Module - 4

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

 TOPICS
Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors
Steady State Performance Constant v/f Control
Power Electronic Control
Feild Orientation Control (FOC)
Principles of FOC
Control Metods : Direction Rotor Flux Control
Indirect Rotor Flux Control
Voltage Source Inverter Control - Voltage
Control
Voltage Source Inverter Control - Current
 Induction Motor
Commutatorless motor drives offer a number of advantages over
conventional DC commutator motor drives for electric propulsion of
EVs
and HEVs.
Induction motor drives are mature technology among
commutatorless motor drives.
Compared with DC motor drives, AC induction motor drive has
additional advantages such as lightweight nature, small volume, low
cost, and high efficiency.
Two types of induction motors: 1. Wound-rotor
2. Squirrelcage motors.
 Due to high cost, need for maintenance, and lack of sturdiness,
wound-rotor induction motors are less attractive than their squirrel-
cage counterparts, especially for electric propulsion in EVs and
HEVs.
 Cross Section of Induction

Motor
 Slots in inner periphery of stator are inserted with
three phase windings, a–a’, b–b’, and c–c’.
 Turns of each winding are distributed such that
current in winding produces an approximate
sinusoidally distributed flux density around
periphery of air gap.
 Three windings are spatially arranged by 120º.
 Types of induction motor rotors are squirrel cage in
which aluminum bars are cast into slots in the outer
periphery of the rotor.
 Aluminum bars are short-circuited together at both
ends of the rotor by cast aluminum end rings, which
can also be shaped into fans.
 Basic Operation Principles of Induction
Motors
 A cross section of stator of a three phase, two-pole induction
motor.
 Each phase is fed with a sinusoidal AC current, which has a
frequency of ω and a 120º phase difference between each
other.
 Current ias, ibs, and ics in three stator coils a–a’, b–b’, and c–c’
produce alternative mmfs, Fas, Fbs, and Fcs, which are space
vectors. The resultant stator mmf vector Fss, constitutes a
vector sum of phase mmf vectors.
 The mmfs produced by phase currents
 Basic Operation Principles of Inductio

 The
Motors
resultant stator mmf vector,
 Magnitude of three phase mmfs are identical, equal to
Fs, equation can be
 Resultant stator mmf vector is rotating with a
frequency of angle velocity of ω, and its magnitude is
(3/2)Fs.
 Graphically shows stator mmf vectors at ωt=0 and
ωt=90º; here, ωt is the angle, rather than the
resultant stator mmf vector relative to d-axis.
 If ωt in equations are taken as reference, resultant
stator mmf vector is a 90º delay to phase a–a’ mmf.
 Basic Operation Principles of Inductio
 FMotors
as =0 0

 Spatially symmetric three-phase stator windings

 Basic Operation Principles of Inductio
 FMotors
as =0 0

 Phase currents Waveforms

 Basic Operation Principles of Inductio
 FMotors
bs =120 0

 Stator mmf vectors at ωt=0

 Basic Operation Principles of Inductio
 FMotors
cs =240 0

 Stator mmf vectors at ωt=90º

 Basic Operation Principles of Induction
 Angular velocity of rotor is equal to mechanical angular
Motors
velocity of rotating stator mmf, there will be no induced
current in rotor, and then no torque is produced.
 Mechanical angular velocity of rotating stator mmf is also
called synchronous speed.
 Rotor speed is ωm rad/sec, relative speed between stator
rotating field and rotor is

 ωsl is called slip speed. The parameter s, known as slip, is

 Relative speed between stator field and rotor, balanced

three-phase voltages are induced in rotor mentioned before.
 Frequency of these voltages is proportional to slip speed.
 ωr is frequency of rotor voltage induced.
 Basic Operation Principles of Induction
 ωm<ωms, relative speed is positive;
Motors
 Rotor induced voltages have same phase sequence as stator
voltages.
 Current flowing through rotor produces a magnetic field that
moves with respect to rotor at slip speed in same direction as
rotor speed.
 Rotor field moves in space at same speed as stator, and a steady
torque is produced.
 ωm=ωms, relative speed between rotor and stator field becomes
zero.
 No voltages are induced and no torque is produced by motor.
 ωm<ωms, relative speed between stator field and rotor speed
reverses.
 Rotor-induced voltages and currents also reverse and have
 a phase sequence opposite to that of stator.
 Developed torque has a negative sign, suggesting generator
 Steady-State Performance
 Fields produced by the stator and rotor are linked together by an ideal
transformer.
 aT1 is the transformer factor.
 It is equal to ns /nr
where ns is number of turns of stator windings
nr is number of turns of rotor windings
 A squirrel-cage rotor, nr=1.
 Equivalent circuit can be simplified by referring rotor quantities to stator
frequency and number of turns.
 Resultant equivalent circuit is shown below.
 where Rr is rotor resistance
 Xr is reactance
 Steady-State Performance
 Per phase equivalent circuit
 Steady-State Performance
 Per phase equivalent circuit refer to the stator
 Steady-State Performance
 Stator reactance, mutual reactance, and rotor reactance referred to stator can
be expressed by stator frequency and their inductances, Ls, Lm and Lr.
 Impedances of stator, field, and rotor is

 Driving-point impedance of the circuit is

 Current Is and Ir’ is

 Steady-State Performance
 Total electrical power supplied to motor for three phase is

 Mechanical power of rotor can be obtained by subtracting total power loss in

stator as

 Angular velocity of rotor, ωm, is

 Torque developed by motor is

 Steady-State Performance
 Torque–slip characteristics of an induction motor with fixed stator frequency
and
voltage
 Steady-State Performance
 Torque–slip characteristics of an induction motor, which has fixed
voltage and frequency.
 In region of 0<s<sm, where sm is rated slip of motor, torque increases
approximately linearly with increase of slip until reaching its
maximum at s=sm; then it decreases as slip further increases.
 At s=1, rotor speed is zero and corresponding torque is starting
torque, which is less than its torque at s=sm.
 Region of 0<s<1 is forward motoring region.
 In region of s>1, rotor torque further decreases with increase of slip,
and rotor speed is negative.
 Operation of motor is reverse braking.
 In region of s<0, that is, when rotor speed is greater than
synchronous speed, motor produces a negative torque.
 Operation of fixed voltage and frequency induction motor are usually
operated in narrow slip range of 0<s<sm.
 Traction application, an induction motor must be controlled to
provide proper speed–torque characteristics as mentioned.
 Constant Volt/Hertz Control
 Torque–speed characteristic of an induction motor can be varied by
simultaneously controlling voltage and frequency, which is known as constant
volt/hertz control.
 By emulating a DC motor at low speed, flux may be kept constant.

 Field current Im should be kept constant and equal to its rated value.
 Where
Imr is the rated field current
Erated is rated mmf
 Constant Volt/Hertz Control
 Flux at constant, E/ω should be kept constant and equal to Erated/ωr.
 Ignoring voltage drop in stator impedance Zs results in a constant V/ω until
frequency and voltage reach their rated values.
 It is known as constant volt/hertz control.
 Rotor current is

 Torque produced is

 Slip sm corresponding to maximum torque is

 Maximum torque is

 Constant E/ω, maximum torque is constant with varying frequency.

 smω is constant, resulting in constant slip speed, ωsl.
 Constant Volt/Hertz Control
 Voltage is fixed to its rated value and frequency continuously
increases with motor speed.
 Motor goes into field weakening operation.
 Slip s is fixed to its rated value corresponding to rated frequency, and
slip speed ωsl increases linearly with motor speed.
 Control approach results in constant power operation.
 Speed control in a wide range is usually required and torque demand
in high-speed range is low.
 Control beyond constant power range is required.
 Torque from exceeding breakdown torque, machine is operated at a
constant slip speed and machine current and power are allowed to
decrease.
 General block diagram where constant V/f control is implemented.
 Constant Volt/Hertz Control
 Operating variables varying with motor speed
 Constant Volt/Hertz Control
 General configuration of constant V/f control
 Power Electronic Control
 Switches S1, S3, and S5 are closed, S4, S6, and S2 are opened, and phases a,
b, and c are supplied with a positive voltage.
 Switches S1, S3, and S5 are opened and S4, S6, and S2 are closed, phases a, b,
and c are supplied with a negative voltage.
 Sinusoidal reference voltage Va, Vb, and Vc at a time t is greater than the
triangular waved voltage, turn-on signals are sent to switches S1, S3, and S5
and turn-off signals are sent to S4, S6, and S2.
 Three phases of induction motor have a positive voltage.
 Reference sinusoidal voltage is smaller than triangular wave voltage, turn-on
signals are sent to the switches S1, S3, and S5 and turn-off signals are sent to
S4, S6, and S2.
 Three phases of induction motor then have a negative voltage.
 Ratio of amplitude of reference wave to that of triangular carrier wave, m, is
called modulation index.
Power Electronic Control
 Power Electronic Control
 A is multitude of reference sinusoidal voltage, Va, Vb, or Vc, and Am is multitude
of angular carrier voltage.
 Fundamental (rms) component in phase waveform, Vao, Vbo, or Vco, is

 Fundamental voltage increases linearly with m until m=1.

 m>1, number of pulses in Vao, Vbo, or Vco becomes less and modulation
ceases to be sinusoidal.
Power Electronic Control
Power Electronic Control
 Field Orientation Control
 Constant volt/hertz control of induction motor is more suitably
applied to motors that operate with a relatively slow speed
regulation.
 Field orientation control (FOC) or vector control technology has been
successfully developed.
 This technology mostly overcomes disadvantages of constant
volt/hertz control in AC motor drives.
 FOC is to maintain stator field perpendicular to rotor field so as to
always produce maximum torque as in DC motors.
 Rotating fields of both stator and rotor can be described by two
retorting vectors, referring to a common, stationary reference
frame, d–q.
 MMF of stator field is expressed by equation
 Convenience, it is repeated as follows:
 Field Orientation Control
 Fas=00
 Spatially symmetric three-phase stator windings
 Field Orientation Control
 Fbs=1200
 Stator mmf vectors at ωt=0
 Field Orientation Control
 Fcs=2400
 Stator mmf vectors at ωt=90º
 Field Orientation Control
 Stator voltage, stator current, and stator flux can be expressed as
vectors in same way

 Subscript s refers to stator and as, bs, and cs refer to phases a, b,

and c of stator.
 Vectors of stator voltage, current, and flux can also be described by
its components in d and q axes as follows:
 Field Orientation Control

 Effective number of turns per phase of rotor winding, Nr, is not

equal to that of stator winding, Ns. Therefore, turns ratio, ν=Ns/Nr
 Field Orientation Control
 Transformation of rotor current vector from rotor frame to stator
frame
 Field Orientation Control
 Transformations of these vectors

 Using vector notation, either stator or rotor windings can be

represented by a simple resistive-plus-inductive circuit, using
current, voltage, and magnetic flux space vector.
 Vector version of Kirchhoff’s voltage law, equation of stator winding
can be

 Rotor winding as

 Rs and Rr r are the actual stator and rotor resistances per phase
 Field Orientation Control
 Steady-state theory of induction machines, relation between R rr and
rotor resistance referred to stator is

 First term
 Second term

 Finally

 Differentiation operator p=d/dt, voltage equation of an induction

motor can be

 flux vector λss and λsr can then be expressed in terms of current
vector iss and isr and motor inductances
 Field Orientation Control
 Lm is mutual inductance, Ls is stator inductance calculated as sum of
stator leakage inductance Lls and mutual inductance Lm, and Lr is
rotor inductance, calculated as sum of rotor leakage inductance Llr
and mutual inductance Lm.
 Voltage equation can be written in matrix format as

 Torque developed by motor can be

 Field Orientation Control
 Transformation is conducted from a stationary stator reference frame dq to so
called excitation reference frame DQ which rotates with angular speed w in same
direction as does mmf.
 Stator mmf vector in the stator and excitation reference frames.
 Voltage vector of stator in excitation reference
frame can be expressed as
 e-jωt =cos(ωt)-sin(ωt)
 Components of stator voltage on DQ frame are

 Motor equation in excitation reference frame can be

 Field Orientation Control
 ωr=ω-ω0 as slip speed.

 Rotor voltage vector is normally assumed to be zero due to shorted rotor winding.
 Torque equation in excitation reference frame is

 Accurate control of instantaneous torque produced by a motor is required in high

performance drive systems, such as EV propulsions.
 Torque developed in motor is a result of interaction between current in armature
winding and magnetic field produced in stator field of motor.
 Field should be maintained at a certain optimal level, sufficiently high to yield a
high torque per unit of ampere, but not too high to result in excessive saturation
of magnetic circuit of motor.
 Torque is proportional to armature current.
 Field Orientation Control
 FOC or vector control can realize optimal control for transient operation of an induction
drive.
 FOC can decouple field control from torque control.
 A field-oriented induction motor emulates a separately excited DC motor in two
aspects:
1. Both magnetic field and torque developed in motor can be controlled
independently.
[Link] conditions for torque production, resulting in maximum torque per unit
ampere, occur in motor both in steady state and in transient conditions of
operations.
 Developed torque, T, is proportional both to armature current and field flux.

 KT is a constant depending on physical parameters of motor.

 Torque of separately excited DC motors can be controlled by independently controlling
armature current and flux.
 Field Orientation Control
 Torque equation

 where is rotor time constant.

 If
 Then

 Separately excited DC motor.

 As

 Substituting equations

 Thus
 Field Orientation Control
 Torque produced can be represented by block diagram

 Block diagram of an induction motor with λeQR=0

 A transfer function is

 Block diagram of a field-orientated induction motor.

 λeDR=constant are satisfied, that is, λeQR=0 and pλeDR=0.
 ieDR=0, iRe = jiQRe & λeR=λeDR.
 It represents optimal conditions for torque production,
analogous to a DC motor
 Control Method
 General block diagram of a vector control system for an induction motor drive.
 Field orientation principle defines conditions of optimal torque production.
 Orthogonality of rotor current and flux vectors must be maintained at all times.
 Transient conditions,field orientation principle conditions, special techniques are
required to provide an algorithmic equivalent of actual physical disposition between
stator and rotor fields of emulated DC motor.
 Vector control system for an
induction motor drive produces
reference signals ias* , ibs* , and
ics* of stator currents, based on
input reference values, λ*r and
T*, of rotor flux and motor
torque, respectively, and
signals corresponding to
selected variables of motor.
 Control Method
 An invertersupplies motor currents, ias, ibs, and ics, such that their waveforms follow
reference waveform, ias* , ibs* , and ics* .
 iDSe and iQSe components of stator current vector, ise, in excitation frame can be used
for independent control of motor field and torque.
 λ*r and T* into corresponding reference signals, iDSe* and iQSe* , of vector of stator
current, and then transfers these into reference signals, ias* , ibs* ,and ics* , of stator
phase current, which is to be produced by inverter.
 Rotor flux vector,λsr, along which excitation frame is orientated.
 This method is usually referred to as rotor flux orientation scheme.
 Angular position of rotor flux vector in stator reference frame is denoted by θ r,
DQ to dq transformation in described scheme is

 This orientation of orientation frame inherently satisfies

field orientation principle condition in equation
 Rotor flux is controlled by adjusting the iDSe component of the stator current vector
independently from the torque control, which is realized by means of the i QSe
Control Method
 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation
 Direct field orientation systems, magnitude and angular position (phase) of reference
Scheme
flux vector λr are either measured or estimated from stator voltage and currents
e

using flux observers.

 Placing sensors in air gap of motor, on d and q axes, allows determination of
corresponding components of vector λsm of mutual flux.
 Dynamic T equivalent circuit shown

 Flux appearing across mutual inductance, Lm, is or

 λsr differs from λsm by only leakage flux in rotor, then

 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation
 A microprocessor-based rotor flux calculator is
Scheme

 It performs algebraic operations as follows:

1. Signals idss and iqss are calculated from actual stator phase current, ias, ibs, and ics,
using abc to dq transformation.
2. Using above equation, signals λsdr and λsqr are calculated.
3. Magnitude λr and phase θr of rotor flux vector are determined using rectangular to
polar coordinate transformation.
 Orthogonal spacing of flux sensors in applies to only two-pole machines.
 In a P-pole machine, sensors must be placed 180/P from each other.
 Since λ DRs = λr output variable, λr, of rotor flux calculator can be used as a feedback
signal in field control loop.
 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation
 Developed torque is shown
Scheme
 Torque calculator computes
torque in following steps:
1. Static abc to dq transformation is
performed on stator currents, ias, ibs,
and ics, to obtain idss and iqss .
2. Angle θr supplied by rotor flux
calculator is substituted into
equation for ωt in order to transfer signals isds and isqs into iDS e and iQSe components of
stator current vector in excitation frame.
3. Magnitude λr of rotor flux, also supplied by rotor flux calculator and presumed equal to λ
DS
e
, is multiplied by i QS and by torque constant KT to calculate developed torque.
e
 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation
 Independent flux and torque control block diagram, based on vector control of an
Scheme
induction motor with direct rotor flux orientation.
 Vector control system for an
induction motor with direct rotor
flux orientation.

 Proportional-plus integral (PI)-based field and torque controllers are used to generate
control signals ie*DS and ie*QS in excitation frame by comparing target rotor flux, λ*r,
and target torque,T*, with actual rotor flux, λr, and torque, T.
 Then, ie*DS and ie*QS in excitationframe are transferred into is*ds and is*qs in stator
reference frame using rotor flux angle.
 Field orientation techniques described are considered to be most robust and accurate.
 Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation
 Presence of vulnerable Hall sensors in vector control with direct rotor flux orientation
Scheme
would weaken reliability and enhance cost of motor drive.
 Indirect approach is to obtain rotor flux position by calculation of slip speed, ω r,
required for correct field orientation, and imposition of this speed on motor.
 Synchronous speed necessary to maintain orthogonal orientation of vectors λ eR and ieR
in given operating conditions of motor is denoted by ω*, θ r angle can be

 Where ω*, ωr* and ω0 are the synchronous speed, slip speed, and rotor speed,
 θ0 is angular displacement of rotor, which is easy to measure using a shaft position
sensor.
 Required value of the slip speed ωr* can be computed from equation
 λeR=λeDR

 Substituting &
 Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation

 Replacing λ e
Scheme
and ie in equation with λ* and iDRe* yields
Dr DS r

 Form torque equation,signal iQSe* can be

 Vector control system for an induction motor based on indirect rotor flux orientation
scheme is shown
 Rotor flux and developed torque
are controlled in a feedforward.
 Major advantage of such a system
is that a standard motor can be
used, whose rotor position is easily
measurable by an external sensor.
 Control scheme presented here
constitutes an extension of scalar
torque control methods, reference
flux and torque values must satisfy safe operation area
 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC
 Power electronic inverter for FOC of induction motor drives has same topology as
shown
 Power switches in a given leg (a, b, or c) must
never both be in ON-state, since this would
cause a short circuit.
 On other hand, if both switches on same leg
are in OFF-state, then potential of
corresponding output terminal is unknown to
control system of inverter.
 Circuit can be completed through either upper
or lower diode and, consequently,potential
can be equal to that of either positive bus or
negative bus.
 Inverter is controlled in such a way that, in a given leg, either upper switch (SA, SB, or
SC) is ON and lower switch (SA’, SB’, or SC’) is OFF or, vice versa, upper switch is OFF
and lower switch is ON.
 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC
 Two combinations of states of the switches in each leg are allowed, a switching
variable can be assigned to each phase of inverter.
 In effect, only eight logic states are permitted for whole power circuit.
 Defining switching variables as

 Instantaneous values of line-to-line output voltage of inverter are

 Vdc is voltage of DC supply of inverter.

 In a balanced three-phase system, line-to-neutral
voltage can be calculated from line-to-line voltages
 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC
 After substituting equations, line-to-neutral voltages are
given by

 line-to-line voltages can assume only three values:

-Vdc, 0, and Vdc
 Five line to-neutral voltage values:
(-2/3)Vdc, -(1/3)Vdc, 0, (1/3)Vdc, and
(2/3)Vdc.
 Eight logic states of inverter can be numbered from 0 to 7
using
decimal equivalent of binary number abc.
 abc to dq transformation, output voltage can be represented
as space vectors, stator reference frame, each vector
corresponding to a given state of inverter.
 Space vector diagrams of line-to-line voltages and line-to-
neutral voltages of voltage source inverter are shown
 Voltage Control in Voltage Source
 Wye-connected induction motor, load currents are
Inverter
generated by line-to-neutral voltages of inverter.
 Motor operation is controlled by line-to-neutral voltage
inverter voltages.
 Space vectors of line-to-neutral voltages are shown
 Switching interval, at center of which reference vector is
located, is shown
 Linear combination of two adjacent base vectors, vx and vy,
which are framing sector, and either one of two zero
vectors.
 That is,

 vz is zero vector and dx, dy, and dz denote duty ratios of

states of x, y, and z within switching interval.
 State duty ratio is defined as ratio of duration of state to
duration of switching interval.
 Voltage Control in Voltage Source
 Maximum available magnitude, Vmax, of resulting voltage is (√3/2)Vdc.
Inverter
 Vector can be
 M is modulation index, adjustable within 0 to 1 range and α denotes angular position of
vector v* inside sector, that is, angular distance between vectors v* and v x.
vx=v4=1+j0 p.u., vy=v6= 1/2 + j√3/2 p.u., vz (either v0 or v7) is zero Vmax=√3/2Vdc ;
&

 dx and dy can be &

 Simple algebraic formulas allow duty ratios of consecutive logic states of an inverter to
be computed in real time.
 Rreedom of choice of zero vectors, various state sequences can be enforced in a given
sector.
 Particularly efficient operation of inverter is obtained when state sequences in
consecutive switching interval.
 z=0 in sectors v6-v2, v3-v1, and v5-v4, and z=7 in remaining sectors.
Voltage Control in Voltage Source

Inverter

Switching signals and output voltages

for a
voltage source inverter in previously
described
PWM mode with M=0.7 and 20º width
of
switching interval.
Switching signals and output voltage
for
voltage source inverter in PWM
operation
mode.
Current Control in Voltage Source
Output currents of an inverter depend on load, feed forward current control is not
Inverter
feasible and a feedback from current sensors is required.
There exist a number of different control technologies.
Simplest one is controller, based on so-called “hysteretic” or “bang–bang.”
Block diagram of a current control voltage source inverter is shown
Current Control in Voltage Source
Output currents, ia, ib, and ic, of inverter are sensed and compared with reference
Inverter
current signals, i*a, i*b, and i*c.
Current error signals, ∆ia, ∆ib, and ∆ic, are then applied to hysteresis current
controller, which generates switching signals, a b, and c, for inverter switches.
Input–output characteristic of phase-a hysteretic current controller is shown

Width of hysteretic loop, denoted by h, represents tolerance bandwidth for

controlled current.
If current error, ∆ia, is greater than h/2, that is, ia is unacceptably lower than
Current Control in Voltage Source

Inverter
 Voltage is most strongly affected by switch variable a;
hence, it is this variable that is regulated by controller,
and is set to a 1 in described situation.
 Conversely, an error less than -h/2 results in a=0,
in order to decrease current ia to stay within tolerance
band.
 Other two controllers operate in a similar manner.
 Width, h, of tolerance band affects switching
frequency of inverter.
 Current-controlled voltage source inverter
(10% tolerance bandwidth)
Current Control in Voltage Source


Inverter
Narrower band, more frequent switching takes place
and higher quality of currents.
 Switching variables, line-to-neutral voltages, and
currents for an inverter supply a resistive-plus-
inductive load at values of h=10 and 5% of
amplitude of reference current.
 Tolerance bandwidth should be set to a value that
represents an optimal tradeoff between quality
of currents and efficiency of inverter.
 Current-controlled voltage source inverter
(5% tolerance bandwidth)