deflect the pointer
from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known
as deflecting force. A system which produces the
deflecting force is known as a deflecting system.
Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal
to a mechanical force.
The deflecting system uses on of the following effects
produced by current or voltage to produce the deflecting
torque:
1. Magnetic effect.
2. Thermal effect.
3. Electrostatic effect.
4. Induction effect.
5. Hall effect.
CONTROLLING SYSTEM:
This system should provide a force so that the current
or other quantity will produce deflection of the pointer
proportional to its magnitude. It has the following
important functions:
1. To produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting
force in order to make the pointer deflection at a definite
magnitude. Otherwise, the pointer will swing beyond its
final steady state position and deflection will become
indefinite.
2. To bring the moving system back to zero position, when
the force causing the pointer movement is removed.
It can be provided by:
1. Gravity control.
2. Spring control.
GRAVITY CONTROL:
GRAVITY CONTROL…CONTD.:
It consists of a small weight attached to the moving system
whose position is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling
torque due to gravity. This weight is called control weight.
Tc = WsinƟ x L =WL sinƟ
Thus, Tc α sinƟ
As, Td α I
Tc α sinƟ
At steady state position deflection torque=controlling torque
Thus, Iα sinƟ
Thus the scale of the gravity control type instrument is non-
uniform.
SPRING CONTROL:
SPRING CONTROL…CONTD.:
It utilizes two spiral hairsprings of non magnetic alloy
such as phosphorous-bronze or beryllium-copper.
The springs are oppositely wound so when the moving
system deflects, one spring winds up while the outer
unwind thus the controlling torque is produced by the
combined torsion of spring, since the torsional torque is
proportional to the angle of twist, the controlling torque
is directly proportional to the angular deflection of
pointer.
Td α I,
Also, Tc α Ɵ
At final deflection or steady state position:
Tc = Td
Therefore Ɵ α I
Scale of spring control type instruments is uniform.
DAMPING SYSTEM:
It is that part of the instrument which
provides damping force to damp the
oscillations of the pointer before come to a
rest.
Because of the inertia, the pointer of the
instrument oscillates about its final deflected
position for some time before coming to
rest. This causes waste of time in taking
readings, thus damping force acts as a brake
to prevent the oscillations of the moving
system and brings the pointer to it’s final
deflected position quickly.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Construction
It consists of permanent magnet which is stationary.
Moving system consists of a spindle attached to a rectangular
aluminum frame. A coil made up of thin copper wire is wound
over the frame. The current to be measured is passed through
this coil.
A soft iron core is placed in the in the space within the
alluminium frame.
Two spiral springs are mounted on the spindle to produce control
torque. Control spring also serves an additional purpose & acts
as control lead.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Construction
1. It consists of permanent magnet which is stationary.
2. Moving system consists of a spindle attached to a rectangular
aluminum frame. A coil made up of thin copper wire is wound
over the frame. The current to be measured is passed through
this coil.
3. A soft iron core is placed in the in the space within the
alluminium frame. This core is stationary and is provided to
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path between two poles of
the permanent magnet.
4. Two spiral springs are mounted on the spindle to produce control
torque. The control spring also serves an additional purpose and
acts as control lead. Pointer is mounted on spindle. Mirror is
provided below the scale to avoid parallax error. The spindle is
supported by jeweled bearings.
Working
1. The current to be measured is passed through moving coil via
control springs.
2. A current carrying moving coil is now in a magnetic field.
According to Flemings left hand rule, torque is produced on the
coil and coil moves, pointer deflects.
Link for working of PMMC type
Instrument
https://youtu.be/ZtBKC6WSjD0
https://youtu.be/CqW5rmmqv_Y
Torque Equation for PMMC type
The equation for the delevoped torque of the PMMC
can be obtained from the basic law of electromagnetic
torque. The deflecting torque is given by, Td = NBAI
Where,
Td = deflecting torque in N-m
B = flux density in air gap, Wb/m2
N = Number of turns of the coils
A = effective area of coil m2
I = current in the moving coil, amperes
Therefore, Td = GI
Where, G = NBA = constant
Contd..
The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is
proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer.
Tc = KØ
Where, Tc = Controlling Torque
K = Spring Constant Nm/rad or Nm/deg
Ø = angular deflection
For the final steady state position,
Td = Tc
Therefore GI = KØ
So, Ø = (G/K)I or I = (K/G) Ø
Thus the deflection is directly proportional to the current
passing through the coil. The pointer deflection can
therefore be used to measure current.
Numericals based on this
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
Errors in PMMC Instruments
Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing and
temperature effects
Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects
Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature.
Merits
Uniform scale for the instrument
Power consumption is very low
A single instrument can be used for different current and
voltage ranges
The toque-weight ratio is high gives higher accuracy.
Demerits
This instrument can be used only on DC supply
The cost of the instrument is more than M.I. Instruments
MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT:
Moving-iron instruments are generally used to
measure alternating voltages and currents. In
moving-iron instruments the movable system
consists of one or more pieces of specially-
shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be
acted upon by the magnetic field produced by
the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron
instruments namely:
1. Repulsion (or double iron) type
2. Attraction (or single-iron) type
REPULSION TYPE:
REPULSION TYPE…CONTD:
Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow
fixed iron attached to it. The moving iron is connected to
the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through
the coil, a magnetic field is produced by it. So both fixed
iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same
polarity, since they are kept in the same magnetic field.
Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled. Thus the
deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion.
Since moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will
move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the
oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
ATTRACTION TYPE:
ATTRACTION TYPE…CONTD.:
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is
kept near the hollow fixed coil. The pointer and balance
weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported
with jeweled bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation: The current to be measured is
passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow
through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By
magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south
pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force is produced
due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is
attached with the spindle, the spindle rotates and the
pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force
of attraction depends on the current flowing through
the coil.
Link for working of MI type Instrument
Attraction Type:
https://youtu.be/L9wHaLyv94Q
Repulsion Type:
https://youtu.be/bYGgMvXMJMo
Torque equation for MI type instrument
Deflecting torque in Moving iron Instruments is given as
Td = (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the deflecting torque
is dependent on the rate of change of inductance with the angular
position of iron van and square of rms current flowing through the coil.
In moving iron instruments, the controlling torque is provided by
spring. Controlling torque due to spring is given as
Tc = KƟ; Where K = Spring constant, Ɵ = Deflection in the
needle
In equilibrium state, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal as
below.
Deflecting Torque = Controlling Torque
⇒ Td = Tc
⇒ (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ) = KƟ
⇒ Ɵ = (1/2)(I2/K)(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the angular
deflection of needle of moving iron instruments is square of rms
Numericals based on this
