DESIGN OF CHANNELS AND
IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
CHAPTER FIVE:
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5.1 DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR STEADY
UNIFORM FLOW
Channels are very important in Engineering
projects especially in Irrigation and, Drainage.
Channels used for irrigation are normally
called canals
Channels used for drainage are normally
called drains.
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5.1.1 ESTIMATION OF CANAL DESIGN FLOWS (Q)
For Irrigation Canals, Design Flows are estimated
Using the Peak Gross Irrigation Requirement
For Example, in a Location with the Peak Gross
Irrigation Requirement of 7.69 mm/day.
Peak flow (Q) = 7.69/1000 m x 10000 x
1/3600 x 1/24 x 1000
= 0.89 L/s/ha
For a canal serving an area of 1000 ha, canal
design flow is then 890 L/s or 0.89 m 3 /s.
Typically, for humid areas, magnitude of
discharges are in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 L/s/ha.
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5.1.2 Dimensions of Channels and Definitions
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Definitions
a) Freeboard: Vertical distance between
the highest water level anticipated in the
design and the top of the retaining banks.
• It is a safety factor to prevent the
overtopping of structures.
b) Side Slope (Z): The ratio of the horizontal
to vertical distance of the sides of the
channel. Z = e/d = e’/D
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Table5.1: Maximum Canal Side Slopes (Z)
Sand, Soft Clay 3: 1 (Horizontal: Vertical)
Sandy Clay, Silt Loam, 2:1
Sandy Loam
Fine Clay, Clay Loam 1.5:1
Heavy Clay 1:1
Stiff Clay with Concrete 0.5 to 1:1
Lining
Lined Canals 1.5:1
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5.1.3 Estimation of Velocity in Channels
The most prominent/important Equation used in
the design is the Manning formula described in
Values of Manning's n can be found in standard
texts (See Hudson's Field Engineering).
5.1.4 Design of Channels
Design of open channels can be sub-divided into 2:
a) For Non-Erodible Channels (lined)
b) Erodible Channels carrying clean water
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Lined channel
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Design of Non-Erodible Channels
When a channel conveying clear water is to be
lined, or the earth used for its construction is non-
erodible in the normal range of canal velocities,
Manning's equation is used.
We are not interested about maximum velocity in
design. Manning's equation is:
1
Q A R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 .......(1)
n
Q and S are basic requirements of canal determined from
crop water needs.
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The slope of the channels follows the natural channel.
Manning's n can also be got from Tables or estimated
using the Strickler equation: n = 0.038 d 1/6 , d is the
particle size diameter (m)
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Design of Non-Erodible Channels Contd.
LHS of equation (1) can be calculated in terms of A
R2/3 termed section factor. For a trapezoidal
section:
A = b d + Z d2 ;
P = b + 2 d (1 + Z)1/2
The value of Z is decided (see Table 6.1) and the
value of b is chosen based on the material for the
construction of the channel.
The only unknown d is obtained by trial and error
to contain the design flow.
Check flow velocity and add freeboard.
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Example 5.1
Design a Non-Erodible Channel to convey
10 m3/s flow, the slope is 0.00015 and the
mean particle diameter of the soil is 5 mm.
The side slope is 2 : 1.
Solution: Q = 1/n AR 2/3 S 1/2 ….. (1)
With particle diameter, d being 5 mm, Using
Strickler Equation, n = 0.038 d 1/6
=
0.038 x 0.005 1/6 = 0.016
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Solution of Example Contd.
1
Q A R 2 / 3 0.000151/ 2 0.77 A R 2 / 3
0.016
Z = 2. Choose a value of 1.5 m for 'b‘
For a trapezoidal channel, A = b d + Z d2 = 1.5 d + 2 d2
P = b + 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 = 1.5 + 2 d 51/2 = 1.5 + 4.5 d
Try different values of d to contain the design flow of 10 m3/s
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Soln of Example 5.1 Contd.
d(m) A(m2 ) P(m) R(m) R2/3 Q(m3/s) Comment
2.0 11.0 10.5 1.05 1.03 8.74 Small flow
2.5 16.25 12.75 1.27 1.18 14.71 Too big
2.2 12.98 11.40 1.14 1.09 10.90 slightly big
2.1 11.97 10.95 1.09 1.06 9.78 slightly small
2.13 12.27 11.09 1.11 1.07 10.11 O.K.
The design parameters are then d = 2.13 m and b = 1.5 m
Check Velocity : Velocity = Q/A = 10/12.27 = 0.81 m/s
Note: For earth channels, it is advisable that Velocity should
be above 0.8 m/s to inhibit/reduce/hinder weed growth but
this may be impracticable/not viable for small channels.
Assuming freeboard of 0.2 d i.e. 0.43 m, Final design
parameters are:
D = 2.5 m and b = 1.5 m 14
Final Design Diagram
T = 11.5 m
d = 2.13 m Z = 2:1 D = 2.5 m
b = 1.5 m
T = b + 2 Z d = 1.5 + 2 x2 x 2.5 = 11.5 m 15
Design of Erodible Channels
The problem here is to find the velocity at which
scour is initiated and to keep safely below it.
Different procedures and thresholds are involved
including maximum permissible velocity and
attractive force criteria.
Maximum Permissible Velocities: The maximum
permissible velocities for different earth materials
can be found in text books e.g. Hudson's Field
Engineering, Table 8.2.
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ERODIBLE CHANEL
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Procedure For Design
i) Determine the maximum permissible velocity from
tables.
ii) With the permissible velocity equal to Q/A,
determine A.
iii) With permissible velocity = 1/n S 1/2 R2/3
Slope, s and n are normally given.
iv) R = A/P , so determine P as A/R
v) Then A = b d + Z d2 and
P = b+ 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 ,
Solve and obtain values of b and d
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Example 5.2:
From previous example, design the channel using the
maximum permissible velocity method.
Solution: Given: Q = 10 m3 /s , Slope = 0.00015 , n = 0.016
, Z = 2:1
i) From permissible velocity table, velocity = 0.75 m/s
ii) A = Q/V = 10/0.75 = 13.33 m2
3/ 2
Vn 3/ 2
0.75x0.016
iii) ` R 1/ 2 R 0.97
1/ 2
S 0.00015
iv) P = A/R = 13.33/0.97 = 13.74 m
v) A = b d + Z d2 = b d + 2 d2
P = b + 2 d (Z2 + 1)1/2 = b + 2 d 51/2 = b + 4.5 d
ie. b d + 2 d2 = 13.33 m 2 ........(1)
b + 4.5 d = 13.74 m ........ (2)
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Solution of Equation 5.2 Contd.
From (2), b = 13.74 - 4.5 d .......(3)
Substitute (3) into (1), (13.74 - 4.5 d)d + 2 d2 = 13.33
13.74 d - 4.5 d2 + 2 d = 13.33
13.74 d - 2.5 d2 = 13.33
i.e.. 2.5 d2 - 13.74 d + 13.33 = 0
Recall the quadratic equation formula:
. 7.44
1374
2
b b 4ac d 1016
. m and 126
. m
x
2a
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d = 1.26 m is more practicable
From (3), b = 13.74 - (4.5 x 1.26) = 8.07 m
Adding 20% freeboard, Final Dimensions are depth = 1.5 m
and width = 8.07 m
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5.1.5 Classification of Canals Based on Capacity:
Canals can be classified as:
(a) Main Canal: It is the principal channel of a
canal system taking off from the head works
or a reservoir or tail of a feeder.
It is a large capacity channel and usually there
is no direct irrigation from it.
Small capacity ditch distributaries running
parallel to the canal are taken off from the
main canal to irrigate adjoining areas.
Main canals deliver supply to branch canal
and main distributaries.
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Canals Contd.
(b)Branch or Secondary Canal:
Branch canals take their supply from the main
canal and convey to the distributaries.
Very little direct irrigation is done from the
branch canals.
Sub-branch is a canal, which takes off from
the branch canal but has capacity higher than
a distributary.
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Canals Contd.
(c) Major Distributary:
It is a distributing channel, which may take off
from a main canal, branch canal or sub-branch
and has discharge capacity less than that of a
branch canal.
It supplies water to another distributary.
Distributaries and minors take off from it.
Irrigation is done through outlets fixed along
it.
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Canals Contd.
(d) Distributary:
It is a channel receiving supply from
branch canal or major distributary and
has discharge less than that of major
distributary.
Minors take off from it, besides
irrigation is done from it through
outlets.
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IRRIGATION STRUCTURES
Structures are widely used in Irrigation, water
conservation, flood alleviation, river works where
water level and discharge regulation are required.
These are hydraulic structures that are used to
regulate, measure, and/or transport water in open
channels.
These structures are called control structures when
there is a fixed relationship between the water
surface elevation upstream or downstream of the
structure and the flow rate through the structure.
Hydraulic structures can be grouped into three
categories:
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Hydraulic Structures Contd.
(i) Flow measuring structures, such as weirs
(ii) Regulation structures such as gates and
(iii) Discharge structures such as culverts.
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Weirs
Weir: A weir is a barrier (structure)
constructed across a river to raise the water
level in the river behind it so as to enable
regulated diversion of water.
There are two types of weirs in common use:
Sharp-crested weirs and the broad-crested weirs.
The sharp-crested weirs are commonly used in
irrigation practice
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Barrage
A barrage is also an obstruction constructed
across a river for raising the water level and
regulate the diversion of water to canals.
However, the crest wall of a barrage is low
and ponding of water takes place by gates.
The gates are fitted on the top of the crest
wall and can be closed and opened as required
based on the flow in the river.
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Advantages and disadvantages of weirs and
barrages
Weir:
Advantage
Low initial cost
Disadvantage
High afflux (increase in water level) during floods;
Siltation or sedimentation problem due to
relatively high crest;
Lack of effective control during floods.
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Barrage
Advantage
Effective control of flow is possible
;Afflux and thus flooding is small during
floods;
Silt inflow into the off-taking canal can be
effectively controlled.
Disadvantage
It has a disadvantage that its initial cost is high.
Gates
Gates are used to regulate the flow in open channels.
They are designed for either over-flow or underflow
operation, with overflow operation appropriate for channels
in which there is a significant amount of floating debris. 32
The common types of gates are vertical and radial
(Tainter) gates, which are illustrated below.
Vertical gates are supported by vertical guides with
roller wheels, and large hydrostatic forces usually
induce significant frictional resistance to raise and
lower the gate
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Drop Structures:
Drop structures, typically constructed out of
concrete, can accommodate a sudden change in
elevation of the channel bottom while maintaining
control of the flow.
Drop structures are used in channels, which must
be laid along relatively steep gradients to allow for
dissipation of energy without causing scour in the
channel itself. 34
In such applications, the drop structure allows the main
channel to be laid on subcritical slope while the excess
potential energy of the flow due to the steep topography is
absorbed in the drop structure. Diagram of Drop Structure
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Cross Drainage Structures
Cross- drainage structures are structures provided
on a canal where it crosses natural drainage
channels like rivers & streams.
cross drainage structures are also provided
whenever canals cross each other.
Types of cross – drainage structures
Based on the relative position of the canal and
drainage c-d works can be classified as
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Canal over the drainage
When bed level of the canal is well above the HFL of
drainage. Ex. Aqueduct, Siphon aqueduct
Canal below the drainage
When the bed level of drain is well above the FSL of the
canal.
Ex. Super passage or inverted (canal) siphons
Canal and drainage at the same level When HFL
and FSL of drain and canal are at the same level.
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CHAPTER SIX:
DRAINAGE
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Drainage means the removal of excess water from a
given place.
Two types of drainage can be identified:
i) Land Drainage: This is large scale drainage where
the objective is to drain surplus water from a large
area by such means as excavating large open
drains, erecting dykes and levees and pumping.
Such schemes are necessary in low lying areas and
are mainly Civil Engineering work.
ii) Field Drainage:
This is the drainage that concerns us in agriculture. It
is the removal of excess water from the root zone of
crops.
The main aims of Field drainage include:
i) To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field
capacity.
At field capacity, air is available to the soil and most
soils are mesophites i.e. like to grow at moisture
less than saturation.
ii) Drainage helps improve hydraulic conductivity: Soil
structure can collapse under very wet conditions and
so also engineering structures.
iii) In some areas with salt disposition, especially in
arid regions, drainage is used to leach excess salt.
iv) In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due to poor
application efficiency which means that a lot of
water is applied.
Two types of drainage system exist
irrigation field: Surface and Sub-surface
drainage.
6.2 SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS:
Surface drainage involves the removal of
excess water from the surface of the soil.
This is done by removing low spots where
water accumulates by land forming or by
excavating ditches or a combination of the two.
Surface Drainage
Land forming is mechanically changing
the land surface to drain surface water.
This is done by smoothing, grading,
bedding or leveling.
Surface Drainage Contd.
Land smoothing is the shaping of the
land to a smooth surface in order to
eliminate minor differences in
elevation and this is accomplished by
filling shallow depressions.
Land grading is shaping the land for
drainage done by cutting, filling and
smoothening to planned continuous
surface grade e.g. using bulldozers or
scrapers.
6.3 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Sub-surface drainage is the removal
of excess groundwater below the soil
surface.
It aims at increasing the rate at which
water will drain from the soil, and so
lowering the water table, thus
increasing the depth of drier soil
above the water table.
Sub-surface drainage can be done by
open ditches or buried drains.
Subsurface drainage systems: the following main
variables have to be defined in the design:
Type and layout of the system
Discharge capacity of the system (q)
Water table depths to be maintained in the field
relative to the soil surface or height of water table
in midway b/n 2 drains (H)
The field drainage base depth (W) i.e., the
installation depth of the pipe drains or the Water
level to be maintained in the ditches
Spacing of the field drains (L)
K- Hydraulic conductivity
R- Replenishment rate
Example-1
For the drainage design of an irrigated area, drain
pipes with a diameter of 0.2 m are used. They are
placed at a depth of 2 m below the soil surface.
A relatively impermeable soil layer was found at a
depth of 9 m below the surface. From auger hole
tests, the hydraulic conductivity above this layer was
estimated as 0.6 m/day.
The average irrigation losses, which recharge the
groundwater, are 60 mm per 20 days so the average
discharge of the drain system amounts to 3 mm/day.
Estimate the drain spacing, if the depth of the water
table is 1 m.
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Salt sources
Salt may come from several sources including:
aeolian or wind borne salt from ocean spray or
sedimentary deposits including dune sand and clay
particles from the rivers and lakes of the Murray-
Darling Basin
cyclic salt from ocean spray or pollution dissolved
in rainwater then deposited inland
connate or fossil salt incorporated in marine
sediments at the time of deposition, during periods
when Australia was partly covered by sea
rock weathering that allows salt to be released as
minerals break down over time.
Primary and secondary salinity
Primary (or inherent) salinity is the natural
occurrence of salts in the landscape for example
salt marshes, salt lakes, tidal swamps or natural
salt scalds.
Secondary salinity is salinization of soil, surface
water or groundwater due to human activity such
as urbanization and agriculture (irrigated and
dryland).
Agricultural effects on salinity
Direct costs of increasing salinity to agricultural producers
include:
reduced agricultural production (Figure 3)
reduced farm income
reduced options for production
reduced access and trafficability on waterlogged land
reduced water quality for stock, domestic and irrigation use
damage to and reduced life of farm structures such as buildings,
roads, fences and underground pipes and services
reduced productivity of agricultural land
animal health problems e.g. saline water supply
farm machinery problems (bogging, rusting)
breakdown of soil structure, increased erosion and nutrient loss
loss of beneficial native flora and fauna
decreased land value.
EXAMPLE-2
drainage design of an irrigated area, drain pipes with a diameter of
0.2 m are used. They are placed at a depth of 2 m below the soil
surface. A relatively impermeable soil layer was found at a depth of 7
m below the surface. the hydraulic conductivity above impermeable
layer was estimated as 0.4 m/day. The average irrigation losses, which
recharge the groundwater, are 40 mm per 20 days so the average
discharge of the drain system amounts to 2 mm/day. Estimate the
drain spacing, if the depth of the water table is 1 m.
(i) If the soil profile homogeneous and above impervious layer.
(ii) Estimate unit flow rate (q) if the impervious layer is far below
drain level (D>>h) as drain spacing calculated above
(iii) Estimate unit flow rate (q) If the water level in the drain is very
low (D = 0) ) as drain spacing calculated above
(iv) Estimate, if the soil profile consists of two layers with different
hydraulic conductivities, and the drain level at the interface with
the top and bottom hydraulic conductivity of soil were 0.4 and 0.6
m/day 92
THE END
GOOD LUCK
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