Psychological Research

Methods

Excavating Human Behaviors

Research Methods

It is actually way more

exciting than it sounds!!!!
 The Barnum Effect
• It is the tendency for
people to accept
very general or
vague
characterizations of
themselves and take
them to be accurate.
 Hindsight Bias
• The tendency
to believe,
after learning
the outcome,
that you knew
it all along.
 Overconfidence
• We tend to think we know
more than we do.

82% of U.S. drivers consider themselves to be in the top 30% of

their group in terms of safety

81% of new business owners felt they had an excellent chance of

their businesses succeeding. When asked about the success of their
peers, the answer was only 39%. (Now that's overconfidence!!!)
Why do we have to learn this stuff?

Psychology is first and foremost a science.

Thus it is based in research.

Before we delve into how to do research, you should
be aware of the hurdles that tend to skew our logic.
Terminology
Hypothesis
• Expresses a relationship
between two variables.
• is a hunch, assumption, suspicion,
assertion or an idea about a
phenomena, relationship, or
situation, the reality of truth of which
one do not know
• A tentative statement about
something, the validity of which is
usually unknown
• Hypothesis is proposition that is
stated in a testable form and that
predicts a particular relationship
between two or more variable
• Participating in class leads to
better grades than not
participating
 Designing a Study

• Variables are a condition or characteristic that is subject to

change either within situations or individuals
• Variables are properties or characteristics of people or
things that vary in quality or magnitude from person to
person or object to object

• There are two types of variables in every study:

– Independent variable:
• Factor that is manipulated

– Dependent variable:
• Behavior/variable that is measured
 Independent Variable
• Whatever is being
manipulated in the
experiment.
• Hopefully the
independent
variable brings
about change. If there is a drug in
an experiment, the
drug is almost
always the
independent
variable.
 Dependent Variable
• Whatever is being
measured in the
experiment.
• It is dependent on
the independent
variable.

The dependent
variable would be
the effect of the
drug.
 Variables
Independent Variable is the variable
which is directly and purposefully
manipulated by the experimenter

– This is done to see how the other variables will be

affected
 So, what will happen if…?

Dependent Variable is the behavior that is

measured because it is expected to
change due to the manipulation of the
independent variable.

– What will happen If I move all of my front row

students to the back, what will happen?
The goal of any experiment is to
learn how the dependent
variable is affected by (depends
on) the independent variable.
 Identify the Variable
Independent and Dependent?

• Developmental psychologists want to

know if exposing children to differing
amounts of public television improves
their reading skills.
 Did you get it?
• In this study, the amount of public television
is the Independent Variable

• The researchers were looking to observe a

change in reading skills, which makes it the
Dependent Variable
 Name the Variables!

• A clinical psychologist is interested in how

heart rate is affected by viewing a violent
film as opposed to a nonviolent film
 Did you get it?
• The Independent Variable is this study is
the film type (violent or nonviolent)

• The change in heart rate is the behavior

observed which makes it the Dependent
Variable
 Try another one

• Cognitive psychologists are interested

in what types of diagrams are easiest
for people to remember
 What are the Variables?
• The different types of diagrams are the
Independent Variable

• What behavior were the researchers

were observing? Memory, which is the
Dependent Variable
 OK, Last One…
• An industrial/organizational psychologist
tests to see if wearing name tags makes
employees happier with their work
 What are the variables?
• The name tags are the Independent
Variable

• And the observed behavior was

happiness at work, which is the
Dependent Variable
 Beware of
Confounding Variables
• The object of an
experiment is to prove
that A causes B.
If I wanted to prove that • A confounding
smoking causes heart variable is anything
issues, what are some that could cause
confounding change in B, that is
variables? not A.

Lifestyle and
family history may
also effect the
heart.
 Random Assignment
• Once you have a
random sample,
randomly assigning
them into two
groups helps control
for confounding
variables.
• Experimental Group
v. Control Group.
• Group Matching
Random Sampling
• Methods are the various processes through
which we understand an individual in order to
assess his /her needs and concerns
• To address the behavioural issues
Types of Research Methods
• Observation Method
• Experimental Method
• The Case Study Method
 Observation Method
• The observation method is also called
‘objective observation’
• Observation is one of the basic methods which
mean that an individual’s behaviour (i.e. a
person’s bodily gestures, facial expression and
other bodily actions) is observed
• The observer makes systematic observation
through recording in a natural situation.
 Observation can be both natural and
participant.
• In natural observation the experimenter observes and
records the behaviour of the subjects in the natural setting
• Here the subjects are not conscious about their behaviour
being observed
• In participant observation, the observer becomes a
member of the group, gains the confidence of the other
group members by building rapport with them, and
observes their behaviour.
• Here also the subjects are not conscious that their
behaviour is being observed.
Certain principles should be followed in the
observation method
• Observation should be made not only of the
individual’s behaviour but of the whole
situation.
• Proper planning of the observation process
should be made; objectives must be clear and
the tools for recording must be kept properly.
• Observer must select the appropriate number
of subjects to be observed. Too many will be
difficult to manage.
Certain principles should be followed in the
observation method
• The time limit of observation must also be
fixed. Too long time may make the observer
distracted and tired and if it is too short it will
not yield the proper information.
• As observation is a systematic process, the
observer must have the proper skills and
aptitude and the ability to report accurately.
Only then will the data be reliable.
Advantages of the observation method
• It is observation of behaviour in natural setting.
• It is objective and therefore more reliable.
• It is applicable for all age groups.
• Observation can be done through simple tools
as well as sophisticated ones like camera, tape
recorder video recorder etc.
• Observation can be made in any situation of our
day to day life.
Limitations of the Observation method
• Data can be collected only about observable behaviour
or overt behaviour. Therefore, it can be unreliable at
times as the subject’s mental behaviour can be
different.
• Personal prejudices, or in other words, subjectivity on
the part of the observer can be a big drawback of this
method. The observer’s own interests, values may affect
the interpretation of the data to a great extent.
• The behaviour of the subjects may be affected by the
time and place. Their behaviour may be different at
different times under the same circumstances.
Limitations of the Observation method
• Sometimes the observation method lacks precision, as
different observers tend to interpret the data in
different ways. Therefore if the data collected are
expressed in quantitative measures then they can be
interpreted by statistical methods.
• The observation method fails to establish a cause-effect
relationship between the subjects’ behaviour and their
surroundings. Eg. delinquency may not always be
caused by poverty, sometimes sound economic
position of the subject can cause delinquent behaviour.
 Experimental Research

• Explores cause and effect

relationships. Constipation
Eating too many bananas causes
 Experimental Method
• According to J.W Best, “Experimental research
is the description and analysis of what will be,
or what will occur, under carefully controlled
conditions
• In experiments, there is always the attempt to
establish certain cause and effect relationships
through carefully planned and controlled
observation of the subject’s behaviour.
 The ‘experimental methods’ has certain
characteristics
• In the experimental method the conditions are always
controlled.
• It essentially requires at least two persons, the
experimenter and the subject.
• Usually the experimental method is applied on persons in
a random order.
• In the experimental method two different types of
variables are used – (a) Independent variable like
intelligence and (b) dependent variable like home or
school environment, other socio-economic conditions
etc.
 Merits of Experimental Method
• It is the most systematic method and the conditions can be
completely controlled.
• The data collected can be analysed in an objective manner
and so it is reliable.
• A cause-effect relationship of individual’s behaviour can be
established.
• Hypothesis can be formulated and the result of the
experiment can be tested keeping this in consideration.
• It discards subjective viewpoints.
• It increases the scope for further research as the result of
the experimental method can be precisely recorded.
Drawbacks of the Experimental Method

• As human behaviour is changeable, identical

behaviour of the same individual does not occur
even under identical conditions at different times.
• Mostly experiments have been conducted on
animals like cats, dogs and rats and the principles
arrived at on the basis of such tests may not
explain human beings.
• It is often difficult to conduct experiments in
social sciences unlike physical sciences.
Drawbacks of the Experimental Method

• The experimental method is costly and time

consuming.
• The experimenter must have specialized skills
to conduct experiments.
• The tools used in experiments may not be
satisfactory and therefore the obtained data
may not be reliable.
• The experimental method can produce results
of probability and not certainty.
 Psychophysiological Methods
• Examine relationship between physiological
responses and behavior
– Heart Rate – compared to baseline, decrease may
indicate interest
– EEG – brain wave activity, showing arousal states;
stimulus detection
• Strengths
– Can examine behaviors in infants/young children
before they can self-report
 The Case Study
• Where one person (or situation) is
observed in depth.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a tragedy like the
Columbine School Shootings as a case study?
 Case Studies
• A detailed picture
of one or a few
subjects.
• Tells us a great
story…but is just
descriptive
research.
• Does not even give
us correlation data.
The ideal case study is John and
Kate. Really interesting, but
what does it tell us about
families in general?
 Case Study

• A thorough description of the unusual

person that relies on naturalistic
observation but focuses on a single
person intensively.

– These are well-suited to observe unusual behaviors

or conditions
 Example of a Case Study

• Phineas Gage was the foreman of a railway

construction gang. On 13th. September 1848, an
accidental explosion blew his tamping iron through his
head. The tamping iron was 3 ½ feet long and weighed
13 pounds. The tamping iron went in point first under
his left cheek bone and completely out through the
top of his head, landing about 25 to 30 yards behind
him. Phineas was knocked over but may not have lost
consciousness even though most of the front part of
the left side of his brain was destroyed.
 The Case Study Method

• The ‘Case Study’ method deals with the

emotional and mental state of an individual.
• This method is applied to study special
behavioural problems of an individual by specially
trained teachers, psychologist and psychiatrists.
• The main objective of this method is to help the
individual adjust better with the environment and
gain self confidence to attain higher levels of
achievement
 Different steps may be used in the case
study method

• Basic preliminary information about the

subject’s name, age, gender, parent’s age,
education, occupation as well as social status.
• Proper physical check-up of the individual is
done to ascertain whether his/her behavioural
problem is due to any disease. Only in the
absence of any physical ailment can
psychological treatment start.
 Different steps may be used in the case
study method
• The subject should be very comfortable with the
investigator while the latter takes the information.
The investigator (teacher or psychologist) should
be friendly and the language of collecting data
must be simple so that free and frank responses
can be available.
• The investigator must not tire the subject; instead,
regular intervals of rest should be given. The
method cannot be applied hastily - it may go on
for several weeks or months.
 Different steps may be used in the case
study method
• The behaviour of the individual should be observed
in natural setting and working conditions. Doing so
will provide correct data which ultimately in most
cases, will lead to proper understanding of the root
cause of the person’s problems.
• Special care must be taken in the post treatment
period so that there is no recurrence of the problem.
The parents and family members and other
associates must take care so that the subject can
modify his behaviour and prevent maladjustment.
 Method of Treatment
• Efforts must be made to modify the
environmental factors so that the individual
can adapt better.
• If the existing environment cannot be
modified then the individual should be
physically placed in a different environment
which is more congenial for his development.
• Proper guidance and counseling should be
provided to the individual.
 Method of Treatment
• Different types of therapies should be applied
like play therapy, group therapy,
psychotherapy etc. by experts.
• Case study method provides details about the
individual’s behaviour, an in-depth study
about the root cause of the behavioural
problems, and help to provide guidance to
modify the behaviour of the subject.
 Limitation of the Case study Method
• The investigator should be technically
proficient to handle a case. In most cases,
however, the investigators are not found to be
experts in this field.
• Sometimes the information may become
highly subjective. The subject, parents and
other associates may hide certain facts about
the subject’s behavioural problems and so the
data collected may not be reliable and valid.
 Limitation of the Case study Method
• There is a possibility of the investigator of
becoming involved with the problems of the
individual and therefore his diagnosis and
counselling or other methods of treatment
may not be effective.
• The possibility of errors in understanding the
problems as well as treatment is high;
therefore utmost care must be taken to
minimize the errors.
 Cross-Sectional Surveys

• Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather

information on a population at a single point in
time.
• An example of a cross sectional survey would be a
questionnaire that collects data on how parents
feel about Internet filtering
• A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire
might try to determine the relationship between
two factors, like religiousness of parents and views
on Internet filtering.
 Longitudinal Surveys

• Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period

of time. The researcher may then analyze
changes in the population and attempt to
describe and/or explain them.
• The three main types of longitudinal surveys
are trend studies, cohort studies, and panel
studies.
 Trend Studies

• Trend studies focus on a particular population,

which is sampled and scrutinized repeatedly. While
samples are of the same population, they are
typically not composed of the same people.
• Trend studies, since they may be conducted over a
long period of time, do not have to be conducted
by just one researcher or research project.
• A researcher may combine data from several
studies of the same population in order to show a
trend.
 Cohort Studies

• A cohort is a group of people that share

similar characteristics.
• eg,. Children born in 1998
• Cohort studies also focus on a particular
population, sampled and studied more than
once/ over a long period of time
 Panel Studies

• Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why changes in the
population are occurring, since they use the same sample of
people every time. That sample is called a panel.
• A researcher could, for example, select a sample of UT graduate
students, and ask them questions on their library usage. Every
year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people,
and ask them similar questions, and ask them the reasons for any
changes in their habits.
• Panel studies, while they can yield extremely specific and useful
explanations, can be difficult to conduct. They tend to be
expensive, they take a lot of time, and they suffer from high
attrition rates. Attrition is what occurs when people drop out of
the study.
 Ethnography
• Collect data by living within the cultural
community for an extended period
– Strengths: understanding cultural conflicts and
impacts on development
– Limitations: subjective, may not be generalizable
 Ethical Considerations
• Research Ethics – standards of conduct to
protect participants from harm
– Protection from harm
– Benefits to risks ratio
– Informed consent
– Confidentiality
– Deception/Debriefing/Knowledge of Results
Human Research
• No Coercion- must
be voluntary
• Informed consent
• Anonymity
• No significant risk
• Must debrief