PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF

ELEMENTS
 The Periodic Table of
Elements
•Elements are organized according to their physical and chemical
properties in the Periodic Table of the Elements. Historically,
several people contributed to this effort in the late 19th century:

– Dobereiner- “triads”: Ca, Sr, Ba; Li, Na, K

– Newlands- similarity between every eighth element
– Mendeleev (1870) - Arranged elements according to atomic mass.
Similar elements were arranged together in a “group”.
Triads of Elements
 Mendeleev
• Father of the Periodic Table
• Periodic Law- Both physical and chemical properties of the
elements vary periodically with increasing atomic mass.
• Exception placed Te (M = 127.6) a head of I (M=126.9) because Te was
similar to Se and S, and I was similar to Cl and Br.
• Left gaps in periodic table and predicted new elements would be found.
Predicted the new elements’ properties.
 Periodicity
– Meyer (1870)-Arranged elements according to their physical properties.
– Elements changed properties gradually in a row or period.
– Moseley (1930)- Arrange atoms according to atomic number (nuclear
charge). He found a direct correlation between the square root of X-ray
energy and nuclear charge (atomic number). Nuclear charge increases by
one unit for each element.
 Periods of Elements
•Periods of elements are the horizontal rows of the Periodic Table.
•The properties of the elements vary as you move from left to right
across the periods.
•On the left, the periodic table starts with shiny reactive metals,
followed by dull solids and reactive non-metals. Each period ends
with a non-reactive noble gas
 Valence Electrons
•Starting with one valence electron for the first element in a period, the
number of electrons increases as you move from left to right across a
period.
•The periodic changes in properties of elements coincide with their
placement in the periodic table.
Groups and Families
•Vertical columns of elements in the periodic
table are called groups or families.
•Elements in the same group or family have
similar chemical properties.
•Representative Elements are those in the first
two groups and the last six groups (s-block and
p-block) in the periodic table. These groups are
designated 1,2,13-18 or the A group elements
Electron Configurations can be
Determined From the Position in
the Periodic Table:
•Elements in group 1(1A) end in ns1.
•Elements in group 2 (2A): end in ns2
•Elements in group 13 (3A) end in ns2np1
•Elements in group 14 (4A): end in ns2np2
•Elements in group 15 (5A) end in ns2np3
•Elements in group 16 (6A) end in ns2np4
•Elements in group 17 (7A) end in ns2np5
•Elements in group 18 (8A) end in ns2np6
 Basic Concepts
 In the atoms, the orbitals are filled in the order of increasing energy (Aufbau
principle), that is, an electron will first enter the orbital of lowest energy. The
sequence of orbitals in the order of increasing energy is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s.

 Pauli’s exclusion principle: It was given by Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli

(1925). It states that in an atom, no two electrons can have the same set of all
four quantum numbers. If the principal, azimuthal and magnetic quantum
numbers are the same, the electrons will have different spins.

 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: It states that electrons in the same

subshell (p, d and f ) do not pair until all the orbitals of similar energy gain
one electron each.
 Periodic Trends in
Properties of Elements
•Various Elemental Properties change fairly smoothly going across a
period or down a group.
•Properties include:
– Atomic and Ionic Radius
– Ionization Energy
– Melting Points and Boiling Points
– Density and Conductivity
Effective Nuclear Charge is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in
a multi-electron atom. The term Effective indicates that the shielding effect of
electron prevent electrons from getting completely affected by the nuclear
charge. Another name for Effective Nuclear charge is Core Charge. Effective
Nuclear Charge is denoted by Zeff or Z*
Penetration effect
It is the tendency of electrons in an orbital to be attracted towards the nucleus.
In a multielectron system, penetration is the electron’s relative electron density
(probability density) near the nucleus and can also be considered as the
presence of electrons inside the shell of other electrons. This can be explained
by considering the shapes of orbitals and their radial distribution curves.
1s > 2s > 2p > 3s > 3p > 4s > 3d > 4p > 5s > 4d > 5p > 6s > 4f

Greater the penetration power of an

electron, closer it will be to the nucleus,
it will experience greater effective
nuclear charge and it will be held firmly.
Hence the ionization enthalpy would be
high.
Slater’s Rule:

•Step 1: Write the electron configuration of the atom in the following form:
(1s) (2s, 2p) (3s, 3p) (3d) (4s, 4p) (4d) (4f) (5s, 5p) . . .
•Step 2: Identify the electron of interest, and ignore all electrons in higher
groups (to the right in the list from Step 1). These do not shield electrons in
lower groups
•Step 3: Slater's Rules is now broken into two cases:
• the shielding experienced by an s- or p- electron,
• electrons within same group shield 0.35, except the 1s which shield 0.30
• electrons within the n-1 group shield 0.85
• electrons within the n-2 or lower groups shield 1.00
• the shielding experienced by nd or nf valence electrons
• electrons within same group shield 0.35
• electrons within the lower groups shield 1.00
 Atomic Size of
Elements
– Atomic size (radius) is based on the average distance between the outer
electrons and the nucleus.
– A measure of atomic size is the Atomic Radius (AR).
– AR decreases as you move from left to right across a period.
– AR increases as you move down a group
Trends in Atomic Radius
Relative Radii of Atoms
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius
 Ionic Radius
•When anions are formed, electron(s) are added, the radius increases.

•When cations are formed, electron(s) are lost, the radius decreases.

•Ionic radius decreases going down a group.

•Going from left to right across a period ionic radius decreases for
cations, then increases for anions, then decreases.
 Ionic Radius of Isoelectronic Atoms and Ions

•When chlorine forms an anion by adding an electron, it has the same

electron configuration as argon the noble gas, [Ar]. The radius of a chloride
ion is larger than the chlorine atom. It is also larger than the argon atom.

•When potassium forms a cation by losing an electron, it also has the same
electron configuration as argon, yet the radius of the potassium cation is
smaller than the potassium atom. It is also smaller than the argon atom.

•For isoelectronic ions, the radius decreases as the nuclear charge increases.
Noble gases do not form covalent bonds, hence their atomic radius is found out
by calculating their van der Waals radius, which is defined as half the distance
between the nuclei of two non bonded neighbouring atoms of two adjacent
molecules. This can be explained by considering the example of two chlorine
molecules in close contact.
Increase in nuclear charge: It results in greater attraction of the orbital electrons towards the
nucleus thereby decreasing the atomic radius. The radius of Ne and Ar is large. This is because
it represents the van der Waals radius.
The atomic radius increase down the group because while descending in a group two things
happen: (i) increase in nuclear charge and (ii) addition of new shells. The second factor
outweighs the first, leading to increase in atomic radius from top to bottom.
Variation in ionic radii: It has been observed that the radius of cation (positive ion) is always
smaller than that of the parent atom and the radius of anion (negative ion) is always larger
than that of the parent atom.
The size of cation decreases not only due to the increase of effective nuclear charge Zeff due
to loss of valence electrons thereby decreasing electron–electron repulsions but also due to the
fact that generally formation of cation leads to the complete loss of the valence shell. For
example the configuration of Li is 1s2 2s1 and that of Li ion is 1s2. Here the 2s shell is
completely lost.
Li → Li+ + e
(1s22s1) (1s2)
123 pm 60 pm
 Comparing the Size of Atoms and Ions

An Isoelectronic
Series
C4- N3- O2- F- Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

Increasing radius
 Ionization Energy
•Ionization Energy (or Ionization Potential)
– Ionization Energy (IE) is the energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms or ions.
Na + IE Na+ + e-
•IE increases (irregularly) as you move from left to right across a period.
•IE decreases (irregularly) as you move down a group.

First ionisation energy is defined as the energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state at 0 K.

The second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the most loosely
bound electron from the resulting cation .
Energy required to convert A2+(g) in to A3+(g) is the third ionisation energy and so
on. Ionisation energies are expressed in kJ mol –1 or electron volts (eV), where 1
eV = 94.485 kJ mol–1.
If the gaseous atoms are assumed to be ideal gases then the ionisation enthalpy is
larger than ionisation energy by 5 2 R T D , where R is the molar gas constant
(8.314 × 10–3 kJ K–1 mol–1 and DT is the difference between the two
temperatures (0 K and 298 K). The ionisation energies for the removal electrons
are of the order of 103 kJ mol–1 and the ionisation enthalpy is
The difference between ionisation energy
and enthalpy is very small (≈ 6 kJ
mol–1) and is often ignored. However, the
term ionisation enthalpy is commonly
used these days.
 Trend in Ionization
From the figure it is clear
Energy that alkali metals have low
ionisation enthalpies and
noble gases have very high
ionisation enthalpies. This
can be attributed to the fact
the alkali metals have only
one electron in their valence
shell. All the inner shell
electrons called core
electrons shield this electron
from the nucleus thereby
reducing Zeff , hence they
lose electrons easily and
Noble gases because of stable electronic configuration do
acquire a stable noble gas
not lose electrons readily, which is reflected in their very
configuration.
high values of ionisation enthalpies.
The ionisation energy depends upon
 The size of the atom
 Charge on the nucleus
 Type of electrons involved (s, p, d, f)
 On the screening effect of the inner electrons and
 The penetration effect of electrons.

Although the nuclear charge of Boron is greater than Beryllium, the first
ionisation enthalpy of B (Z=5) is slightly less than Be (Z=4). This is because of
the fact that in beryllium the electron is removed from s orbital, whereas in boron
the electron is removed from p orbital. Since the penetration of 2s electron to the
nucleus is more than that of 2p electron, it is easier to remove electron from 2p
orbital, and hence the ionisation enthalpy of boron is less than that of Be.
Similarly O (Z=8) has lesser ionisation enthalpy than N (Z=7). This is because
nitrogen has half-filled 2p orbitals which reside in different atomic orbitals
whereas in oxygen, two of the four 2p orbitals reside in the same orbital thereby
increasing the electron–electron repulsion. Hence it is easier to remove the 2p
electron of oxygen. Moreover, the half-filled p orbitals of nitrogen is a stable
configuration.