Measurements of

power and energy

Dynamometer type wattmeter
construction
• A dynamometer type wattmeter primarily consists of two coils called fixed
coil and moving coil.
• The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts, which are placed parallel to
each other.
• The two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis effects when used on AC.

The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the circuit
current. It is, therefore, called the current coil.
• Since current coils carry full load current, so these are made up of thick
wire. And current flow through them is high, so few turns are sufficient to
produce the desired magnetic field.
Generally, a high resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the
current through it.
By limiting the current, the moving coil is made lightweight, which in turn increases the
sensitivity of the instrument.

The springs provide the controlling torque. They also serve the additional purpose of
leading the current into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is employed in
such instruments.

Its current coil is connected in series with the load, carries the load current, and the
potential coil, connected in parallel with the load, carries the current proportional to the
voltage across the load.
working
• The fixed coil produces a field Fm, and the moving coil creates a field
Fr.
• The field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm
• which provides a deflecting torque on the moving coil.
• Thus, the pointer attached to the spindle of the moving coil deflects.
• This deflection is controlled by the controlling torque produced by the
springs.
• Advantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
• It can be used both on AC and DC circuits.
• It has a uniform scale.
• We can obtain a high degree of accuracy through careful design.
• Disadvantages of Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
• At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coil causes serious
errors.
• The reading of the instrument may be affected by stray fields acting on
the moving coil. To prevent it, magnetic shielding is provided by
enclosing the instrument in an iron case.
MULTIPLYING FACTOR
• MF = (voltage range x current range x power factor)/(range of the
wattmeter scale).
Active and reactive power
measurement
• A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure the electrical power supplied in a circuit.
It consists of a voltage coil connected across the load and a current coil connected in
series with the load. So that deflection of the pointer is proportional to the magnetic
field produced by the two coils, which is nothing but proportional to power.
• A wattmeter can measure power in single-phase circuits directly. But in order to
measure 3-phase power, one or more wattmeters are used. The various methods
available for the measurement of power in 3-phase circuits are,
• One wattmeter method
• Two wattmeter mehtod
• Three wattmeter method
Three-Wattmeter Method of Three-Phase Power
Measurement
• Three Wattmeter method is employed to measure power in a 3 phase, 4
wire system. However, this method can also be employed in a 3 phase, 3
wire delta connected load, where power consumed by each load is
required to be determined separately.
• The pressure coil of all the three wattmeters namely W1, W2 and W3 are
connected to a common terminal known as the neutral point. The
product of the phase current and line voltage represents phase power
and is recorded by an individual wattmeter.
• The total power in a three wattmeter method of power measurement is
given by the algebraic sum of the readings of three wattmeters. i.e.
• W=w1+w2+w3
Advantages of 3 wattmeter method
• Can measure power in the individual phase.
• Can measure phase to neutral voltages.
• In the absence of neutral wire, a duplicate neutral wire can be
created.
Two wattmeter method
• The main concept of 2 Wattmeter with 3 phase voltage is to balance
the 3 phase load by satisfying the condition of current lagging at an
angle ‘φ’ with the voltage phase. The schematic diagram of 3 phase 2
wattmeter is shown below
• It consists of 2 wattmeters like W1 and W2, where each wattmeter
has a current coil ‘CC’ and a pressure coil ‘PC’.
• Here, one end of wattmeter ‘W1’ is connected to ‘R’ terminal
whereas one end of wattmeter’ W2′ is connected to’ Y’ terminal.
• The circuit also consists of 3 inductors ‘Z’ which are constructed in a
star topology.
• The 2 ends of inductors are connected to 2 terminals of a wattmeter
whereas the third terminal of the inductor is connected to B.
• Consider the load used as an inductive load which is represented by
following the phasor diagram as shown below.
One wattmeter method
• This method is used only for a balanced load. When a 3-phase system
is connected to a balanced 3-phase load, then the entire power
consumption of the load can be determined by using a single
wattmeter, whose arrangement is shown below.
• The wattmeter current coil is connected in series with any one of the
lines and hence carries the full line current.
• The voltage coil is connected in such a way that, one end to the line in
which the current coil is placed, the other end is connected to the
remaining two lines through an SPDT switch, and hence the line
voltage will be impressed on it.
Here an SPDT switch is used to change the voltage coil connection
between two phases.
Hence, the sum of readings of the wattmeter with two different positions
of the switch will give the total power consumed by the load.
Let the phase voltages of the phases R, Y, and B be VR, VY, and
VB respectively
the phase/line currents of the phases R, Y, and B be I R, IY, and
IB respectively.

As the system is a balanced one, the impedances of the phases must be

equal.
Phasor diagram of 1 wattmeter
method
• When SPDT switch is at position 1, the wattmeter reading indicates,
• W1 = VRY IR cos (30° + Φ)
• = √3VI cos (30° + Φ)
• When SPDT switch is thrown to position 2, the wattmeter reading
indicates,
• W2 = VRB IR cos (30° - Φ)
• = √3VI cos (30° - Φ)
• Total power i.e., the sum of the readings of two wattmeters is,
Dividing equations 2 and 1, we get,
• Power measurement in a 3-phase system using one wattmeter can be
done only when the load is balanced.
• Any slight change in load on any phase produces a significant error in
the readings.
• However, in order to measure 3-phase power in unbalanced load,
two wattmeter or three wattmeter method is used
Maximum Demand Indicator - Construction
& Working

• It is essential that the electrical energy supplied by the electrical power suppliers must be
sufficient enough for operating the various equipment of their consumers.
• In order to achieve this, the generation and distribution system should be equipped with
an additional arrangement to know the maximum demand of electric energy. This can be
done by the instrument called Maximum Demand Indicator.
• The maximum demand indicator indicates the maximum demand of electric energy of a
consumer i.e., it indicates the maximum amount of power required over a period of time.
• The maximum demand meters are classified as,
• Recording maximum demand indicator
• Average or Merz-price maximum demand indicator
• Thermal type maximum demand indicator
• Digital maximum demand indicator
• In this let us see about Merz-price maximum demand indicator. Merz-
Price maximum demand indicator is not a separate unit, but it is an
additional attachment with an energy meter.
• This assembly makes it possible to register the total energy
consumption and the maximum amount of average power
consumption over pre-specified time intervals of equal duration called
an integrating time period.
Maximum demand indicator
• It consists of a separate dial mechanism whose pointer is driven by a pin and gear train
arrangement which is coupled to the spindle of the moving system of the meter as
shown in the figure below
• The system is provided with a reset device, which brings back the pin to its zero position
after each integrating period.
• The pointer is provided by a special friction mechanism, which makes the pointer stay at
the same previously indicated position even after the reset of pin position. It means the
pointer moves in the forward direction only when the power consumption during that
time period is more than its previous maximum value where the pointer is resting.
• The reset device consists of a cam, which is controlled by a timing gear. After each
integrating period, it isolates the pinion and moving system with the help of a bell crank.
During this small isolation period, the pin returns to its zero position due to the action of
the spiral spring.
Working
• The energy consumed for an integrating time period (15 or 30
minutes) is indicated by the pointer on the dial.
• The pointer is driven by the pin. After this time period, the reset
device comes into action and makes the pin return to its zero position
as explained earlier.
• But the pointer continues to indicate the same reading. The pin starts
indicating the energy consumed in the next time period.
• if this consumption increases beyond the previous consumption
value, which is being indicated by the pointer then only the pointer
moves further, otherwise, it will be stable at the same position. The
Merz-Price maximum demand indicator is also known as average
demand indicator since the average maximum demand can be
obtained by
• Advantages of Maximum Demand Indicator :
• High accuracy in the maximum demand measured
• The scale is uniform
• Disadvantages of Maximum Demand Indicator :
• The use of a gearing mechanism makes the construction complicated
and increases the cost
1 phase induction type energy
meter
• Energy meters play a crucial role in measuring and monitoring
electrical energy consumption, enabling fair billing, promoting energy
efficiency, and supporting the management of power distribution
networks.
• These meters come in different forms, including analog, digital, smart
meters, and advanced metering infrastructure (AMI).
• There are various types of energy meters, which have several
functions. It is used for household or domestic purposes for
measuring electricity bills. I
What is an Energy Meter?
• An energy meter is a type of device used to measure the amount of
energy measured in a specified period of time. It is a type of meter
that measures electrical energy. By the measurement of electricity, it
becomes possible to measure the cost of electricity. Induction type of
energy meters are universally used for the measurement of energy in
domestic and industrial ac. circuits. Induction types of meters possess
lower friction and a higher torque/weight ratio. Also, induction-type
meters are inexpensive and accurate and retain their accuracy over a
wide range of loads and temperature conditions.
1 phase induction type energy
meter
• Driving system
• The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets. The core of these
electromagnets is made up of silicon steel laminations.
• The coil of one of the electromagnets is excited by the load current. This coil is
called the current coil.
• The coil of the second electromagnet is connected across the supply and therefore,
carries a current proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure
coil.
• These the two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively.
• Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The position of these
bands is adjustable. The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by
the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage.
• Moving system
• This consists of an aluminum disc mounted on a light alloy shaft.
• This disc is positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets
• The upper bearing of the rotor (moving system) is a steel pin located in a hole
in the bearing cap fixed to the top of the shaft. The rotor runs on a hardened
steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a jewel
bearing. A pinion engages the shaft with the counting or registering
mechanism.
• The c-moving system thus floats without touching either h-bearing surface,
and the only contact with the movement is that of the gear connecting the
shaft with the o gear of the train, thus the friction is drastically reduced.
• Braking system
• A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminum disc
forms the braking system. The aluminum disc moves in the field of
this magnet and thus provides a braking torque. The position of the
permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore, braking torque can
be adjusted by shifting the permanent magnet to different radial
positions.
• The supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil. The pressure coil winding is highly inductive as it
has a very large number of turns and the reluctance of its magnetic circuit is very small owing to the
presence of air gaps of very small length.
• Thus the current I, through the pressure coil is proportional to the supply voltage and lags it by a few
degrees less than 90°. This is because the winding has a small resistance and there are iron losses in
the magnetic circuit.
• Current I produce a flux. This flux divides itself into two parts, and. The major portion flows across the
side gaps reluctance of this path is small. The reluctance to the path of flux is large and hence its
magnitude is This flux, goes across the aluminum disc and hence is responsible for the production of
driving torque. Flux is in phase with current I, and is proportional to it. Therefore flux is proportional to
voltage V and lags it by an angle a few degrees less than 90°. Since flux o, is alternating in P nature, it
induces an eddy emf in the disc which in turn produces an eddy current.
• The load current I flow through the current coil and produces a flux ₁. This flux is proportional to the
load current and is in phase with it. This flux produces eddy current I in the disc. Now the eddy current
interacts with flux o, to produce a torque, and eddy current interacts with it to produce another ep
torque. These two torques are in the opposite direction and the net torque is the difference.
• The single phase energy meter is directly connected between the line
and load.
• It consists of two electromagnets one is the shunt magnet and other
is the series magnet and in between these two magnets we are
having the aluminium disk.
• So this aluminium disk is rotating in the magnetic field. The speed of
this disk is proportional to the part which is consumed by the
appliance.
Energy meters, also known as electricity meters,
kilowatt-hour meters, or electric meters, can
experience a variety of errors. These errors can
include:
• Friction error
• This error is caused by frictional forces in the rotor bearings and counting
mechanism, especially at light loads. The friction torque is roughly constant and
not proportional to speed, which can lead to significant errors in meter readings.
• Creeping
• This error occurs when the meter still shows some energy consumption even when
there is no load attached. It can be caused by overcompensating for friction, or by
an incorrect friction compensator, stray magnetic field, or excess voltage.
• Temperature error
• The flux level in the brake magnet can decrease as the temperature increases,
which can cause a small error in meter readings.
Errors compensations
• Here are some ways to compensate for errors in energy meters:
• Lag compensation: Use a shading coil or lag coil
• Low load or friction adjustment: Use a shading loop
• Over friction or creeping: Add holes or slots to the rotating disc
• Overload compensation: Use a saturable shunt magnet in the series coil
• Over voltage compensation: Use a saturable shunt magnet in the shunt coil
• Temperature compensation: Use a permanent magnet made of "mutemp"
material
• Speed adjustment: Adjust the position of the brake magnet
1 phase digital energy meter
Construction and working
• 1. The single-phase load voltage and load current are sensed and then downscaled
using the voltage and current scaling networks and applied to analog multiplier.
• 2. Analog multiplier gives dc voltage proportional to the product of the voltage and
current drawn (i.e. power drawn) from supply.
• 3. The voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is basically a voltage to frequency
converter. The output of VCO is a square wave the frequency of which is
proportional to its input (which is proportional to power).
• 4. The analog signal at the output of VCO is converted into digital signal by means
of ADC.
• 5. The analog to digital convertor (ADC), output is digital output which is applied to
display unit, which actually measures the frequency proportional to the power over
the particular time period then power gets converted into energy.
Comparison Between Single Phase
and Three Phase Energy Meter
• The flow of electricity in a single-phase connection is through a single conductor whereas, in a three-
phase connection, there are three separate conductors for electric transmission.
• In a single-phase meter system, the upper limit of the voltage can be 230 Volts whereas, in a three-
phase system, the upper limit can be 415 Volts as well.
• Two separate wires are mostly required in a single-phase meter for smooth electricity flow. But in a
three-phase meter, the circuit can be completed with three-phase wires and one neutral wire.
• A three-phase meter transfers minimum electrical energy as compared to the single-phase power
meters.
• There are two wires in a single-phase electric meter which makes it a simple network. But in a three-
phase meter, there are four different wires that make the network complicated.
• Since there is only one phase in a single-phase meter, any unforeseen event in the network interrupts
the entire power supply. On the other hand, in a three-phase meter, if one phase doesn’t work, other
phases compensate for it, thereby eliminating the chances of power interruption.
• A single-phase power meter is less efficient than a three-phase connection since the latter needs
fewer conductors unlike the former one for the same circuit.
List the errors occouring in single
phase electronic energy meter

• Ans: Errors in Single Phase Electronic Energy Meter:

• 1) Error due to wrong sensor opeartion.
• 2) Error due to temperature.
• 3) Error due to wrong CT opeartion.
• 4) Error due to wrong PT opeartion.
• 5) Error due to wrong opeartion of scaling network.
• 6) Error due to wrong ADC opeartion.
• 7) Error due to wrong Display..
State the advantages of electronic
energy meter
• . Ans: Advantages of Electronic Energy Meter:
• 1) Low cost.
• 2) High accuracy.
• 3) More flexibility.
• 4) High sensitivity
• 5) No frictional losses.
• 6) Less loading effect.
• 7) High frequency range.
• 8) Power consumption is less.
• 9) High resolution.
• 10) No requirement for external adjustment.
• 11) Low load, full load, power factor and creeping adjustments are not required
3 phase digital energy meter
• Construction:
• As shown in above diagram, the three phase supply terminals with
neutral point (R, Y, B & N) are connected from supply side.
• CT1, CT2, CT3, are connected in R, Y, B phase respectively. They steps
down the current to a suitable value and give it to a signal processing
unit.
• PT or potential divider unit is used to step down the line voltage to a
suitable value and give it to a signal processing unit.
• CT4 is connected in neutral to check balance load condition
• . Working:
• The signal processing unit computes the active, reactive power & energy in
kWh.
• The control processor does the necessary data processing work and memory
management to monitor and evaluate different parameters.
• Real time clock (RTC) is provided for synchronization of all data processing
works. The display unit is interfaced with control processor.
• Different electric parameters can be displayed on LCD display and SMPS is
provided to give constant DC supply.
• The Data in energy meter can be transferred to an external device like AMR
through RS232 port.
purpose of four quadrant meter
• Purpose of four quadrant meter: Four-quadrant meter is basically a bidirectional
energy-meter with additional measurement facility. The purposes of four-quadrant
meter are:
• 1) Measurement of energy/power under following conditions:
• Quadrant I: Import of active power and export of lagging reactive power. Both active
& lagging reactive powers flow positively. Both are delivered to the consumer load.
• Quadrant II: Export of active power and Import of capacitive reactive power. The
active power flow negatively & lagging reactive power flows positively. The active
power is delivered to supply system. The lagging reactive power is delivered to load.
• Quadrant III: Export of active power and Export of lagging reactive power. Both
active & lagging reactive powers flow negatively.
• Both active & lagging reactive powers are delivered to supply system.
Quadrant IV: Import of active power and Export of lagging reactive
power. The active power flows positively & lagging reactive powers
flow negatively. The active power is delivered to load & lagging
reactive power is delivered to supply system.
• 2) Measurement of Maximum demand (MD) for each type of power
i.e kW, kVA and kVARh
• 3) Time-of-use metering: Bidirectional consumption and demand.
4 quadrant meter
• construction
• Circuit diagram
Smart energy meter
construction
• power supply: This section of the smart meter powers the circuitry for the meter and also
provides battery back-up as well as protection against transients,SMPS etc.
• Measurement capability: This section of the smart energy meter block diagram
addresses the basic measurement of the utility that is used. It requires to be reliable and
accurate. It will typically output the data in a digital format and will therefore include a
analogue to digital converter.
• Processing: Any meter like this will require manipulation of the data. It needs to be
formatted to send via the communications links as well as displaying on the smart meter
itself.
• Communications: The smart meter needs to communicate the information back to the
utility supplier for billing and management of their smart grid. It also needs to provide
information tot he user on a smart energy monitor or In-Home Display, IHD. A variety of
different communications methods can be used for this including cellular communications,
power-line communications, Zigbee, etc.