Predicate Calculus (First-Order

Logic)
Understanding Symbols, Semantics,
Quantifiers & Logical Representation
Presented by: [Your Name]
 Introduction
• Predicate Calculus (or First-Order Logic) is a
formal system that allows expressing
statements about objects and their
relationships. It extends propositional logic
with quantifiers and predicates.
 Why Predicate Logic?
• Propositional logic is limited to whole
statements. Predicate logic allows internal
structure by introducing objects, predicates,
and quantifiers. Example:
• Propositional: P = "Socrates is mortal"
• Predicate: Mortal(Socrates)
 Syntax vs Semantics
• Syntax defines the rules for forming valid
expressions.
• Semantics assigns meaning to these
expressions and determines their truth value
in a model.
 Symbols in Predicate Logic
• • Constants: Specific objects (e.g., Socrates)
• • Variables: General placeholders (e.g., x, y)
• • Predicates: Properties or relations (e.g.,
Human(x))
• • Functions: Return objects (e.g., fatherOf(x))
• • Connectives, Quantifiers, Equality
Constants, Variables, and Functions
• • Constants refer to specific elements in the
domain.
• • Variables range over elements in the
domain.
• • Functions map elements to other elements
in the domain (e.g., parentOf(x)).
 Predicates
• Predicates express properties or relationships
among terms.
• • Unary: Prime(x)
• • Binary: Loves(x, y)
• • N-ary: MoreThan(x, y, z)
 Terms
• Terms are the basic building blocks.
• • Variables: x
• • Constants: Socrates
• • Function applications: fatherOf(x)
 Atomic Sentences
• Formed by applying predicates to terms.
• Examples:
• • Loves(John, Mary) → "John loves Mary"
• • GreaterThan(4, 2) → "4 is greater than 2"
 Logical Connectives
• • ¬P: Not P
• • P ∧ Q: P and Q
• • P ∨ Q: P or Q
• • P → Q: If P then Q
• • P ↔ Q: P if and only if Q
 Complex Sentences
• Built from atomic sentences using
connectives.
• Example:
• ¬Happy(x) ∨ Smart(x) → "Either x is not
happy, or x is smart"
 Semantics of Predicate Logic
• Truth depends on:
• • Domain: Universe of discourse
• • Interpretation: Assigns meaning to symbols
• • A sentence can be true in one model and
false in another.
 Domain and Interpretation
• • Domain: Set of entities (e.g., all people)
• • Interpretation:
• - Human → set of humans
• - Loves(x, y) → pairs (x, y) where x loves y
 Models and Satisfaction
• A model is a domain with interpretations.
• A formula is satisfied if true under the model.
• If always true → logically valid.
 Free vs Bound Variables
• • Free variable: Not within quantifier scope
• E.g., Loves(x, Mary)
• • Bound variable: Within quantifier
• E.g., ∀x Loves(x, Mary)
 Quantifiers Overview
• Quantifiers express generalization:
• • Universal (∀): Applies to all
• • Existential (∃): At least one
• • Uniqueness (∃!): Exactly one
 Universal Quantifier (∀)
• Syntax: ∀x P(x)
• Meaning: For every x, P(x)
• Example:
• ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x)) → All humans are
mortal
 Existential Quantifier (∃)
• Syntax: ∃x P(x)
• Meaning: At least one x makes P(x) true
• Example:
• ∃x (Student(x) ∧ Passed(x, Math)) → Some
student passed Math
 Uniqueness Quantifier (∃!)
• Meaning: Exactly one object satisfies P(x)
• Example:
• ∃!x King(x) → There is exactly one king
 Expressing Uniqueness in FOL
• ∃x (P(x) ∧ ∀y (P(y) → y = x))
• This means:
• 1. At least one x such that P(x)
• 2. If any y satisfies P(y), then y must equal x
 Nested Quantifiers
• Order matters:
• • ∀x ∃y Loves(x, y) → Everyone loves
someone
• • ∃y ∀x Loves(x, y) → There exists someone
loved by everyone
 Scope of Quantifiers
• Scope: The part of the formula the quantifier
governs.
• Clarify using parentheses:
• ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
 Translating English to FOL
• "Every student loves some book"
• FOL: ∀x (Student(x) → ∃y (Book(y) ∧ Loves(x,
y)))
 Translating FOL to English
• FOL: ∃x (Doctor(x) ∧ Helps(x, y))
• English: "There exists a doctor who helps y"
 Equality in Predicate Logic
• • x = y means x and y refer to the same object
• • ∃x (x = 5 ∧ Prime(x)) → "5 is prime"
 Equivalence of Statements
• • ¬∀x P(x) ↔ ∃x ¬P(x)
• • ¬∃x P(x) ↔ ∀x ¬P(x)
• Used in proofs and simplifications.
 Inference in Predicate Logic
• • Universal Instantiation: ∀x P(x) ⇒ P(a)
• • Existential Instantiation: ∃x P(x) ⇒ P(c)
• • Modus Ponens: P → Q, P ⊢ Q
• • Forward Chaining: Start from facts and
derive new facts
• • Backward Chaining: Start from goal and
verify using facts
Sample Predicate Logic Knowledge
Base
• Given:
• 1. Human(Socrates)
• 2. ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
• We can infer: Mortal(Socrates)
 Predicate Logic vs Propositional
Logic
• Predicate Logic is more expressive:
• • Has quantifiers
• • Represents objects and relationships
• • Propositional logic lacks these capabilities
 Applications of Predicate Logic
• Used in:
• • AI reasoning systems
• • Database querying (e.g., SQL)
• • Linguistic analysis
• • Software verification and proof systems
 Forward Chaining
• • Data-driven inference
• • Apply rules to known facts to derive
conclusions
• • Example:
• Human(Socrates), ∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
⇒ Mortal(Socrates)
 Backward Chaining
• • Goal-driven inference
• • Start with goal and prove from facts
• • Example:
• To prove Mortal(Socrates), show
Human(Socrates) and ∀x (Human(x) →
Mortal(x))