Internetworking

Devices
Index
• LAN card
• Cables
• Ports & Connectors
• Repeater
• IP address
• MAC address
• Bridge
• Hub
• Switch
• Router
• Gateways
• Modem
• Access Point
LAN Card
• A LAN card, also known as a network interface
card (NIC) or Ethernet adapter, is a hardware
component that allows computers to connect
to a local area network (LAN) using Ethernet
cables.
• Features:
• Speed: LAN cards support different
Ethernet speeds such as 10/100 Mbps
(Fast Ethernet) or 1 Gbps (Gigabit
Ethernet).
• Compatibility: They are compatible with
various network standards (e.g., IEEE
802.3) and often support auto-
negotiation for optimal speed and duplex
settings.
• LED Indicators: Most LAN cards have LED
indicators near the Ethernet port to show
activity and link status.
Cables
• Twisted pair cables
• Fiber optic cables
• Coaxial cables
• Ethernet cables
• USB cables
• HDMI cables
Cables - Twisted pair cables
• Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated
copper wires twisted together in a specific pattern.
• The twisting helps to reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from external sources and
crosstalk between adjacent pairs.
• Types
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
• This is the most common type of twisted pair cable used in
Ethernet networks.
• It consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together without any additional shielding.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
• STP cables have an extra layer of shielding, usually made of
foil or braided metal, around the twisted pairs.
• This shielding provides additional protection against EMI
and crosstalk, making STP cables suitable for environments
with high levels of electromagnetic interference.
• Twisted pair cables are used to connect devices
within local area networks (LANs), such as
computers, printers, routers, and switches.
Cables – Fiber optic cables
• Fiber optic cables are a type of high-speed transmission
medium used in telecommunications and computer
networking to transmit data over long distances with high
bandwidth and low latency.
• Construction: Fiber optic cables consist of thin strands of
glass or plastic fibers (optical fibers) bundled together in a
protective jacket. Each fiber is capable of transmitting
data using pulses of light.
• Core and Cladding: The core is the central part of the
fiber through which light travels, surrounded by a
cladding layer that reflects light back into the core,
preventing signal loss due to leakage.
• Types of Fiber Optic Cables:
• Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Uses a single strand of optical fiber
with a smaller core (typically around 9 microns in diameter). It
is designed for long-distance transmission and higher
bandwidth applications, supporting distances of up to tens of
kilometers without signal regeneration.
• Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Uses multiple strands of optical
fiber with a larger core (typically 50 or 62.5 microns in
diameter). It is suitable for shorter distances within buildings
or campuses, offering lower cost per meter compared to
single-mode fiber.
Cables – Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax cable,
is a type of electrical cable known for its use
in telecommunications and broadband
internet applications.
• Construction: Coaxial cables consist of several
layers of materials:
• Sheath: This is the outer layer of the coaxial
cable. It protects the cable from physical
damage.
• Braided shield: protects signals from external
interference and noise. This shield is built from
the same metal that is used to build the core.
• Insulation: protects the core. It also keeps the
core separate from the braided shield. Since both
the core and the braided shield use the same
metal, without this layer, they will touch each
other and create a short-circuit in the wire.
• Conductor: carries electromagnetic signals.
Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial
cable and multi-core coaxial cable.
Cables – Ethernet cables
• Ethernet cables are a type of twisted pair cable used
primarily for wired Ethernet networks.
• They are essential for connecting devices such as
computers, routers, switches, and other network
equipment within a local area network (LAN).
• Types of Ethernet Cables:
• Category 5e (Cat5e): Supports speeds up to 1 Gbps (Gigabit
Ethernet) and frequencies up to 100 MHz. Cat5e cables are
suitable for most Ethernet installations in homes and small
businesses.
• Category 6 (Cat6): Offers higher performance than Cat5e,
supporting speeds up to 10 Gbps over shorter distances (up to
55 meters for 10 Gbps). Cat6 cables are commonly used in
environments requiring higher data transfer rates, such as
offices and data centers.
• Category 6a (Cat6a): Enhanced version of Cat6, capable of
supporting 10 Gbps over longer distances (up to 100 meters).
Cat6a cables are ideal for applications where high bandwidth
and performance are critical, such as enterprise networks and
server rooms.
• Category 7 (Cat7): Designed to support even higher frequencies
and bandwidths than Cat6a, Cat7 cables are suitable for 10 Gbps
and 40 Gbps Ethernet applications. They incorporate shielding to
 Cables – USB cables
• USB (Universal Serial Bus) cables are widely used for connecting peripheral
devices to computers and other devices.
• USB Type A
• Standard rectangular connector.
• Found on computers, laptops, hubs, and chargers.
• Used for connecting peripherals such as keyboards, mouse, printers, and external
storage devices.
• USB Type-B
• Squarer in shape compared to Type-A.
• Commonly used for connecting printers, scanners, and some older external hard
drives.
• USB Mini
• Mini-A: Less common, used in older devices.
• Mini-B: More common, used in cameras, older smartphones, and some external
drives.
• USB Micro
• Micro-A: Less common, used in certain devices.
• Micro-B: Widely used in smartphones, tablets, external hard drives, and other
portable devices.
• Micro-USB 3.0: Features additional pins for faster data transfer rates, less common
• USB Type-C
• Reversible, oval-shaped connector.
• Becoming increasingly popular due to its versatility and higher data transfer speeds
(USB 3.1 and above).
• Used in smartphones, tablets, laptops, and various peripherals.
 Cables – HDMI cables
• HDMI (High-Multimedia Interface) cables are used for
transmitting high-audio and video signals between
devices such as TVs, monitors, projectors, Blu-ray
players, gaming consoles, and computers.
• Connector Types:
• Standard HDMI Connector (Type A):
• The most common HDMI connector.
• Rectangular in shape with 19 pins.
• Used for connecting TVs, monitors, and other HDMI-enabled
devices.
• Mini HDMI Connector (Type C):
• Smaller than the standard HDMI connector.
• Found on some cameras, camcorders, and smaller devices.
• Requires a Mini HDMI to HDMI cable or adapter for connection to
standard HDMI ports.
• Micro HDMI Connector (Type D):
• Even smaller than Mini HDMI.
• Used in compact devices like smartphones, tablets, and portable
cameras.
• Requires a Micro HDMI to HDMI cable or adapter for connection
Connectors
Connectors – RJ45
• The RJ45 connector is a standardized physical interface
used for connecting Ethernet cables to network devices,
such as computers, routers, switches, and network
interface cards (NICs).
• Pin Configuration
• has eight pins (eight-position, eight-contact - 8P8C) arranged
in a specific order. Pins are numbered 1 through 8 from left to
right when looking at the front of the connector with the
retaining clip facing down.
• Color Coding:
• Ethernet cables (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6) use specific color codes to
match the wires inside the cable to the pins in the RJ45
connector. This ensures proper signal transmission and
compatibility with Ethernet standards (e.g., 10/100/1000
Mbps).
• Latch Mechanism:
• RJ45 connectors typically feature a plastic latch or clip that
secures the connector into the Ethernet port, preventing
accidental disconnection.
Connectors – Ethernet ports
• An Ethernet port, also known as an Ethernet jack or
Ethernet interface, refers to the physical socket on a
computer, router, switch, or other networking
devices where Ethernet cables are inserted to
establish a wired Ethernet connection.
• Functionality:
• The Ethernet port serves as a point of connection for
wired Ethernet cables, enabling devices to communicate
with each other over a local area network (LAN). It
supports various Ethernet standards, including Fast
Ethernet (10/100 Mbps) and Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps).
• Compatibility:
• Ethernet ports are compatible with various categories of
Ethernet cables, such as Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a, which
support different data transmission speeds and
distances. The port's capabilities are often matched with
the capabilities of the connected devices and the
network infrastructure.
Connectors – VGA
• The VGA (Video Graphics Array) connector is a type of
analog video connector that was widely used for
connecting computer monitors, projectors, and other
display devices to computers and other video sources.
• Physical Description:
• The VGA connector is a 15-pin DE-15 connector with three
rows of pins, arranged in a trapezoidal shape.
• It has a characteristic blue color for standard VGA cables,
although cables and connectors can also be found in other
colors.
• The connector includes pins for analog RGB signals (Red,
Green, Blue), horizontal and vertical synchronization
signals (HSync, VSync), and grounds.
• Usage:
• Monitors
• VGA connectors were commonly used to connect CRT (Cathode
Ray Tube) monitors, and later, early LCD monitors to computers.
• Projectors
• VGA connectors were also used to connect laptops, desktop
computers, and DVD players to projectors for presentations and
multimedia displays.
Internetworking device - Repeater
• A repeater in networking is a device used to
extend the reach and enhance the strength of a
network signal, especially in environments
where the signal may weaken over long
distances.
• Functionality:
• Signal Regeneration: A repeater amplifies or
regenerates signals as they pass through it,
restoring their strength and enabling them to
travel further distances without degradation.
• Extending Range: It effectively extends the range
of a network by boosting signals, allowing devices
that are farther away from the main source to
connect and communicate effectively.
• Physical Layer Device: Repeater operates at the
physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, dealing with the electrical
signals and bit-level transmission without
interpreting data at higher layers.
Internetworking device - Repeater
• Types of Repeaters:
• Analog Signal Repeaters:
• Used in analog transmission systems, such as radio
frequencies and telecommunication lines, to amplify
signals for clearer transmission over longer distances.
• Digital Signal Repeaters:
• Common in digital networks like Ethernet and fiber optic
networks, where they regenerate digital signals to
maintain data integrity and extend transmission
distances.
• Applications:
• Ethernet Networks: In Ethernet networks, repeaters are
used to connect network segments and extend the
overall network coverage area. They help maintain
signal quality over longer cable runs.
• Fiber Optic Networks: Optical repeaters are used in
fiber optic communications to regenerate optical
signals, enabling long-distance transmission without
signal degradation.
• Wireless Networks: Wireless repeaters, also known as
range extenders, amplify Wi-Fi signals to cover larger
areas in homes, offices, and outdoor environments.
Internetworking device - Repeater
• Limitations:
• Bandwidth Limitation:
• Repeaters do not increase the available
bandwidth of the network segment. They
only amplify the existing signals.
• Interference:
• In wireless networks, repeaters can amplify
both the signal and any interference present
in the environment, potentially affecting
overall network performance.
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a
unique string of numbers and/or letters that
identifies each device connected to a network,
such as the internet.
• IP addresses are used by network routers to
determine where data packets should be sent
and help in routing internet traffic efficiently.
• They play a crucial role in ensuring that the
correct data reaches the correct destination.
• It allows devices to locate and communicate with
each other.
• It is typically shown as a set of numbers, such as
192.155.12.1.
• Each number in the set ranges from 0 to 255.
• Thus, an IP address can range from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
• IP addresses are assigned by IANA (Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers).
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• Working of IP address
• Your device requests access to the
internet from your Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
• The ISP grants access and assigns an IP
address to your device from the available
range.
• Your internet activity is routed through
the ISP, which then directs the data back
to you using your IP address.
• Your IP address can change, such as when
you turn your router on or off.
• When you leave your home, your home
IP address does not travel with you; it
changes as you connect to different
networks.
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• There are two main versions of IP addresses:
• IPv4: This is the most commonly used
version and consists of four sets of numbers
ranging from 0 to 255, separated by periods
(e.g., 192.168.1.1). IPv4 addresses are
running out due to the growing number of
devices on the internet.
• IPv6: This is the newer version designed to
address the limitations of IPv4. IPv6
addresses are longer and consist of eight
groups of four hexadecimal digits separated
by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
). IPv6 provides a much larger address space,
accommodating the increasing number of
devices.
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• Classification of IP address
• Public IP Address
• Assigned by your network provider to your
router, which then distributes it to your devices.
• Types
• Dynamic IP Address
• Assigned temporarily from a range of available
addresses each time you connect to the internet.
• Your IP address may change with each new
connection.
• Static IP Address
• Remains constant and serves as a permanent address.
• Used by DNS servers to help open websites and can
provide information about the device's location and
ISP.
• Generally offers less security than dynamic IP
addresses because they are easier to track.
• Example: An online gaming server with a static IP
address so players can always connect to the same
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• Classification of IP address
• Private IP Address
• An internal address used within a private network.
• Not routable over the internet, so data exchange
with the internet does not occur with a private IP
address.
• Shared IP Addresses
• Used by multiple websites or servers to save costs,
especially when traffic is manageable.
• Commonly used by companies and email servers to
reduce expenses during idle times.
• Dedicated IP Addresses
• Used exclusively by one company or individual.
• Allows for benefits like a private SSL certificate,
accessing websites or FTP via IP address, improved
website performance during high traffic, and
protection from issues related to shared IP
addresses being blacklisted.
Internet Protocol(IP) address
• Lookup IP Addresses
• To find your public IP address, search "What is
my IP?" on Google or visit similar websites.
These sites will display your public IP because
your router reveals it when you connect to
them.
• Additionally, they can show information such as
your Internet Service Provider and your current
city.
• Finding Your Device's Private IP Address
• On Windows
• Click Start, type "cmd" in the search box, and open
the Command Prompt.
• In the Command Prompt window, type "ipconfig"
and press Enter to view your IP address.
• On Mac
• Go to System Preferences, select Network, and view
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique physical
address that identifies each device on a network.
• It is used alongside an IP address to facilitate
communication between networked devices.
• Assigned to the Network Interface Card (NIC) of each
device that connects to the internet.
• Also known as a physical address, hardware address, or
Burned-In Address (BIA).
• It is globally unique, meaning no two devices have the
same MAC address.
• Represented in hexadecimal format, such as
`00:0a:95:9d:67:16`.
• Consists of 12 digits (48 bits), with the first 24 bits
identifying the Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI) and
the remaining 24 bits for NIC/vendor-specific information.
• Operates on the data link layer of the OSI model.
• Provided by the device's manufacturer and embedded in
the NIC, making it generally unchangeable.
• The ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map a
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• Why do we need both IP and MAC Addresses
• While IP addresses help locate devices across diverse
networks, MAC addresses are essential for identifying
devices within the same network.
• Unique Device Identification
• The MAC address uniquely identifies a device's Network
Interface Card (NIC) on a network, helping to distinguish
individual devices.
• Function of IP Addresses
• IP addresses are used to direct data to a device across
different networks on the internet.
• Function of MAC Addresses
• MAC addresses operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model,
facilitating identification and communication within the
same local network (e.g., within a router's broadcast
domain).
• Layer Differences
• IP addresses work at Layer 3 and are used for routing data
between devices across different networks.
• MAC addresses operate at Layer 2 and are used for local
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• Format of MAC address
• It is 12 digits or 6-byte hexadecimal number, which is
represented in colon-hexadecimal notation format.
• It is divided into six octets, and each octet contains 8
bits.
• The first three octets are used as the OUI or
Organisationally Unique Identifier.
• These MAC prefixes are assigned to each organization or
vendor by the IEEE Registration Authority Committee.
• Some example of OUI of known vendors are:
CC:46:D6 - Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD
• The last three octets are NIC specific and used by the
manufacturer to each NIC card.
• Vendors or manufacturers can use any sequence of
digits to the NIC specific digits, but the prefix should be
the same as provided by the IEEE.
Media Access Control (MAC) address
Types of MAC addresses
• Unicast MAC Address
• Identifies a single unique device on a network.
• Usage Used for direct communication between devices, where data is sent specifically to one device.
• Broadcast MAC Address
• `FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF`
• Usage Used to send data to all devices on a local network segment. When a device sends a frame to the broadcast MAC address, all devices on the
same network segment receive it.
• Multicast MAC Address
• Any MAC address that falls within the range `01:00:5E:00:00:00` to `01:00:5E:7F:FF:FF`.
• Usage Used for sending data to a group of devices rather than all devices. Devices that are part of the multicast group will receive the data, while
others will ignore it.
• Locally Administered MAC Address
• A MAC address that is assigned manually by an administrator rather than being assigned by the hardware manufacturer.
• Usage Identified by setting the second least significant bit of the first byte to 1. This allows network administrators to assign their own MAC addresses
for various purposes.
• Universally Administered MAC Address
• A MAC address assigned by the hardware manufacturer and globally unique.
• Usage The most common type of MAC address, used for standard device identification on networks.
• Burned-In Address (BIA)
• Another term for the MAC address that is assigned by the manufacturer and hard-coded into the network interface card (NIC) during production.
• Usage Typically used as the default MAC address of a device.
• Virtual MAC Address
• Used in virtualized environments or network interfaces, such as those in virtual machines or virtual routers.
• Usage Helps in managing and routing network traffic in virtualized environments.
Media Access Control (MAC) address
• MAC address on Windows
• Click Window Start or Press the Windows Key.
• In the given search box, type cmd to open the command prompt.
• Press the Enter key, and the command prompt window will display.
• Type ipconfig/all command and press enter.
• It will show different information, scroll down and look for the physical address. Each
physical address is the MAC address of your device.
• There are two physical addresses shown with different values, one is for the
Ethernet adapter, and the other one is for the VMware network adapter.
Media Access Control (MAC) address
Internetworking device - Bridge
• A bridge device is a networking hardware component that
connects and filters traffic between two or more network
segments, allowing them to function as a single network.
• Bridges operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
• Key Functions of a Bridge
• Network Segmentation: Bridges divide a large network into
smaller segments to reduce traffic congestion and improve
performance. They help in isolating collision domains within the
network.
• Traffic Filtering: By examining MAC addresses, bridges filter
network traffic. They forward data only to the segment where the
destination device resides, reducing unnecessary traffic on other
segments.
• Address Learning: Bridges maintain a MAC address table (or
forwarding table) that records the MAC addresses of devices on
each network segment. This table helps the bridge make informed
decisions about where to forward data packets.
• Collision Domain Reduction: Bridges reduce the size of collision
domains, minimizing the chances of data packet collisions and
improving overall network efficiency.
• Broadcast Domain Control: Bridges can be used to manage and
limit broadcast traffic. They can filter out broadcast packets or
prevent them from propagating across segments.
Internetworking device - Bridge
• Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridge: Operates without modifying the
network’s existing protocols and is often used to
connect similar network segments.
• Source Route Bridge: Used primarily in Token Ring
networks, it relies on source routing, where the
sending device specifies the path the packet should
take.
• Network Bridge: Connects different network types,
such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi, to enable communication
between them.
• Use Cases
• Network Expansion: Bridges allow for the extension of
network segments without the need for extensive
reconfiguration.
• Legacy Systems Integration: Bridges can connect
modern networks with legacy systems that use
different technologies.
• Performance Improvement: By reducing traffic load
on each segment, bridges help in enhancing network
performance and reliability.
Internetworking device - Hub
• A hub is a basic networking device used to connect multiple
devices in a network. It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of
the OSI model and serves as a central point for data transmission
in a network.
• Central Connection Point
• Hubs act as a central connector for network devices. All data
transmitted from any device is broadcast to all other devices
connected to the hub.
• Data Transmission
• When a device sends data to the hub, the hub replicates this data and
sends it to all other connected devices, regardless of the intended
recipient. Each device then checks if the data is for them and accepts
or ignores it accordingly.
• No Intelligence
• Hubs do not have the capability to learn or store addresses. They
operate purely on a broadcasting mechanism, without any awareness
of the network's topology or the devices on it.
• Collision Domain
• All ports on a hub are part of the same collision domain, meaning
that if two devices send data simultaneously, a collision occurs,
causing data retransmission and potential network inefficiencies.
• Half-Duplex Communication
• Hubs generally support half-duplex communication, meaning data
can either be sent or received at any given time, but not both
Internetworking device - Hub
• Active Hub
• Function Equipped with a power supply to regenerate and
amplify signals.
• Operation Regenerates and strengthens weak signals before
broadcasting them to all other ports.
• Cost More expensive than passive hubs due to additional
functionalities.
• Passive Hub
• Function Connects network cables without any computerized
elements.
• Operation Simply joins wires of different devices in a star
topology, without processing, regenerating, or amplifying
signals.
• Cost Generally cheaper as they do not require electricity and
only replicate or repeat signals.
• Intelligent Hub
• Function Advanced hub with monitoring and management
capabilities.
• Components Includes a Management Information Base (MIB)
for network analysis and troubleshooting.
• Operation Performs similar functions to active hubs but with
added features like network traffic monitoring and port
Internetworking device - Hub
• Performance Limitations
• Hubs are generally outdated and less efficient
compared to modern devices like switches.
They can lead to network congestion due to
their broadcasting nature and collision
domains.
• Switch vs. Hub
• Unlike a hub, a switch operates at Layer 2 of
the OSI model and intelligently directs data
only to the specific device it is intended for,
significantly reducing collisions and improving
network performance.
• Network Efficiency
• Due to their simple operation and lack of
intelligence, hubs are less efficient in
managing network traffic compared to
Internetworking device - Switch
• A network device used to divide
networks into smaller subnetworks or
LAN segments.
• Filters and forwards packets between
LAN segments based on MAC
addresses.
• Equipped with multiple ports; when
data arrives at a port, the destination
address is examined and verified
before processing.
• Supports various types of
communication, including unicast,
multicast, and broadcast.
Internetworking device - Switch
• Features of Network Switches
• Layer of Operation
• Functions at the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.
• Error Checking
• Performs error checking on data before forwarding it.
• Data Forwarding
• Directs data only to the device specified by the address.
• Communication Mode
• Supports full duplex mode, allowing simultaneous sending and
receiving of data.
• Bandwidth Allocation
• Assigns limited bandwidth to each LAN segment.
• Transmission Modes
• Utilizes Unicast (one-to-one), Multicast (one-to-many), and
Broadcast (one-to-all) modes.
• Data Transfer
• Employs packet switching techniques to route data packets from
source to destination.
• Port Quantity
• Typically features a higher number of ports compared to other
network devices.
Internetworking device - Switch
• Data Packet Handling
• When sending a data packet, the source first
sends it to the switch.
• The switch reads the packet's header to
identify the destination's MAC address.
• It then routes the packet through the
appropriate ports to reach the destination
device.
• Connection Management
• Establishes a temporary connection between
the source and destination for communication.
• Terminates the connection once the
conversation is complete.
• Bandwidth Allocation
• Provides full bandwidth for simultaneous data
traffic to and from a device.
• Helps in reducing collisions on the network.
Internetworking device - Switch
• Unmanaged Switches
• Description
• Basic plug-and-play devices with no configuration options.
• Features
• Automatically handles data traffic without user intervention.
• Use Case
• Ideal for small networks or simple setups where no advanced features are
needed.
• Managed Switches
• Description
• Switches with advanced features and configuration options.
• Features
• Offers control over network settings, traffic management, and monitoring.
• Use Case
• Suitable for larger networks requiring customization, monitoring, and
optimization.
• Smart Switches
• Description
• Mid-range switches that provide some management features.
• Features
• Includes basic network management capabilities like VLAN support and traffic
monitoring.
• Use Case
• Best for small to medium-sized networks where some level of control is needed
without the complexity of fully managed switches.
Internetworking device - Switch
• Layer 2 Switches
• Description
• Operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
• Features
• Uses MAC addresses to forward data packets within a local network.
• Use Case
• Ideal for handling data traffic within the same network segment or VLAN.
• Layer 3 Switches
• Description
• Functions at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
• Features
• Can perform routing functions in addition to switching, using IP addresses to
route traffic between different network segments.
• Use Case
• Suitable for larger networks requiring routing capabilities and inter-VLAN
communication.
• PoE (Power over Ethernet) Switches
• Description
• Switches that provide power and data connectivity over a single Ethernet cable.
• Features
• Supplies power to connected devices like IP cameras, phones, and wireless
access points.
• Use Case
• Useful for simplifying installations where power outlets are not available near the
Internetworking device - Switch
• Stackable Switches
• Description
• Switches that can be physically stacked together to operate as a single unit.
• Features
• Allows for easy scalability and management by combining multiple switches into a single network entity.
• Use Case
• Ideal for expanding network capacity while maintaining centralized management.
• Modular Switches
• Description
• Switches with modular components that can be upgraded or replaced.
• Features
• Offers flexibility in terms of adding or changing ports, power supplies, and other components.
• Use Case
• Suitable for enterprises needing customizable and scalable network solutions.
• Enterprise Switches
• Description
• High-performance switches designed for large-scale networks.
• Features
• Includes advanced features such as high-speed ports, extensive security options, and high reliability.
• Use Case
• Best for large organizations with complex network requirements and high traffic demands.
• Data Center Switches
• Description
• Specialized switches designed for data center environments.
• Features
• Optimized for high throughput, low latency, and large-scale data handling.
Internetworking device - Switch
Internetworking device - Router
• A router is a networking device that forwards data
packets between computer networks.
• It connects one or more packet-switched networks
or subnetworks.
• Manages traffic between different networks by
directing data packets to their intended IP addresses.
• Allows multiple devices to share a single Internet
connection.
• When you search for www.google.com, your request
is sent from your system as a stream of packets.
• These packets pass through routers, which direct
them through the appropriate network paths until
they reach Google's server.
Internetworking device - Router
• How does it work
• Path Determination
• A router determines the path of a packet by examining the destination IP
address in the packet header and comparing it with the routing database.
• Uses routing tables to identify how to direct data to the appropriate
network location.
• Employs a set of rules to find the most efficient route for data transmission
to the specified IP address.
• Connection and Ports
• Routers use modems (cable, fiber, or DSL) to enable communication
between devices and the internet.
• Typically equipped with multiple ports to connect various devices to the
internet simultaneously.
• Routing Tables
• Routing tables define the default path for data delivery.
• May not always determine the optimal path for every packet. For example,
an office router may route all traffic to its internet service provider through
a single default channel.
• Types of Routing Tables
• Static Routing Tables Manually configured and do not change
automatically.
• Dynamic Routing Tables Automatically updated based on network activity
Internetworking device - Router
• Broadband Routers
• Purpose Connects computers and provides internet access.
• Use Essential for managing and distributing internet
connectivity in various settings.
• Wireless Routers
• Purpose Creates a wireless network within a home or office.
• Use Provides Wi-Fi connectivity to multiple devices without
the need for physical cables.
• Wired Routers
• Purpose Connects multiple wired devices using Ethernet
cables.
• Use Distributes data from a modem to a wired network;
commonly used in schools and small offices.
• Edge Routers
• Purpose Positioned at the edge of a network, often
connecting to an ISP.
• Use Distributes packets between internal networks and
external networks or the internet.
Internetworking device - Router
• Core Routers
• Purpose Manages data transfer within the core of a
network.
• Use Handles high-capacity data transfers and
network traffic within large-scale networks.
• Virtual Routers
• Purpose Implemented via software on virtual
machines.
• Use Offers flexibility and scalability for network
management.
• Portable Routers
• Purpose Creates a private Wi-Fi network with easy
mobility.
• Use Designed for convenient transport and
temporary internet access setups.
Internetworking device - Gateways
• Gateways are network devices that serve as a
bridge between different networks, allowing
them to communicate even if they use
different protocols or technologies.
• Gateways enable communication between
networks that operate under different
protocols, data formats, or architectures.
• They translate data from one format or
protocol to another, facilitating
interoperability between disparate systems.
Internetworking device - Gateways
• Protocol Converter
• Function: Converts data formats and protocols
between different networks.
• Details: Ensures that data sent from one network
can be understood and processed by another
network with different protocols.
• Application Gateway
• Function: Operates at the application layer to
manage data exchanges for specific applications.
• Details: Often used for translating application-
specific protocols or providing access to network
services.
• Router Functionality
• Function: Can include routing functions to direct
data between different networks.
• Details: Similar to a router but with additional
Internetworking device - Gateways
• Security Features
• Function: May include features such as firewalls,
encryption, and authentication.
• Details: Protects data as it is translated and
routed between networks.
• Configuration and Management
• Function: Requires configuration to define the
rules for data translation and routing.
• Details: Managed via interfaces that allow
administrators to set up and maintain translation
rules and network settings.
Internetworking device - Gateways
Types of Gateways
• Network Gateway
• Function: Connects different types of networks (e.g., LAN to WAN).
• Details: Often includes functions for routing, protocol conversion, and
traffic management.
• Internet Gateway
• Function: Connects a private network to the internet.
• Details: Facilitates data exchange between internal networks and
external internet services.
• VoIP Gateway
• Function: Connects Voice over IP (VoIP) systems with traditional
telephony networks.
• Details: Converts digital voice signals into analog signals and vice
versa.
• Cloud Gateway
• Function: Provides connectivity between on-premises systems and
cloud-based services.
• Details: Facilitates data transfer and integration between local systems
and cloud environments.
• Application Gateway
• Function: Manages communication for specific applications.
• Details: Handles protocol translation and data conversion for
Internetworking device - Gateways
• Benefits
• Interoperability: Allows different networks to work
together seamlessly.
• Data Translation: Converts data formats and
protocols to ensure compatibility.
• Security: Provides security features to protect data
during translation and routing.
• Flexibility: Enables integration of diverse systems and
technologies.
• Example Use Cases
• Connecting Legacy Systems: Facilitates
communication between modern and legacy systems
with different protocols.
• Integrating Cloud Services: Connects on-premises
systems with cloud services for data exchange and
application access.
• Enabling Remote Access: Allows remote systems to
access internal network resources through secure
Internetworking device - Modem
• A modem (short for "modulator-demodulator") is
a crucial networking device used to convert
digital data from a computer into analog signals
for transmission over communication lines and
vice versa.
• Converts digital signals from a computer into
analog signals suitable for transmission over
telephone lines, cable systems, or other
communication mediums, and then converts
incoming analog signals back into digital form for
the computer.
• Enables data exchange between digital devices
and analog communication networks.
Internetworking device - Modem
• Key Components
• Modulator:
• Function: Converts digital data into analog signals for
transmission.
• Details: Modulates the data to fit the transmission medium, such
as telephone lines or cable systems.
• Demodulator:
• Function: Converts incoming analog signals back into digital data.
• Details: Demodulates the received signals to be processed by the
computer or network device.
• Interface:
• Function: Provides the connection between the modem and the
computer or network.
• Details: Includes ports for connecting to the computer (e.g., USB,
Ethernet) and the communication line (e.g., telephone jack,
coaxial cable).
• Power Supply:
• Function: Powers the modem and its components.
• Details: Can be powered via an AC adapter or through a USB
Internetworking device - Modem
Types of Modems
• Dial-Up Modem:
• Function: Uses a telephone line to establish a connection.
• Details: Provides lower speeds (up to 56 Kbps) and is largely obsolete
with the advent of faster technologies.
• Cable Modem:
• Function: Connects to the internet via cable television lines.
• Details: Offers higher speeds compared to dial-up, typically in the range
of several Mbps to Gbps.
• DSL Modem:
• Function: Uses telephone lines but separates voice and data signals.
• Details: Provides faster speeds than dial-up, generally up to several
Mbps.
• Fiber Optic Modem:
• Function: Connects to the internet via fiber optic cables.
• Details: Supports very high-speed internet connections, often exceeding
1 Gbps.
• Cellular Modem:
• Function: Connects to the internet via cellular networks (e.g., 4G, 5G).
• Details: Provides internet access in areas without wired connections
Internetworking device - Modem
• Benefits
• Data Conversion: Allows digital devices to
communicate over analog networks.
• Speed: Modern modems offer high-speed internet
access.
• Connectivity: Enables access to the internet through
various types of communication lines.
• Versatility: Supports different types of internet
connections (cable, DSL, fiber, cellular).
• Example Use Cases
• Home Internet Access: Provides a connection
between a home network and an ISP via cable or DSL
lines.
• Remote Work: Facilitates internet access in remote or
underserved areas via cellular modems.
• Business Connectivity: Connects enterprise networks
to the internet or remote locations.
Internetworking device – Access point
• Access points (APs) are devices in computer
networking that allow wireless devices to
connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi or other
wireless standards.
• Access points are hardware devices that enable
wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
• They act as a central transmitter and receiver of
wireless radio signals. They bridge wireless
devices with the wired network infrastructure.
Internetworking device – Access point
Key Components
• Radio Transceiver: Handles the transmission and
reception of wireless signals.
• Ethernet Port: Connects the access point to the
wired network.
• Power Supply: Provides electricity to operate the
access point.
• Antennas: Transmit and receive radio signals
between wireless devices and the access point.
Internetworking device – Access point
Types of Access Points
• Standalone Access Points: Independent units
used to extend network coverage or create
wireless networks.
• Controller-Based Access Points: Managed
centrally by a wireless LAN controller (WLC),
providing scalability and centralized
management.
• Mesh Access Points: Used to extend wireless
coverage over large areas without requiring
wired connections between each access point.
• Outdoor Access Points: Designed for deployment
in outdoor environments, offering
weatherproofing and extended range.
Internetworking device – Access point
Features and Capabilities
• Wireless Standards: Support for various Wi-Fi
standards (e.g., 802.11ac, 802.11ax) and backward
compatibility.
• Security: Encryption protocols (e.g., WPA2, WPA3)
ensure secure wireless communications.
• Roaming: Seamless handoff of wireless clients
between access points without interruption.
• Management: Configuration interfaces (web-based,
CLI) for setup and monitoring of access point
operations.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritizes network traffic
to optimize performance for critical applications.
• Guest Access: Provides separate wireless networks
for guest users with restricted access.
Internetworking device – Access point
Future Trends
• Wi-Fi 6 and Beyond: Adoption of newer Wi-Fi
standards (e.g., Wi-Fi 6, Wi-Fi 6E) offering higher
speeds and improved efficiency.
• 5G Integration: Integration of Wi-Fi and 5G
technologies to provide seamless wireless
connectivity.