Aircraft Performance
Discusses the factors that affect aircraft performance, which include: 1. the aircraft weight, 2. atmospheric conditions, 3. runway environment, and 4. the fundamental physical laws governing the forces acting on an aircraft
Aircraft Performance
The performance or operational information section of the Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilots Operating Handbook (AFM/ POH) contains the operating data for the aircraft; that is, the data pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing. The use of this data in flying operations is mandatory for safe and efficient operation. Considerable knowledge and familiarity of the aircraft can be gained through study of this material.
Aircraft Performance
Weight & Balance
Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any aircraft is critical to flight safety. Operating above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of an aircraft and adversely affects its performance. Operation with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits results in control difficulty .
Weight and Balance
The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft down toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight and sustains an aircraft in flight. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil is limited by the airfoil design, angle of attack (AOA), airspeed, and air density. To assure that the lift generated is sufficient to counteract weight, loading an aircraft beyond the manufacturers recommended weight must be avoided. If the weight is greater than the lift generated, the aircraft may be incapable of flight.
Weight and Balance
Operating an aircraft within the weight and balance limits is critical to flight safety. Pilots must ensure that the CG is and remains within approved limits for all phases of a flight. Additional information on weight, balance, CG, and aircraft stability can be found in FAA-H-8083-1, Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook. Those pilots flying helicopters or gyroplanes should consult the Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-21, for specific information relating to aircraft type.
Aircraft Performance
It must be emphasized that the manufacturers information and data furnished in the AFM/POH is not standardized. Some provide the data in tabular form, while others use graphs.
The performance data may be presented on the basis of standard atmospheric conditions, pressure altitude, or density altitude. The performance information in the AFM/POH has little or no value unless the user recognizes those variations and makes the necessary adjustments. To be able to make practical use of the aircrafts capabilities and limitations, it is essential to understand the significance of the operational data. The pilot must be cognizant of the basis for the performance data, as well as the meanings of the various terms used in expressing performance capabilities and limitations. Since the characteristics of the atmosphere have a major effect on performance, it is necessary to review two dominant factorspressure and temperature.
Airspace Classification
Airspace in the United States is designated as follows: 1. Class A. Generally, airspace from 18,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) up to and including flight level (FL) 600. 2. Class B. Generally, airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations busiest airports in terms of airport operations or passenger enplanements. 3. Class C. Generally, airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. 4. Class D. Generally, that airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower. 5. Class E. Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and is controlled airspace, then it is Class E airspace. Class E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled airspace. 6. Class G. Airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. Class G airspace is essentially uncontrolled by ATC except when associated with a temporary control tower
Aircraft Performance
Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as its land and water. However, air differs from land and water inasmuch as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape. Air, like any other fluid, is able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas will completely fill any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.
The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. Most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
Atmospheric Pressure
There are various kinds of pressure. It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift the aircraft, and actuates some of the most important flight instruments in the aircraft such as the altimeter, the airspeed indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator, and the manifold pressure gauge. Air is very light, it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Because it has weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). The density of air has significant effects on the aircrafts performance. As air becomes less dense, it reduces: Power, because the engine takes in less air. Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air. Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils.
Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure of the atmosphere varies with time and altitude. Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea level is a surface temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (F) or 15 degrees Celsius (C) and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) or 1013.2 milli bars (mb). A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the temperature decreases at the rate of approximately 3.5 F or 2 C per thousand feet up to 36,000 feet. Above this point, the temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A standard pressure lapse rate is one in which pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain to 10,000 feet. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established this as a worldwide standard, and it is often referred to as International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any temperature or pressure that differs from the standard lapse rates is considered nonstandard temperature and pressure. Adjustments for nonstandard temperatures and pressures are provided on the manufacturers performance charts.
Since all aircraft performance is compared and evaluated with respect to the standard atmosphere, all aircraft instruments are calibrated for the standard atmosphere. Thus, certain corrections must apply to the instrumentation, as well as the aircraft performance, if the actual operating conditions do not fit the standard atmosphere. In order to account properly for the nonstandard atmosphere, certain relatedterms must be defined.
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard atmosphere. If the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the altitude indicated is the pressure altitudethe altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure. The SDP is a theoretical level where the pressure of the atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg and the weight of air is 14.7 psi. As atmospheric pressure changes, the SDP may be below, at, or above sea level. Pressure altitude is important as a basis for determining aircraft performance, as well as for assigning flight levels to aircraft operating at above 18,000 feet. The pressure altitude can be determined by either of two methods:
1. 2. By setting the barometric scale of the altimeter to 29.92 "Hg and reading the indicated altitude, or By applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude according to the reported altimeter setting.
Density Altitude
The more appropriate term for correlating aerodynamic performance in the nonstandard atmosphere is density altitudethe altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular value of air density. Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower density altitude), aircraft performance increases. Conversely, as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft performance decreases. A decrease in air density means a high density altitude; an increase in air density means a lower density altitude. Density altitude is used in calculating aircraft performance. Under standard atmospheric condition, air at each level in the atmosphere has a specific density; under standard conditions, pressure altitude and density altitude identify the same level. Density altitude, then, is the vertical distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which a given density is to be found. The computation of density altitude must involve consideration of pressure (pressure altitude) and temperature. Since aircraft performance data at any level is based upon air density under standard day conditions, such performance data apply to air density levels that may not be identical to altimeter indications. Under conditions higher or lower than standard, these levels cannot be determined directly from the altimeter. Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure altitude, and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard temperature variations. Since density varies directly with pressure, and inversely with temperature, a given pressure altitude may exist for a wide range of temperature by allowing the density to vary. However, a known density occurs for any one temperature and pressure altitude. The density of the air, of course, has a pronounced effect on aircraft and engine performance. Regardless of the actual altitude at which the aircraft is operating, it will perform as though it were operating at an altitude equal to the existing density altitude. For example, when set at 29.92 "Hg, the altimeter may indicate a pressure altitude of 5,000 feet. According to the AFM/POH, the ground run on takeoff may require a distance of 790 feet under standard temperature conditions. However, if the temperature is 20 C above standard, the expansion of air raises the density level. Using temperature correction data from tables or graphs, or by deriving the Altitude
Density Altitude
density altitude with a computer, it may be found that the density level is above 7,000 feet, and the ground run may be closer to 1,000 feet. Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High density altitude refers to thin air while low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions that result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low atmospheric pressures, high temperatures, high humidity, or some combination of these factors. Lower elevations, high atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity are more indicative of low density altitude. Using a flight computer, density altitude can be computed by inputting the pressure altitude and outside air temperature at flight level. Density altitude can also be determined by referring to the table and chart in Figures 10-3 and 10-
