Sensory System

Central nervous system

sensory information within afferent division Information processing

special sensory receptors

somatic sensory receptors

visceral sensory receptors

Nervous System

stimulus and reaction

Nervous system
stimulus

receptor

sensory neuron

Interneuron

Motor neuron

reaction

effector

Sensory System
Receptor Sensory Tract Primary Neuron (1st order neuron) Secondary Neuron (2nd order neuron) Tertiary Neuron (3rd order neuron) Termination

A receptor is any structure specialized to detect a stimulus. Some receptors are simple nerve endings, whereas others are sense organsnerve endings combined with connective, epithelial, or muscular tissues that enhance or moderate the response to a stimulus.
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1) Excitability
The receptors have the ability to convert energy into action potential in the sensory nerves. When the receptor is stimulated by an adequate stimulus, it generates adepolarizing potential called receptor or generator potential

Properties of receptors

It is the decrease in the amplitude of R.P. and the frequency of action potential with constant continuous stimulus.
May be due to 1. Gradual inactivation of Na+ channeles.

All receptors, however, exhibit sensory adaptationif the stimulus is prolonged, firing frequency and conscious sensation decline. Adapting to hot bath water is an example.

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Phasic rapidly adapting role in signaling changes in intensity

Tonic adapt slowly or not at all role in signaling information regarding steady state

Properties of receptors

Each receptor responds to a specific stimulus called adequate stimulus for this receptor. e.g.: Thermal receptors arc sensitive to thermal forms of energy but completely insensitive to touch or pressure.

I) Somatic sensations:

arising from skin and deeper structures e.g. skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints and periosteum. include sensations from the viscera. e.g. thirst and hunger. Vision, hearing, taste and smell. as fear, sadness, pleasure etc.

2) Visceral sensations:

3) Organic sensations

4) Special sensations:

5) Emotional sensations:

[1] Pain sensation. [2] Thermal sensation. [3] Mechano-receptive sensations.

(a) Tactile sensation:

Touch : crude & fine. Pressure. Vibration.

(b) Position Senses:

Static : sense of position. Kinetic : sense of movement.

a) Crude touch:

Touch sensation with poor identification of site & number of stimuli.. Tested by a piece of cotton passed on the skin. (Cotton wool test)

b) Fine touch

Touch sensation with accurate identification of site & number of stimuli.

1. Tactile localization
Ability to localize exact point of touch with eyes closed. Tested by two marker test

2. Tactile discrimination = 2 points discrimination.

It is the ability to identify two tactile stimuli applied simultaneously as two separate points of contact regarding that the distance between these two points is more than threshold distance.

3. Stereognosis

Ability to know familiar object put in the hand with both eyes closed.

Is a rhythmic repetitive pressure sensation which if felt when a vibrating tensing fork is put opposite body prominences to magnify the stimulus.

Importance Depression of vibration sense is an early diagnostic sign in degeneration of posterior column of spinal cord e.g. uncontrolled diabetes, pernicious anaemia. Also, it localizes lesions of spinal cord.

Sensation of the position & movement of each part of the body in Relation to each other & in relation to the space.

Types Sense of position. Sense of movement.

Cold receptors

These receptors respond to temperature from 10 to 35 C warm fibers discharge maximal at 25C. Cold spots are greater than hot spots (10 times).

Warm receptors

These receptors respond to temperature from 25 to 45 C, warm fibers discharge maximal at 35C.

 1st: enters spinal cord from periphery 2nd: crosses over (decussates), ascends in

spinal cord to thalamus

3rd: projects to somatosensory cortex

The Anterolateral Pathway (also called Spinothalamic) Carries pain, temperature, touch and pressure signals -The Dorsal Column Pathway Carries fine touch, vibration and conscious proprioception signals
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Central Pathways

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Crossover at spinal cord Pain and Temperature Tickle and Itch Poorly localised touch
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Crossover in medulla Discriminative touch Shape, size texture, weight Vibration Proprioception

Pain

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage

Gives conscious awareness of tissue damage Protection:

Remove body from danger Promote healing by preventing further damage Avoid noxious stimuli

Elicits behavioural and emotional responses

1. Nociceptors
free nerve endings in skin respond to noxious stimuli

Nociceptors are special receptors that respond only to noxious stimuli and generate nerve impulses which the brain interprets as "pain".

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Nociopectors
Adequate Stimulation

Temperature
Mechanical damage

Chemicals (released from damaged tissue)

Nociopectors
1. Mechanical pain Receptors.: stimulated by mechanical injurious stimuli. 2. Thermal pain Receptors.: discussed before.
3. Chemical pain Receptors.: stimulated by chemical stimuli. Chemical stimuli include: bradykinin (most important) serotonin, histamine & K+.

Nociopectors
Distribution of pain receptors
More: Skin, periosteum, arteries, joint

surfaces, & tentorium cerebelli and cranial sinuses.

Less: deep tissues. Absent: liver parenchyma, lung alveoli

and brain.

 Fast pain (acute)

occurs rapidly after stimuli (.1 second)

sharp pain like needle puncture or cut

not felt in deeper tissues larger A nerve fibers

Slow pain (chronic)

Begins more slowly & increases in intensity in both superficial and deeper tissues

smaller C nerve fibers

Visceral pain
Often accompanied by strong autonomic and/or somatic reflexes Poorly localized;
may be referred Mostly caused by distension of hollow organs or ischemia (localized mechanical trauma may be painless)
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Pain originating from organs perceived as coming from skin Site of pain may be distant from organ

Lecture 3 Sensory/Motor

Referred pain. Nociceptors from several locations converging on a single ascending tract in the spinal cord may cause referred pain.

Deep and visceral pain are frquently not felt in the viscus but is felt in skin area ( dermatome) away from the diseased viscus. Sine this pain seems to radiate from the diseased viscus to the skin, it is called radiating or referred pain.
1. Anginal pain;

It is felt in the precordium and radiates (i.e. is referred) to the left shoulder and left arm. 2. Renal pain; It is felt in the loin and radiates radiates (i.e. is referred) to the groin. 3. Pain of inflammed appendix: It is felt in the right iliac fossa and radiates (i.e. is referred) to the skin area around the umbilicus. 4. Pain of cholycystitis; It is felt in the right hypochondrium and radiates (i.e. is referred )to the right shoulder .

Examples of referred pain include;-

Aspirin and ibuprofen block formation of prostaglandins that stimulate nociceptors Novocain blocks conduction of nerve impulses along pain fibers Morphine lessen the perception of pain in the brain.

Somatosensory cortex
Located in the postcentral gyrus of the human cerebral cortex.

Primary somatosensory cortex

each contains a map of the body Each plays a role in processing sensory information for the body.

Secondary somatosensory cortex

receives input from the left and the right primary somatosensory cortices, combines information from both sides of the body. Neurons in this area particularly responsive to stimuli that have acquired

meaning (e.g., association with reward).

Sensory ataxia
Patient staggers; cannot perceive position or movement of legs Visual clues help movement

A synapse is the junction between 2 neurones.

Types of Synapses:

1. Electrical Synapses: v. rare in human NS, common in cardiac & smooth ms. - Can act in either direction. 2. Chemical Synapses: common in human NS Impulses can only travel in one direction (= one-way conduction).

Chemical

Electrical

Neuro-muscular Junction

Chemical

Funtional Anatomy of Chemical Synapses:

Presynaptic Neuron: - Presynaptic knob cpntains synaptic vesicles that store NT.

Synaptic Cleft: It is a 20-30 nm E.C. space, which separates pre- & postynaptic neurons. Postsynaptic Neuron: - It has a large number of receptors that are specific for the NT that is released from the adjacent presynaptic knob.

1. Action potential arrives at presynaptic knob. 2. Opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels by depolarization influx of Ca2+ according to concentration gradient. 3. Movement of vesicles 4. Fusion of vesicles to the presynaptic membrane. 5. Release of NT by exocytosis into synaptic cleft. 6. Diffusion of NT across synaptic cleft. 7. Binding of NT to its receptor in postsynaptic membrane. 8. Opening of ligand-gated ion channels. 9. Removal of NT from synaptic cleft terminates action of NT by: a. active reuptake b. enzymatic destruction

Mechanism of Synaptic transmission

action potential reaches axon terminal

Diffusion of Ca++ into the terminal button causes release of ACh from vesicles into the cleft by exocytosis gated Chemically cation channel

Synaptic cleft Acetylcholine receptor site Motor end plate