PROBLEM SOLVING
AND
MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION
Definition
of
Problem
George Polya
The father of problem solving an unfamiliar
situation. Which no immediate answer is
apparent
Krulik and Rudnick
A situation that confronts an individuals or
an group of individuals that requires a
solution which sees no apparent to obtaining
solution.
Blum and Niss
A situation that confronts an individuals or
an group of individuals that requires a
solution which sees no apparent to obtaining
solution.
A problem is a question or activity which is challenging to the student.
There are a number of other criteria which help define a problem solving activity.
The method of solution is not immediately obvious and students need to
decide for themselves how to solve it.
There are a number of different approaches, or strategies, which lead to a
solution.
There may be more than one correct or reasonable solution.
There is more than one step to a solution.
Definition of Problem Solving
the process of overcoming obstacles to answer a
question or to achieve a goal.
“finding an exit out from a labyrinth.”
involves applying previously acquired knowledge
to new and unfamiliar situations
Types of Problem
Educational psychologist classify problems in many
ways. One classification is to make a distinction between
well-defined and poorly-defined problems.
In general, problems can be categorized as routine
and non-routine.
1. Routine problem requires direct applications of sets of
known or prescribed procedures to solve problems.
2. Non-routine problem is more abstract or subjective and
requires a strategy to solve.
Steps in Problem Solving
. Sternberg identified the following steps in the
problem solving cycle:
problem identification;
defining of problem;
constructing a strategy for problem solving;
organizing information about the problem;
allocation of resources; monitoring progress;
and evaluating the results
George Polya developed a
four-step problem solving
process as part of his work on
problem solving .
Step 1. Understand the problem (See).
Step 2. Devise a plan (Plan).
Step 3. Carry out the plan (Do).
Step 4. Look back (Check).
The National Council of Teachers
[Link] of Mathematics (NCTM) has been
Solving and consistently advocating for
problem-solving for nearly 40
Mathematic years, while international trends
in mathematics teaching have
s Education shown an
increased focus on problem-solving and mathematical
modeling beginning in the early 1990s.
Mathematics education is important not
only because of the “gatekeeping role that
mathematics plays in students’ access to
educational and economic opportunities,” but
also because the problem-solving processes
and the acquisition of problem-solving
strategies equips students for life beyond
school (Cobb, & Hodge, 2002).
The importance of problem-solving in
learning mathematics comes from the
belief that mathematics is primarily about
reasoning, not memorization.
The ability to think creatively, critically, and
logically
The ability to structure and organize
The ability to process information
Enjoyment of an intellectual challenge
The skills to solve problems that help them to
investigate and understand the world
Problem-solving
should underlie all aspects of
mathematics teaching in order to
give students the experience of
the power of mathematics in the
world around them.
The challenge for teachers is
ensuring the problems they set are
designed to support mathematics
learning and are appropriate and
challenging for all students
Effective problems:
Are accessible and extendable
Allow individuals to make decisions
Promote discussion and communication
Encourage originality and invention
Encourage “what if?” and “what if not?” questions
Contain an element of surprise (Adapted from Ahmed,
1987)
How teachers organize classroom instruction is
very much dependent on what they know and
believe about mathematics and on what they
understand about mathematics teaching and
learning.
Given the efforts to date to include problem-
solving as an integral component of the
mathematics curriculum and the limited
implementation in classrooms, it will take more
than rhetoric to achieve this goal.
Problem
Solving and the
Conceptual
Framework of
the K-12
Mathematics
Curriculum
Mathematics is one subject that
pervades life at any age and in any
circumstance. Thus, its value goes
beyond the classroom and the
school.
The twin goals of mathematics in
the basic education levels, K-10, are
Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving.
Critical thinking, according to Scriven and Paul (1987)
is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and
skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,
synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered
from, or generated by, observation, experience,
reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to
belief and action
. On the other hand, according to Polya (1945
& 1962), Mathematical Problem Solving is
finding a way around a difficulty, around an
obstacle, and finding a solution to a problem
that is unknown.
Five Content Areas in the K-12 Curriculum
1. Numbers and Number Sense include concepts of numbers, properties,
operations, estimation, and their applications.
2. Measurement includes the use of numbers and measures to describe,
understand, and compare mathematical and concrete objects.
3. Geometry includes properties of two- and three-dimensional figures and their
relationships, spatial visualization, reasoning, and geometric modelling and
proofs.
4. Patterns and Algebra studies patterns, relationships, and changes among
shapes and quantities
5. Statistics and Probability is all about developing skills in collecting and
organizing data using charts, tables, and graphs; understanding, analyzing and
interpreting data; dealing with uncertainty; and making predictions about
outcomes.
Specific Skills and Processes to be developed
1. Knowing and understanding
2. Estimating
3. and solving
4. Visualizing and modelling
5. Representing and communicating
6. Conjecturing, reasoning, proving and decision-
making
7. Applying and connecting
Values and Attitudes to be honed
1. Accuracy
2. Creativity
3. Objectivity
4. Perseverance
5. Productivity
Mathematical Tools in Teaching
Mathematics
1. Manipulative objects
[Link] devices
3. Calculators and computers
[Link] phones and tablet PCs
5. Internet
Underlying Learning Principles and Theories of
the K-12 Mathematics Curriculum
1. Experiential Learning as advocated by David
Kolb is learning that occurs by making sense of
direct everyday experiences.
2. Situated Learning, theorized by Lave and
Wenger, is learning in the same context in which
concepts and theories are applied
[Link] Learning refers to learning that is facilitated by reflective
thinking.
[Link] is the theory that argues that knowledge is constructed
when the learner is able to draw ideas from his/her own experiences and
connect them to new ideas.
[Link] Learning puts premium on active learning achieved by
working with fellow learners as they all engage in a shared task.
[Link] Learning and Inquiry-based Learning (Bruner, 1961)
support the idea that students learn when they make use of personal
experiences to discover facts, relationships, and concepts.
Factors Problem solving
Affecting does not come easy for
many students. Some
Problem factors which could
affect problem solving
Solving includes:
1. Expertise. It is a strong factor that decided the ability
to both comprehend and generate innovative solutions
to a novel and complex problems.
2. Knowledge Base. The richer the knowledge base, the
more smoothly and effectively the cognitive processes
operate.
3. Memory. Working memory capacity can help or
hinder people as they go about solving problems of
varying types.
4. Representations. Using external representations through
symbols and objects to illustrate a learner’s knowledge and the
structure of that knowledge can facilitate complex cognitive
processing during problem-solving.
5. Problem Solving Strategies. Problem solving strategies
allow problem solvers to simplify complex problems.
6. Speed and Accuracy. These are important in all mathematical
calculations.
7. Metacognitive Skills. Studies have confirmed the role of
metacognition in problem solving.
Factors and
Skills
Involved in
Problem
Solving
1. Concepts and Facts in Problem Solving.
Learners need a deep understanding of algebraic,
geometric, statistical concepts and facts to solve
challenging mathematical problems.
2. Skills in Problem Solving.
Basic mathematical skills such as solving
equations and inequalities are necessary for
mathematical problem solving.
3. Thinking and Reasoning in Problem Solving. Critical
thinking is needed in all steps of problem solving.
4. Attitude and Problem Solving. Learners must persevere and
take the risk of failing in solving a given problem.
5. Metacognition and Problem Solving. Metacognition refers
to a learner’s knowledge about his or her process of cognition
and the ability to control and monitor those processes as a
function of the feedback the learner receives via outcomes of
learning.
6. Group Work and Problem Solving. Experience shows that
group work is very useful in solving problems in general.
Obstacles in Problem-Solving
[Link] Fixedness: This term refers to the
tendency to view problems only in their customary
manner
[Link] or Misleading Information: When you
are trying to solve a problem, it is important to
distinguish between information that is relevant to
the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty
solutions.
3. Assumptions: When dealing with a problem,
people often make assumptions about the constraints
and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.
4. Mental Set: Another common problem-solving
obstacle is known as a mental set, which is the
tendency people have to only use solutions that have
worked in the past rather than looking for alternative
ideas
Lessons from Research Stanic and Kilpatrick
(1989) identify three
Studies on
general themes that
Implementing Problem have historically
Solving The Role of characterized the role
of problem solving in
Problem Solving in school mathematics.
School Mathematics These are :
Problem solving as context. Problem solving has been used
as justification for teaching mathematics. To persuade students
of the value of mathematics, the content is related to real-world
problem-solving experiences.
Problem solving as a skill. Advocates of this view teach
problem solving skills as a separate topic in the curriculum,
rather than throughout as a means for developing conceptual
understanding and basic skills.
Problem solving as art. In his classic book, How To Solve
It, George Polya (1945) introduced the idea that problem
solving could be taught as a practical art, like playing the piano
or swimming.
Principles for Teaching Problem Solving
1. Model a useful problem-solving method. Problem solving
can be difficult and sometimes tedious.
2. Teach within a specific context. Teach problem-solving
skills in the context in which they will be used.
3. Help students understand the problem. In order to solve
problems, students need
to define the end goal.
4. Take enough time. When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough
time for: understanding the problem and defining the goal, both
individually and as a class; dealing with questions from you and your
students; making, finding, and fixing mistakes; and solving entire
problems in a single session.
5. Ask questions and make suggestions. Ask students to predict “what
would happen if …” or explain why something happened.
6. Link errors to misconceptions. Use errors as evidence of
misconceptions, not carelessness or random guessing.
Challenges of
Teaching Problem
Solving
1. Teaching non-routine problem solving is difficult.
True problem solving is as demanding on the teacher as it is
on the students.
Teaching problem solving is difficult (Schoenfeld, 1992).
Burkhardt (1988) states that teaching problem solving is
difficult for teachers mathematically, pedagogically, and
personally.
Many elementary teachers are trained as generalists and
often do not have the strong mathematical background
required to teach from a problem-solving approach.
Pedagogically, teachers must make complex decisions about
the level of difficulty of the problems assigned, when to give
help, and how to give assistance that supports students’
success while ensuring that they retain ownership of their
solution strategies.
Teachers will sometimes find themselves in the
uncomfortable position of not knowing the solution.
Often, teachers are asked to teach mathematics they never
encountered in school and in a way that differs from how
they were taught.
2. Non-routine problems are difficult for students.
Non-routine, open-ended problems are often, by their
nature, difficult for many students.
Some students had difficulty knowing how to get
started in solving problems.
Knowing that students struggle in frustration is often
very difficult for teachers.
• Knowing when to give hints and how much help to give
requires striking a delicate balance that comes with
experience and knowing students’ capabilities.
[Link] are concerned about content coverage.
Teachers are generally expected to cover large
areas of content each year.
It is essential that content and skills be integrated
within the context of problem solving.
4. Textbooks present few non-routine problems.
Many textbooks do not provide an adequate
number of non-routine problems from which
teachers can choose.
Many teachers are not comfortable straying from
the scope and sequence the textbook provides,
but they must develop the confidence to search
out and develop other materials to supplement
their texts.
THANK
YOU
