Environmental History, Politics,

and Economics
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem
 Conservation and Preservation of
Resources
• Resources - any part of the natural
environment used to promote the welfare of
people or other species;

 Natural resources are usually either renewable

or non-renewable, the former refer to those
resources that can renew themselves in time.
These include living resources like forests or
non-living ones like wind, water, solar energy,
 non-renewable resources, as the name implies, are
those that can no longer be tapped once the
available stock at a site is exhausted.

• Conservation – defined as the care and protection of

these resources so that they can persist for future
generations. It includes maintaining diversity of
species, genes, and ecosystems, as well as functions
of the environment, such as nutrient cycling.

• Preservation - means to protect or save natural

resources in the present for the purpose of using
them in the future.
 Exploitation of Natural Resources
• Refers to using natural resources for economic
growth, often linked to environmental
degradation.
• 80% of global energy comes from fossil fuels:
oil, coal, and natural gas.
• Subsoil minerals like precious metals are
heavily used in industrial production.
• Intensive agriculture contributes to forest
degradation and water pollution.
Key pressures on resources:

• Advanced technology enabling rapid

extraction
• Rising global population
• Consumerism culture
• Excessive demand leading to conflict
• Lack of public awareness
 Consequences of Continued Resource Exploitation
Natural resources are not limitless, and the following consequences
can arise from the careless and excessive consumption of these
resources:
∙ Deforestation
∙ Desertification
∙ Extinction of species
∙ Forced migration
∙ Soil erosion
∙ Oil depletion
∙ Ozone depletion
∙ Greenhouse gas increase
∙ Extreme energy
∙ Water gasefication
∙ Natural hazard/Natural disaster
∙ Metals and minerals depletion
 Philippine Environmental Policies
• A 10-year strategic plan (2010–2020) for
sustainable forest management.
• Aims to equip forestland managers to
implement REDD+ programs and projects.
• Supported by international, national, and local
agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders.
Goals of the Environment and Natural Resources Sector
for Agenda 21 (Philippine Development Plan 2011-
2016)
1. Improved Conservation, Protection, and Rehabilitation
of Natural Resources
∙ Sustainably manage forests and watersheds
∙ Improve protection and conservation of biodiversity
∙ Enhanced coastal and marine resource management
∙ Improve land administration and management
∙ Manage a more equitable utilization of mineral
resources
∙ Develop and implement environment-friendly
enterprise and livelihood opportunities
2. Improved Environmental Quality or a Cleaner
and Healthier Environment
∙ Reduce air pollution in Metro Manila and other
major urban cities
∙ Reduce water pollution to improve water quality
in priority rivers and other economically and
ecologically important water bodies
∙ Reduce wastes generated and improved waste
disposal
∙ Establish a healthier and livable urban
environment
3. Enhanced Resilience of Natural Systems and
Improved Adaptive Capacities of Human
Communities to Cope with Environmental
Hazards Including Climate Related Risks
∙ Strengthen institutional capacities of national
and local governments for Climate Change
Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management
∙ Enhance the resilience of natural systems
∙ Improve adaptive capabilities of communities
 Environmental Legislation and Laws
• Environmental Law – defined as a complex interlocking body
of statutes, common law, treaties, conventions, regulations,
and policies for the purpose of reducing or minimizing the
impacts of human activity, both on the natural environment
for its own sake, and on humanity itself

The areas of concern for environmental laws cover the following:

• Air and water quality
• Global climate change
• Agriculture
• Biodiversity and species protection
• Pesticides and hazardous chemicals
• Waste management and remediation of contaminated land
• Management of public lands and natural resources
 Treaties and Conventions Which Impacted
Philippine Environmental Legislation
1. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal
(1992)

∙ the most comprehensive global environmental

agreement on hazardous wastes

∙ aims to protect human health and the environment

against the adverse effect of hazardous wastes
 Key Participants in the Basel Convention
1. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• Oversees the implementation and coordination of the convention.

2. Parties to the Convention (Member Countries)

• Over 180 countries have ratified the convention, including the Philippines.
• These countries are responsible for enforcing the rules within their territories.

3. National Governments
• Each country designates a competent authority and a focal point to manage hazardous
waste movements and ensure compliance.

4. Environmental Agencies and Customs Authorities

• Monitor and control the import, export, and transit of hazardous wastes.

5. Waste Generators and Disposal Companies

• Must comply with strict documentation and handling procedures.

6. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

• Advocate for environmental justice and monitor illegal waste trafficking.
2. Convention of Biological Diversity
• resulted from the recognition that damage to
biodiversity can only be effectively dealt with
in a comprehensive manner (not dealing with
specific species or habitats)

has three main objectives:

• conservation of biodiversity;
• sustainable use of its components; and
• fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from genetic resources.
 Participants in the Convention on Biological Diversity
1. United Nations
• The CBD was adopted under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
2. Member Countries (Parties to the Convention)
• Over 190 countries, including the Philippines, have ratified the CBD. These countries
commit to implementing biodiversity conservation strategies.
3. National Governments and Agencies
• Develop and enforce policies to protect biodiversity within their territories. Conduct
research, monitoring, and reporting on biodiversity status.
4. Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples
• Play a key role in sustainable resource management and conservation practices.
• Their traditional knowledge is recognized and respected under the CBD.
5. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
• Support conservation efforts, raise awareness, and advocate for biodiversity protection.
6. Scientific and Academic Institutions
• Provide research, data, and innovations to support biodiversity conservation.
7. Private Sector
• Encouraged to adopt sustainable practices and contribute to conservation funding and
initiatives.
3. Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species
• an international agreement between
governments
• aims to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival
• widespread information dissemination about
the endangered status of many prominent
species
• 4. Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn
Convention)
• aims to conserve terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory
species throughout their range (global)

aims to conserve the populations of:

• European bats
• cetaceans of the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, and
Contiguous Atlantic Area
• small cetaceans of the Baltic, North-East Atlantic, Irish, and
North Seas
• seals in the Wadden Sea, African-Eurasian migratory waterbirds
• albatrosses and petrels
• gorillas and their habitats
5. Kyoto Protocol
• broke new ground by defining three
innovative “flexibility mechanisms” to lower
overall costs of achieving its emissions targets
• mechanisms enable parties to access cost-
effective opportunities to reduce emissions or
to remove carbon from the atmosphere in
other countries
o emissions trading
o clean development mechanism
o joint implementation
6. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
• consider what can be done to reduce global warming and
to cope with whatever temperature increases are
inevitable

key objectives are:

o to keep maximum temperature, rise below 2 degrees
Celsius
o the commitment to list developed country emission
reduction targets and mitigation action by developing
countries for 2020
o mechanisms to support technology transfer and forestry
 Philippine Environmental Laws
1. Presidential Decree 1586 Environmental Impact Statement of
1978
2. Republic Act 6969 Toxic Substances, Hazardous and Nuclear
Waste Control Act of 1990
3. Republic Act No. 7942 Philippine Mining Act of 1995
4. Republic Act 8485 Animal Welfare Act of 1998
5. Republic Act 8749 Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
6. Republic Act 9003 Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of
2000
7. Republic Act 9147 Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act of 2001
8. Republic Act 9175 Chain Saw Act of 2002
9. Republic Act 9275 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
 Environmental Economics
• an area of economics that studies the financial impact of
environmental policies.
• Environmental economists perform studies to determine the
theoretical or empirical effects of environmental policies on the
economy. This field of economics helps users design appropriate
environmental policies and analyze the effects and merits of
existing or proposed policies.
• Economies depend on the natural environment as sources for raw
materials and sinks for waste products. Both sources and sinks
contribute to natural capital, Earth’s resources and processes that
sustain living organisms, including humans; includes minerals,
forests, soils, water, clean air, wildlife, and fisheries.
Concepts Encompassing Environmental Economics
1. Sustainable Development
• defined by UNEP as “development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” The concept analyzes the role of
economic development in supporting
sustainable development.
• The four basic components of sustainable
development are economic growth,
environmental protection, social equity, and
institutional capacity
• 2. Market Failure
• Market failure occurs if the functioning of a
perfect market is compromised; hence, it is
unable to efficiently allocate scarce resources at
a given price as conditions for laws of demand
and supply are not met.
• An example can be an environmental good such
as clean oceans. It is difficult to price the value of
clean seas and oceans, and there exist no
markets for clean water bodies where it is traded
depending on the degree of cleanliness. It is a
standard case of market failure.