REPRESENTING

LANGUAGE:
The Written Word
Nur Syafaáh

Doctorate Program of Languange Education State University of

Semarang
OUTLINE • Brief History of Writing
• The Development of
English Spelling
• The Development of
English Punctuation
• Writing Rule,
Standardization, and
Authority
• Conclusion
BrIef story of writing
the system of written language
• logogram/logograph symbol that
represents a word or a morpheme
• phonogram symbol based on sound
• ideogram symbol that represents an
idea
• pictogram pictures or symbols that
represent an object or idea
• syllabary system of writing based on
syllable sounds
• alphabet system of writing based on
individual sounds
 logogram/logograph
Pictogram Ideogram

Mathematical Symbols Emoji Symbols

Technological Icon

Currency Symbols
Traffic Sign Mobile Apps
 phonogram
Syllabary
Japanese Hiragana and Katakana:
• Each character represents a syllable rather
than an individual sound. For example:
⚬ あ (a), い (i), う (u) (Hiragana)
⚬ ア (a), イ (i), ウ (u) (Katakana)

Cherokee Syllabary:
• Each symbol represents a syllable, such as:
⚬ Ꭰ for the sound "a" https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/language-conflict-and-
language-rights/role-of-writing-systems
⚬ Ꭱ for the sound "e"
 phonogram
Alphabet
• the first writing system was the
Sumerian script, a cuneiform which cuneiform
Phoenician alphabet
formed the basis of all alphabetic
writing.
• gradually replaced by the Phoenician
alphabet, a consonantal system, or
abjad.
Coptic alphabet
• Semitic writing today (for example, the Hebrew alphabet
Arabic and Hebrew writing systems) still
represent consonant sounds only (for the
most part).
• the Greek system, which in turn is the
ancestor of the Latin, Cyrillic, and Coptic Cyrillic alphabet Latin alphabet Arabic alphabet
systems.
 The Development of English Spelling
Old English Writing and Spelling

• Script styles developed in early Middle Ages Roman Empire provinces,

including British Isles, after Roman invasion in the first century BCE
and lasting until the fifth century BCE.
• The Romans introduced Latin writing and therefore the Latin
alphabet; both all but disappeared when the Romans left.
• In the late fifth century, Germanic invaders arrived, largely illiterate
and rarely writing. They used a system derived from the Latin
alphabet, called the futhorc or futhark, consisting of 24 letters,
with five to nine added during the early Old English period.
• After the Christianization of England, the Latin alphabet became more
prevalent, although some runes persisted.
Old English Writing and Spelling
futhorc or futhark • runic letters were used throughout the Old English
period: the æ, called ash; the ð, called eth; the þ,
called thorn; the ƿ, called wynn; and the ȝ, called
yogh.
• In Old English, more words were spelled as they
were pronounced than in Present-Day English. For
example, the initial “silent” letters in words now
spelled with <kn>, <gn>, and <wr> were all
pronounced in Old English (cneow, ‘knee’, gnӕt
‘gnat’, and wrӕcca ‘wretch’).
• Old English also had variable spellings: the letter
<c> was pronounced [k] before back vowels
(carfulnes ‘anxiety’) but as [č] before front vowels
(cild ‘child’)
• Old English books were written on vellum, or sheets
of carefully prepared calfskin.
 middle English Writing and Spelling
• The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 introduced French and Latin influences to
English, leading to numerous word additions and spelling changes.
⚬ For example, the French letters <j> and <v> were introduced into English,
alternating with <i> and <u>; so, for example, time could show up spelled as tijm
or tiim, and judge could be iuge or juge.
⚬ the letters <q> and <z> were borrowed from French, so the Old English letter
combination <cw> gave way to <qu> (cwen became quene ‘queen’).
• Spelling changes were made to differentiate similar letters in old slanting script, as the
up and down pen strokes, called minims, were difficult to distinguish.
⚬ For example, several words spelled with <u> in Old English, such as lufian ‘love’
and cumin ‘come’, were spelled with <o> in Middle English since <u> was difficult
to distinguish from the pen strokes of the neighboring <f> and <m>,espectively.
• The letter yogh, <ȝ>, was replaced in Middle English by the French <g>, and words
spelled with <hw> were mostly switched to <wh> in the spelling: where, when, why,
what
 Modern English Spelling
• William Caxton, who introduced the printing press in 1476,
and other early printers contributed to spelling
idiosyncrasies, often changing words to fit lines, without
ensuring consistency.
• Renaissance scholars altered word spellings to reflect Latin
origins, aiming to strengthen English's reputation as a
worthy language influenced by ancient Greek and Roman
ideas.
⚬ For example, English got the word debt via French dette.
However, it had originally come from Latin debere ‘to
owe’, so the <b> was inserted into the English spelling https://www.onthisday.com/people/william-
caxton

sometime after 1400

• Sometimes the respellings had no effect on pronunciation
the <c> in indict (which came to English via French enditer
but was respelled with the <c>—“ re-Latinized”—around
 Modern English Spelling
• The new spelling did alter pronunciation such that the
modern spelling and pronunciation correspond; for
example, adventure came from Middle English aventure,
but the <d> (from Latin aduentas) was reinserted in
spelling and later in speech.
• The pronunciation of the letter [l] before a consonant is
currently in flux, having disappeared in Early Modern
English but returning in some words due to spelling
pronunciations.
⚬ Example the letter <l> in such words as half, calf, walk,
salmon,palm, folk, wolf, talk.
 Modern English Spelling
• False etymologies can lead to incorrect Latin spellings, such as the
15th-century addition of the word "island" from Old English "igland"
and related cognate "ealand" meaning "water-land."
• Pronunciation of words in Old English had distinct origins, with words
like light and knight having uvular fricative [x], and delite being
respelled delight until the sixteenth century.
• The Great Vowel Shift, influenced by Caxton's printing press, altered
English's seven tense vowels to seven different ones, leading to a
gradual standardization process and many pre-Great Vowel Shift
spellings.
 Attempts at Spelling Reform
• Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary, followed by Benjamin Franklin's
phonetically based system, sparked Noah Webster's interest in an
American spelling system, resulting in numerous American English
spellings.
⚬ give would be giv, built would be bilt, speak would be speek, and
key would be kee. Though these suggestions obviously didn’t take
hold, many of Webster’s American English spellings did: colour →
color, honour → honor, defence → defense, draught → draft, and
plough → plow, to name a few
• The American Simplified Spelling Board proposed 300 new words in
1906, supported by Carnegie and Roosevelt. Despite a resurgence in
the 1930s, it stalled due to funding issues and the death of Carnegie.
 Attempts at Spelling Reform
• The logical, practical, and social reasons for maintaining our current
spelling system are numerous. Here are some of them:
⚬ Language continues to change, so whatever spelling system is
introduced will have to continue to adapt to the spoken language
⚬ What system would be used?
⚬ What dialect would be followed?
⚬ Would kids learn both the old and the new systems
 The Development of English
Punctuation
Frustrated by his own inability
Writing involves more than just
to write (though he could read),
learning the alphabet and
the Emperor Charlemagne is
spellings; it also involves
credited with initiating many
arranging words on the page,
starting with a capital letter
reforms in the written system,
and ending with a period, and including placing a space
indenting the first word of a between letters, a bigger space
new paragraph. Some features between words, and an even
of written English reflect oral bigger one between sentences.
language, while others are part
of the "grammar" of writing.
 early punctuation
• Word spaces were introduced around the eighth century BCE,
and punctuation marks were used to indicate pauses, emphasis,
and breathing. Early Old English texts were handwritten and
had no standard punctuation, leading to variability in
punctuation. Scribes used points for rhetorical breaks and
suggested breathing, while semicolons indicated longer breaks
and punctus elevatus for shorter ones.
• Spaces were used between words in compounds, prefixes and
suffixes, and syllables. Prepositions, pronouns, and adverbs https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/
the-ancient-roots-of-punctuation

were attached to following words, and word breaks were at

syllable breaks. Proper names were not capitalized, and nouns
were written with determiners and prepositions. Middle English
punctuation was sparse, with a point or period sometimes
appearing to mark the end of a sentence. Comma use became
more consistent during the Early Modern English period.
 Modern Punctuation
• English punctuation rules were established by the end of the 18th century but
are still not fixed. Post-printing, punctuation conventions became more
associated with grammatical structure than sound. Some punctuation is based
on phonological aspects of language, such as placing a period at the end of an
independent clause or a comma suggesting a pause. Other punctuation
marks, like hyphens, are based on grammatical information and do not reflect
oral language aspects.
 Modern Punctuation
• Punctuation is used to prevent misreading or mispronunciation of words, such

as prefixes attached to root morphemes.

• A hyphen is usually used to separate the prefix from the root, but some editors

or publishing companies use other techniques.

• Some punctuation rules are in flux, such as the use of apostrophes, which are
in a state of transition since the seventeenth century. Apostrophes are
commonly used to mark plurals, proper names, and plural anachronyms, but
they are considered errors due to linguistic logic. Inconsistencies in apostrophe
use, particularly in possessives with names ending in, can also occur.
 Punctuation “Errors”
• run-on/fused sentence writing error in which two or more
independent clauses are joined without punctuation.
⚬ The movie was filmed in Wyoming in winter it must have been
very cold.
• writing error in which two or more independent clauses are joined
with a comma rather than a period.
⚬ The movie was filmed in Wyoming in winter, it must have been
very cold.
• sentence fragment phrase or clause that is punctuated as a
sentence (with a capital letter and a period) but is not a complete
sentence
 Writing Rules, Standardization, and
• Importance of Standardization, punctuation and spelling are crucial for language
Authority
standardization, with uniform rules taught in U.S. schools, such as capitalizing the first letter
of sentences and using periods.
• Influence on Oral Language, while writing rules influence oral language, the oral system is
less susceptible to standardization compared to the written system, leading to variations in
spoken language.
• Language Authority, Who controls the writing system and determines standards, including
the creators of grammar-checkers, handbooks, and dictionaries.
• The introduction of the printing press in England in 1476 significantly advanced the
standardization process of the English language through mass production of texts.
• Standardization of a language typically involves factors such as the publication of
dictionaries, universal schooling, teaching the language to non-native speakers, and the
establishment of a literary canon.
• The selection of a standard language can be influenced by social and political factors, with
English being designated as the official language in many countries, particularly in Africa,
despite being the native language of very few people in those regions.
 the power of dictionary
• Lexicographers play a crucial role in
standardizing language by compiling
dictionaries, determining correct spellings,
pronunciations, and definitions based on actual
usage.
• Dictionaries reflect common and preferred
language usage, including labels for words that
may be archaic, slang, or regional,
https://teachingenglishwithoxford.oup.com/2022/09/13/oxford-advanced-learners-dictionary-now-and-then/

acknowledging variations in pronunciation and

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a
meaning.
comprehensive historical dictionary of English,
⚬ Fain (adj.): Archaic – "willing or glad to do providing not only words and their definitions but
something." also the history of words and their meanings. It was
⚬ Lift (n.): Regional – Common in British proposed by the London Philological Society 150
years ago and supported by Oxford University Press.
English for "elevator."
The dictionary has grown over time, with 3 million
• Dictionaries must adapt to changes in language
quotations and updates every 3 months.
over time, maintaining trust in their accuracy
and relevance while documenting evolving
definitions and pronunciations.
 Writing Registers and Forms

We represent speech in writing Writing is not a transcription of

(called indirect speech) with speech, but it reflects
quotation marks conversations in various ways.
Written language provides cues for
reading aloud, making it more
“Any language is the supreme
expressive. Writing also reflects
achievement of a uniquely human oral discourse patterns and
collective genius, as divine and features, despite the absence of
unfathomable a mystery as a conventions in written language.
living organism.” wrote Michael hi j
Krauss (1992) WOW great job on the pres REALLY
kool
“No matter how eloquently a dog u rock
b
may bark, he cannot tell you that
his parents were poor but
honest,” wrote Bertrand Russell
(1948).
 Electronic English
, • Crystal (2001) introduces the term "netspeak" to describe
the informal and unique written conventions of Internet
communication, encompassing various terms like netlish
and cyberspeak.
• There is significant concern, particularly among
educators, that the rise of netspeak may negatively
impact children's writing abilities, leading to poor spelling
and disregard for formal writing rules.
• The fear surrounding new forms of communication is not
new; similar anxieties were present during the
introduction of the printing press in the fifteenth century,
which was viewed as a threat to social order and
authority.
 Electronic English
emoticon typographic symbol or combination of symbols used to
convey emotion: :-).

Emotion icons, often used in electronic communication, stand for

feelings rather than words. They are created using combinations
of punctuation marks to create faces. Word-processing programs
and websites automatically convert certain keystroke
combinations into emoticons. The first smiley appeared in 1982
to clarify written words without conversational clues like tone and
facial expression.
 Written Standards in Flux
, • Informal language deviations from standardized rules are
prevalent in advertising and other forms of
communication. McDonald's used the phrase "i'm lovin' it"
to represent an informal, happy restaurant. Misspelled or
respelled words, known as allegro speech, are also used in
public spaces to indicate informality.

allegro speech informal respelling of a word • The spellings of certain words are currently in
transition, with many viewed as nonstandard but
intentional, primarily used in informal writing.
Language change is gradual, and variations coexist
before one becomes dominant.
⚬ For instance, while the use of nite is now
limited, it may grow with time and eventually
replace spelling night in the language.
 Written Standards in Flux
• The standardization of compound words is
also evolving, with variations in how they
are written (e.g., with spaces, hyphens, or as
single words). Dictionaries may provide
preferred forms but acknowledge
alternatives, reflecting the trend of
frequently used combinations moving from • Dialectal language variation is represented in
two words to one, often passing through a print for various purposes, influencing
hyphenated stage. inferences about the speaker's race, ethnicity,
⚬ In the nineteenth century, writers education, age, and class. Print representations
routinely, though not consistently, can also be manipulated for rhetorical effect,
hyphenated such words as rail-road, to- sometimes causing negative or discriminatory
morrow, to-day, in-to, and so on.We now attitudes. example : He sez rather than He
write many compound prepositions as says.
single words: into, onto, heretofore, • eye dialect intentional nonstandard spelling
therefore, nevertheless, whereas, that reflects character more than pronunciation
whereupon
 The Effects of Print

• The printed word helps children understand that there isn't always a direct
correlation between sound and symbol, aiding in consistent pronunciation.
• Early exposure to print reduces lasting variations in morphology and syntax in
children.
• Familiarity with print at an early age significantly enhances children's reading
and writing skills, leading to initiatives like pediatricians distributing free books
and national campaigns promoting early literacy.
• literacy significantly influences our
understanding of correctness in language, as
children often learn formal language and
specific phrases through reading rather than
spoken communication.
 The Effects of Print
• natural pronunciation often remains unchanged despite spelling conventions,
highlighting that certain pronunciations, like "know" or "colonel," deviate from expected
phonetic representations and are not adopted.

• only about 25% of the world's languages have written forms, and while writing can have
cultural and political implications, the complexities of language do not depend on
writing. Newly developed writing systems for unwritten languages face challenges,
including the adoption of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and community
biases towards existing spelling conventions.

• the sophistication of oral traditions in languages that have only recently been written
down, such as many Native American languages. It points out the importance of
recognizing and analyzing these oral literary traditions, which possess their own
narrative structures and literary qualities, contributing to the broader understanding of
global literary heritage.
 conclusion
The study explores the written representation of language, revealing that

writing down languages is a human invention, with only about one-quarter

of the world's languages having written systems. The study also explores

the differences between spoken and written language, such as the English

spelling system's phonetic and nonphonetic features, and the ongoing

changes in spelling and punctuation standards.

THANK YOU