Unit-I

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Introduction
 Engineering materials is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its
applications to various areas of science and engineering. This science investigates the
relationship between the structure of materials at atomic and molecular scales and their
macroscopic properties.

 The field is concerned with the design, manufacture and uses of all classes of materials
(including metals, ceramics, semiconductors, polymers and biomaterials), and with energy,
health, environmental, economic, and manufacturing issues related to materials.

 It emphasizes the study of the structure of materials and Processing-Structure-Property

relationship in materials.
History
 From stone age to modern era
 Bronze age 4000 – 1000 B.C

 Iron age 1000 B.C – 1620 A.D

 Cast iron (1620); Steel (1850); Light Alloy (1940)

 1960 – Engineering materials got importance, leading to development in various materials

(carbon fiber, metal composites, alloys, polymers, etc.)
Metals Polymers
Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Materials
 Engineering Materials can be normally classified as metals and non-metals.
 Metals can be conveniently sub-divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Few important ferrous metals are:
 Steel: Alloy of Iron and Carbon (< 2% Carbon and 1% Manganese);
 Stainless Steel: Corrosion resistant alloy of Iron with Chromium and Carbon.
 Wrought Iron: Soft, ductile and fibrous alloy of Iron containing <0.1 % carbon, about 2% slag.
 Cast Iron: Alloy of Iron containing about 2-4 % Carbon
 Few important non-ferrous metals are:
 Light metal groups such as aluminum and its alloys, manganese alloys;
 Copper alloys such as Brass (Copper and Zinc), Bronze (Copper and Tin).
 White metal groups such as nickel, silver, zinc, tin, bismuth, etc.
Ferrous Materials
Cast Iron:
An alloy of Iron which contains about 2-4 % carbon along with few silicon, sulphur and phosphorus. It is
hard and brittle. Carbon may be present as free (graphite) or as iron carbide(Fe3C).

Properties: hard, tough, ductile and elastic.

Applications: Utensils in old times, cart wheels, etc.

Wrought Iron:
Almost pure iron with the iron content of the order 99.5 %. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and trace
amount of silicon, sulphur and phosphorus may be present.
Properties: Tough, malleable and ductile. It can be easily forged or welded.
Applications: Chains, crane hooks, railway coupling, etc.
Steel:
The most important engineering material, which can be moulded to meet the various
engineering requirements. Steel is basically an alloy of Iron and carbon, consisting of about 2%
Carbon. Carbon is present as Iron carbide (Fe3C) to impart hardness and strength.
Applications: Screws, automobile body sheets, plates, wires, fences, channels, pipes, hooks,
wire ropes, gears, machine components, turbine wheels, rail axles and wheels, carpenters tools,
knives, etc.
Stainless Steel:
It is the corrosion resistant alloy of steel which contains about 18 % Chromium and 8% Nickel. A
typical designation of stainless steel is 15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon is 0.15 %.
Applications: Mostly used for making utensils, pipes,etc.
 Alloy Steel
Steels in which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient quantities to impart desired
properties such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, electric and magnetic properties.
Elements which are mainly used:
• Nickle for strength and toughness;
•Chromium for hardness and strength;
•Tungsten for hardness at high temperatures;
•Vanadium for tensile strength;
•Silicon for high elastic limit;
•Cobalt for hardness;
•Manganese for high strength at elevated temperatures;
•Molybdenum for extra tensile strength
Non-Ferrous Materials
Metallic materials that consists of elements other than Iron as their chief constituent are usually
referred to as Non-Ferrous materials. There is enormous variety of non-ferrous materials available.
Aluminium: White metal obtained from alumina. In pure state it is weak and soft but addition of
small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si and Mg makes it hard and strong. It is also corrosion resistant, light
weight and non-toxic.
Duralumin: Alloy of 4 % Cu, 0.5 % Mn, 0.5 % Mg and Al. It is widely used in automobile and aircraft
components.
Y-alloy: Alloy of 4 % Cu, 1.5 % Mn, 2 % Ni, 6 % Si, Mg, Fe and the rest is Al. It provides greater
strength at high temperatures. It is used for making aircraft engine components such as cylinder
heads, piston, etc.
Magnalium: Al alloy containing 2-10 % Mg with 1.75 % Cu. Due to light weight and good strength it
is used for making aircraft and automobile components.
Copper Alloys
Most widely used non-ferrous metal in industry. It is soft, ductile, and is a good conductor of
heat and electricity.
Brass (Cu-Zn Alloy): Fundamentally a binary alloy with up to 50 % Zn. With increasing Zn,
ductility increases up to ~37 % of Zn beyond which the ductility falls. Small amounts of other
elements like Pb and Sn imparts extra properties to brass. Lead gives good machining quality
ductility Zn and Sn leads to strength. It is highly corrosion resistant and a good bearing material.
Bronze (Cu-Sn Alloy): Sn amount may vary between 5-25 %. It provides hardness but Sn content
also oxidizes resulting in brittleness.
Gun Metal: It is an Cu alloy where Zn is added as deoxidizing agent and typical compositions are
88 % Cu, 10 % Sn, and 2 % Zn. This is suitable for working in cold temperature. It was originally
made for casting guns but now used for boiler fittings, bushes, glands and other such uses.
Composite Materials
Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material with
properties that exceed the constituent materials. It provides properties such as high strength,
light weight and flexibility.
Composite materials consists of two main materials:
 Reinforcement (strong load carrying material), examples- aramide, carbon, fiberglass.
 Tensile Strength
 Stiffness
 Impact Resistance

 Matrix (embedded weaker material), examples- polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.

 Transfer load to Reinforcement
 Temperature Resistance
 Chemical Resistance
Applications of Composite
materials
 Carbon fiber composites with polymer matrices have
become the advance composite materials for aerospace due
to their high strength, high modulus and low cost.

 Helmet and bullet proof jackets made up of aramide

composite material.

 Fiber-reinforced plastics have reached the stage where they

can be used to make wheels.
Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Examples: Clay, mixed oxides like alumina zirconia, etc.
Properties:
 Strong, solid and inert materials;
 Can withstand chemical erosion due to acids and caustics;
 Can withstand high temperatures of about 100-1600 °C.
Types of Ceramics:
 Whitewares (Clays),
 Refractories (contains high Si or Al content)
 Abrasives (Diamond, Silicon carbide, natural garnet)
Applications of Ceramic
materials
 Whitewares are used everywhere including
tableware, tiles, pottery products, and sanitary
ware.

 Refractories are used to make fire resistant bricks,

silica crucibles, and ovens. Due to their low thermal
conductivity and high thermal stability.

 Abrasives are used in cutting and grinding tools.

Sandpaper is a very common example of coated
abrasive.
 Glass
Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material which
is typically brittle and optically transparent.
Silica (SiO2) is the common fundamental constituent of glass.

Synthesis of Glass:
1. Mixture of soda ash, limestone, sand and broken glass in dry
condition,
2. Send to furnace and heat to 1600 °C,
3. Moulding,
4. Annealing,
5. Shaping,
6. Marketing.
Applications of Glasses
 Borosilicate glasses formerly called Pyrex are
often used laboratory reagents due to their
resistance to chemical corrosion and heat.

 Decorative arts made up of fancy glass.

Polymers
Polymer (Greek: Poly = many; mer = part)
Giant or complex molecules
They are made up by the linking together of large number of small molecules (repeating units
called monomers) held together by covalent bonds (via two or more bonding sites).
Properties:
◦ Good chemical resistivity
◦ Low density & Young’s modulus
◦ Brittleness at low temperature
◦ Can be stretched to form films
Monomers

Alkenes, vinyl
chloride, adipic acid,
glucose, amino acids,
glycol with two
bonding sites acts as
monomers.
Polymerization
 Degree of Polymerization
 Number of repeating units in the polymer chain formed is called the Degree of Polymerization (n).
 Polyethene (C2H4)n, where n stands for DP.
 Molecular weight of Polyethene (PE), M = nM0,

where, M0 is molecular weight of monomer

 If M.Wt of PE, M = 28000, M.Wt of repeating unit (M 0) = 28,

 n = M/M0
= 28000/28 = 1000
Degree of Polymerization (n) = 1000
 Strength of the polymer can be increased by increasing its DP
High DP  hard and heat resistant
Low DP  soft and flexible
Classification
1. On the basis of Origin
i. Natural
ii. Synthetic

2. On the basis of nature of monomer

i. Homopolymers (Comprise of monomers of the same type)
 Linear (homochain or heterochain)
 Branched
 Cross-linked
ii. Heteropolymers/Copolymers (Different repeating units)
 Linear; Branched; Grafted (regular/irregular); Block (regular/irregular)

3. On the basis off chemical nature

i. Organic (Polymer backbone made up of carbon atoms)
ii. Inorganic (No carbon atoms in the backbone chain, e.g, Silicone rubbers)
 Linear Polymer: The polymers made up of long continuous chain without
any branches are called linear polymers. They have high melting points,
high densities and high tensile strength. Example: Polyethene, PVC.
 Branched Polymer: The polymers made up of main chain(linear chain)
with smaller chains as branches of main chain are called branched chain
polymers. They have lower melting points, densities and tensile strength as
compared to linear polymers. Example: Polypropylene.
 Cross-linked Polymer: Cross-linked polymers are formed when long
polymer chains are cross-linked together to create a three dimensional
network. Cross-linked polymers are utilized in making a large number of
materials as they are mechanically strong and resistant to heat. Examples
of these polymers include bakelite, melamine.
Nomenclature
Homopolymer: Monomers of the same repeating unit
[-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-]
Copolymer: Polymer containing different repeating units
Random copolymer: Two or more different repeating units
[-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-A-B-A-B-B-B-A-A-B-]
Alternating copolymer: Alternating sequence of different monomers
[-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-]
Block copolymer: Long sequences of a monomer followed by long sequence of another
monomer [-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-B-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-]
Graft copolymer: Chain made from one type of monomer with branches from another type
Tacticity
It is the orientation of monomeric units in polymer takes place in orderly/ disorderly manner
with respect to the main chain. The difference in configuration affects the physical properties of
the polymer.
Isotactic: Head to tail configuration, Functional groups are all on the same side of the main chain

Syndiotactic: Functional groups occupy alternating positions

Atactic: Functional groups arranged in random manner

Atactic polypropylene is a gummy solid while isotactic version is highly crystalline and tough.
Types of Polymerization
Polymerization: It is the fundamental process in which low molecular weight compounds
combine to form giant molecules/ macromolecules of high molecular weight.

Three types of polymerization

1. Addition
2. Condensation
3. Copolymerization
Addition Polymerization
They are formed from the monomers without the loss of any byproduct, like small molecules.
Monomers with double or triple bonds tend to polymerize without the elimination of small
molecules. Example: Polyethylene (PE).

It yields a product which is exact multiple of the original monomer unit.

Polyolefins
Condensation/ Step
Polymerization
 Formation of polymers from polyfunctional monomers of organic molecules with elimination of
small molecules like H2O, HCl, etc.
 Functional of one monomer unit reacts with functional group of the other.
 Example Nylon 6,6 [Hexamethylene diamine + adipic acid]
Polyesters & Amides
Copolymerization
 Specific type of addition polymerization, without the loss of any small molecule.
 Monomers of more than one type are involved thereby giving variety of polymers.
 Example: Styrene-Butadiene rubber (Buna-S)
Natural Polymers
Monomers Polymers
Plastics
The polymeric materials which are rigid, dimensionally stable and usually brittle are known as
plastics.
Thermoplastics/ Thermosoftening Polymers
These polymers when heated become soft and can be moulded into any shape that can retain
on cooling.
Example: PVC, PE, Nylon sealing wax, etc.

Thermosetting Polymers
These polymers on heating undergo a chemical change and become an infusible mass which
cannot be reshaped.
Example: Bakelite, polyester, etc.
Comparison
Applications of Thermoplastics
Applications of Thermosetting
Synthesis, Properties & Uses o
Commercial Plastics
Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin
Acid or base as a catalyst to undergo condensation polymerization, the nature of the product
depends on the catalyst and the ratio of phenol and formaldehyde.
Novolac resin is a linear thermoplastic polymer.
Bakelite is a cross-linked thermosetting polymer.
Properties & Applications
 Phenolic resins are rigid, hard and water resistant.
 Resistant to acids, salts, organic solvents.
 Easily reacts with alkalies due to the presence of free hydroxyl groups.
 Posses electrical insulating properties due to low thermal conductivity.

 Applications:
• Used to fabricate insulators, plugs, switches.
• Used as cation-exchanger resin in water softening.
• Adhesive in paints and varnishes.
• Propeller shafts for paper industry and mills.
Nylon
Nylon is a generic
designation for a family of
synthetic polymers
composed of
polyamides (repeating
units linked by amide
links).

Nylon is a silk-like
thermoplastic, generally
made from petroleum, that
can be melt-processed into
fibers, films, or shapes.

Examples: Nylon 6; Nylon

5,10; Nylon 1,6; Nylon 6,6.
Properties & Applications
Properties:
◦ Lustrous
◦ Elastic
◦ Very strong
◦ Damage resistant to oil and many chemicals
◦ Resilient
◦ Does not absorb water
◦ Dries quickly
Applications: Clothes, seat belts, parachutes,
airbags, nets, ropes, etc.
Vinyl plastics
Vinyl plastics are a group of polymers derived from substituted vinyl (H2C=CHR) monomers. Their
backbone is an extended alkane chain [−CH2−CHR−].
Examples:
Properties & Applications
Properties:
◦ Strong, durable, abrasion and moisture resistant;
◦ Rust and corrosion resistant;
◦ Electrically non-conductive and
◦ Excellent fire performance properties.
◦ High tensile strength, low cost.

Applications: Flooring, window frames, pipes,

synthetic leather, insulators.
It is used in various industries like building,
electronics, electrical, automotive, medical and
packaging.
Polyethylene Plastics
Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the
most commonly produced plastic. It is a polymer, primarily used for packaging.
Properties: Lightweight, durable, and one of the most commonly produced plastic.
Applications: Frozen food bags, bottles, cereal liners, yogurt containers, etc.
Glyptal
Glyptal is formed by condensation polymerization of the monomer units ethylene glycol and
phthalic acid. Hence, also known as alkyd resin. It is a type of thermosetting.
Applications: surface coating agent, binding material, cement, etc.
Special Polymers
 Conducting polymers
 Electroluminescent polymers
 Liquid crystalline polymers
 Biodegradable polymers
Conducting Polymers
 Generally, polymers are poor conductors of electricity due to non-availability of large number of
free electrons.
 The polymeric materials which possess electrical conductivity are known as conducting
polymers.
 Polymers which consists of poly-conjugated structures are insulators in pure state, but when
treated with oxidizing or reducing agents can be converted to polymer salts with electrical
conductivity comparable to that of metals.
 Different types of conducting polymers are π-electron conducting polymers, conducting
element filled polymer, inorganic polymer, doped-conducting polymer and blended conducting
polymer.
Applications: Chemical sensors, LEDs, lasers, corrosion inhibitors, electromagnetic shielding,
polymer-based transistors, etc.
Electroluminescent polymers
The property in which a material produces bright light o different colours when stimulated
electronically is known as electroluminescence and the materials are called electroluminescent
materials.
Various organic polymeric materials have been discovered which acts as self emitting device of
high brightness, efficiency, high speed response and no heating and long life.
Example: Poly(paraphenylenevinylene) [PVV; yellow solid], used to make LEDs and photovoltaic
devices.
Liquid crystalline polymers
Liquid crystalline polymers are a class of aromatic polymers which are extremely unreactive and
highly resistant to fire.
They can be obtained by dissolving in a solvent (thermotropic) or by heating them above their
melting transition point (lyotropic).
Properties: High heat resistance, chemical resistance, adhesion, low viscosity, low cost, easily
moulded and fire resistant.
Applications: Soap, conducting foams, heat sensitive camera, etc.
Biodegradable polymers
The plastics that have similar properties to conventional plastics, but are capable of being
decomposed and catabolized eventually to carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms and/or
enzymes.
These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made and mostly consists of ester,
amide, and ether functional groups.
Properties: Inert, permeability, non-toxic, biocompatible, tensile strength, controlled
degradation.
Examples: Chitosan, albumin, gelatin, starch, polyamides, polyesters, etc.
Commercially available biodegradable polymers are starch based polymers, poly lactic acid,
polyhydroxyalkanoates and aliphatic/aromatic copolyesters.
Applications: tissue engineering, drug delivery, and packaging materials.
Expected Properties of Engineering
Materials
Mechanical
Property
Thermal
Properties
Electrical,
Magnetic
and Optical
Properties
Chemical
Properties

Resistance to water, acids, alkalis, organic

solvents, oxidation and radiation