Child Abuse and Its Impact on Students’ Psychological Well Being in NDU Municipality

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)
Volume 7 Issue 6, November-December 2023 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD61212 | Volume – 7 | Issue – 6 | Nov-Dec 2023 Page 411
Child Abuse and Its Impact on Students’
Psychological Well-Being in NDU Municipality
Neba Vernat Neh (Ph.D)1
, Lukong Evelyn Shulika (Ph.D)2
1
Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Bamenda,
Higher Teacher Training College, Bambili, Cameroon
2
Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Bamenda, Bambili, Cameroon
ABSTRACT
This study was designed to investigate “The Impact of Child Abuse
on Students’ Psychological Well-being” in Ndu Municipality, North
west Region of Cameroon. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate
the impact of sexual, emotional abuse and child neglect on student’s
psychological well-being in secondary schools in Ndu Municipality.
A mixed-methods design was adopted for the study. Questionnaires
for students and interview guide for teachers were used for the
collection of data and a purposive sampling technique was used to
select respondents. A sample of 150 students were selected and
administered the questionnaire and 27 teachers were interviewed.
Data was analyzed quantitatively with the aid of frequency count and
percentages, hypothesis tested using Spearman Rho and Chi square.
Qualitatively data was analysed using thematic analysis. Finally,
findings were presented using frequency distribution tables and
charts and inferential statistic was presented, 95% level of confidence
interval with alpha at 0.05 levels accepting only 5% margin of errors.
Findings affirmed the fact that there was a significant and positive
relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological well-
being (P=0.000<0.001, R=0.170***). Similarly, the findings equally
revealed that there was a significant and positive relationship
between emotional abuse and students’ psychological well-being
(P=0.000<0.001, R=0.353***). Also, findings also showed that, there
was a significant and positive relationship between child neglect and
students’ psychological well-being (P=0.000<0.001, R=0.346***).
The findings indicated that, child abuse has an impact on students’
psychological well-being in Ndu Municipality. Based on the findings,
some recommendations were made that government should ensure
proper creation, implementation and dissemination of policies to
address child abuse both in schools and homes. Also, parents should
adopt positive values and show love towards their children in order to
boost students’ psychological well-being.
How to cite this paper: Neba Vernat
Neh | Lukong Evelyn Shulika "Child
Abuse and Its Impact on Students’
Psychological Well-Being in NDU
Municipality" Published in International
Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research
and Development
(ijtsrd), ISSN:
2456-6470,
Volume-7 | Issue-6,
December 2023,
pp.411-429, URL:
www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd61212.pdf
Copyright © 2023 by author (s) and
International Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research and Development
Journal. This is an
Open Access article
distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
KEYWORDS: Child Abuse, physical,
sexual and emotional abuse,
Students’ Psychological Well-being
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO
THE STUDY
Students’ psychological wellbeing is determined by a
number of factors which are physical health, exercise
and nutrition, mental and emotional health, relation
with self and self-acceptance and positive relationship
with others. This therefore means that, a conducive
environment which determines or promotes positive
physical health, exercises and good nutrition, positive
mental and emotional health and, high self-esteem
and good relationship with others will lead to a
positive psychological wellbeing and vice versa. This
means that students’ environment either positive or
negative, could have bearing on their psychological
wellbeing. According to Ramez et al (2009), the most
devastating of the environmental factor is child abuse.
The increasing rate of child abuse in our
contemporary time is a thing of concern to the
researchers as in present days, there has been up rise
on child abuse cases in many countries and Cameroon
IJTSRD61212

International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
in recent years has cried aloud due to the high rate of
child abuse going on in secondary schools and in
various forms. Journal du Cameroon (2020) in Neba
(2021) published an article reviewing that, a 15year
old form three student of the Government High
school Nkolbisson in Yaounde, stabbed to death his
mathematics teacher at the school premises. Yaboa,
reported that a student was stabbed in Lycee
Polyvalent on Tuesday October 13th
2015 and only
survive after a successful surgery (Cameroon
Tribune, 2015). Moreover, the Cameroon radio
television (CRTV) on the 2nd
of April 2019 reported a
similar story that happened in GBHS Deido Douala of
the stabbing to death of a form five student on the 29th
of March 2019 at the school premises. Teachers are
not left out in the perpetrating of abuses on students
in Cameroon. Cameroon news agency (CAN) reveals
the confession of a teacher who sodomised his 14-
year-old student to death in Madja Bangante, West
region of Cameroon (CNA, 2020).
Child abuse refers to any situation dangerous to
physical or emotional health as a result of parents’,
guardians’ or other care takers’ behaviour (Obekpa,
2001). According to Taylor and Steward (2011), child
abuse is any action or inaction on the part of a parent,
guardian or caregiver that may result in death, serious
physical or emotional injury, sexual abuse or
exploitation, or an act or failure to act which present
an imminent risk of serious harm. Mcloy and Keen
(2013) viewed child abuse as action or inaction of
parents, guardian or caregiver that causes injury,
death, emotional harm or risk of serious harm to a
child. Child abuse therefore can be defined as any
behaviour displayed by the parents, guardian or
caregiver, either intentionally or by the negligence of
parents or guardians that can lead to loss of life,
physical or psychological harm, sexual harassment
and others to an innocent child. Child abuse includes
all types of physical and or emotional ill-treatment,
sexual abuse, neglect and commercial or other
exploitation which results in actual or potential harm
to the child. Child abuse can be physical abuse,
sexual abuse, emotional abuse and child neglect
(Altafim & Linhares, 2016).
Emotional abuse is persisted or extreme thwarting of
the child’s basic emotional needs such as parental acts
that are harmful because they are insensitive to the
child’s development (Bernette et al (1998). Emotional
abuse unlike many other forms of violence is a non-
physical attack that is common among school
children. Emotional abuse impedes children’s
inability to express their own emotions clearly and to
read others’ emission accurately. It degrades self-
worth and interferes with development and
productivity of a child. According to Glaser (2002),
emotional abuse can be defined as a relationship
between a child and a caregiver, which is
characterized by a consistent pattern of harmful
interactions for the child without including acts of
physical or sexual abuse. Secondary school children
are likely to experience emotional abuse in family and
other social contexts, such as in their school.
According to Brandenburg (1997 sexual abuse
involve subjecting someone to unwanted sexual
attention. She further explains that the vulnerability of
students to sexual abuse is particularly high and its
potential effects on them are severe. UNICEF (2003)
defines sexual abuse as contacts or interactions
between a child and an older or more knowledgeable
child or adult (a stranger, sibling or person in position
of authority, a parent or caregiver), When the child is
being used as an object of gratification for the older
child’s or adult sexual needs. These contacts or
interactions are carried out against the child using
trickery, bribes, threats or pressure.
Child neglect is another form of abuse looked at in
this study. The Child Abuse and Prevention
Treatment Act defines neglect as a failure to meet the
child’s basic needs e.g. not providing enough food,
shelter or basic supervision, necessary medical or
mental health treatment, adequate education.
According to Logan-Greene and Samanchin Jones
(2015), the in attention to neglect has been a problem
pattern that has continued over many years.
Psychological wellbeing is viewed by different people
in different ways. It’s described as the quality of life
of a person and it includes what lay people call
happiness, peace, fulfilment and life satisfaction
(Huppert et al., 2009). According to Joshanloo (2019)
in Neba et.al (2023) the term well-being, refers to an
optimal psychological state, is a construct that may be
defined from two complementary perspectives. The
hedonic perspective frames well-being as the positive
assessment of one’s own life, and it has been linked
to a sense of satisfaction and emotional stability, as
well as to subjective well-being. Eudemonic well-
being, which corresponds to psychosocial well-being,
emphasizes personal development, self-fulfillment,
exploring one’s own potential and planning for the
future, and contributing to the well-being of others
(Waterman, 2010; Adler & Seligman, 2016). They
have also found temporal differences between these
perspectives; over the long-term, psychological well-
being, rather than subjective, is a more robust
predictor of future well-being (Joshanloo, 2019).
Here, psychosocial well-being is examined using the
Ryff Scale of Measurement, which is based on Ryff’s
(1989) six-factor model with its dimensions of self-

acceptance, positive relations, autonomy,
environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose
in life.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Students’ psychological wellbeing entails knowing
themselves and being able to face the problems that
life throws at them. Schools and homes are excellent
places to assist students in their psychological
wellbeing by providing resources and conducive
environment which will foster positive psychological
growth in students. On the contrary, many homes and
schools have turned out to be abusive and impact
students’ attitude and learning negatively. Since child
abuse is usually perpetuated by parents, primary
caregivers or others, children are often left with no
one to turn to and they can experience traumatization
as they might lack social and emotional support to
cope with daily challenging situations. Individuals
that grow up in abusive environment, mostly suffer
from social dysfunction that prevents them from
interpreting their environment with healthy coping
skills. With psychological dependence, the individual
may rely on the alcohol and drug to cope with
problems. From observation in Ndu Municipality,
many students have low self-esteem, unable to form
positive relationships, lack knowledge about their
environment, lack sense of purpose and meaningless
life. This may result to frequent threats, bullying,
disrespect for others, drop-out and alcohol and drug
abuse. All these factors may exacerbate feelings of
hopelessness or negative expectancies towards
oneself and the future which have been associated
with negative outcomes such as violence and
depression. It is against this back drop that the
researcher sought to investigate the impact of child
abuse on the students’ psychological wellbeing in
some selected secondary schools in Ndu sub division.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Main objective
To investigate child abuse and its impact on students’
psychological wellbeing.
Specific objectives
 To examine the impact of sexual abuse on
students’ psychological wellbeing.
 To find out the impact of child neglect on
 To find out the impact of emotional abuse on
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Main Question
How does child abuse impact students’ psychological
wellbeing?
Specific Questions
 How does sexual abuse impact students’
psychological wellbeing?
 What is the impact of emotional abuse on
students’ psychological wellbeing?
 How does child neglect impact students’
psychological wellbeing?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Conceptually five concepts grounded this study. The
concept of adolescence, incivility, bullying, sexual
harassment and psychological wellbeing.
The Concept of Child Abuse
According to Gilbert et al (2009), child abuse and
neglect consist of any act of omission by a parent or
caregiver that result in harm, potential for harm, or
the threat of harm to a child (0-18 years of age) even
if the harm is unintentional. In the same sense child
abuse is defined as “act of omission carried out with
intent to cause immediate harm to the victim”. The
abusers perceive the harm caused as the ultimate goal
of their actions. A syndrome is created in surviving
victims known as battered child syndrome. Child
abuse is also known as child violence or violence
against children. Violence is understood to be “the
intentional use of force or physical power either by
act or threat, against oneself, another person or a
group or community, which causes or has substantial
likelihood of causing injuries, death, psychological
harm, developmental disruption, disturbances or
deprivation, (WHO, 2002).
The center for Disease Control in the US (2013)
defines child abuse as both acts of commission
(abuse) which include words or overt actions that
cause harm, potential harm or threat of harm to a
child, and act of omission (neglect) meaning, “the
failure to provide for a child’s basic physical,
emotional or educational needs or to protect a child
from harm or potential harm”. Axmaher (2004)
opined that child abuse is considered as any
maltreatment or neglect of the child by the parents or
care giver that result in non-accidental harm or injury
and which cannot be easily identified. In the same
light, Park K, (2014) viewed child abuse as a
parenting style in which parent hurt their children
physically or emotionally through excessive corporal
punishment or harsh language. Stuewig and
McCloskey (2005) found that parenting in childhood
(9 years old) increase parental rejection in
adolescence (15 years old) and leads to an increase in
depression in late adolescence (17 year old)
Child abuse according to the World Health
Organization (W.H.O, 2020), is all forms of physical
and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect
or negligent treatment or commercial or other

exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to
the child’s health, survival, development or dignity,
trust or power. It also says, “violence against children
includes all forms of violence against people under 18
years old, whether perpetuated by parents or other
caregivers, peers, and romantic partners or strangers”.
In the United States, the Center for Disease Control
and Prevention (C.D.C) refers to child abuse as both
acts of commission (abuse) which includes words or
overt actions that cause harm, potential harm or threat
of harm to a child; and acts of omission (neglect),
meaning the failure to provide for a child’s basic
physical, emotional or educational needs or to protect
a child from harm or potential harm”. The united
states federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment
Act defined Child abuse as “any recent act or failure
to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which
results in death, serious physical or emotional harm,
sexual abuse or exploitation” or “an act or failure to
act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm”
to a child., (National Child Abuse and Neglect
Training and Publication Project, 2014). As indicators
to this concept, the researcher proposes physical
abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and child
neglect as it will be conceptualized below.
Child abuse has a severe impact on a child’s current
and future functioning and development regarding his
or her emotional, social, cognitive behavioural and
physical well-being. Children who are abused are at
greater risk developing negative long-term physical,
mental, emotional and relational outcomes (Chitiyo &
Pietrantoni, 2019; Kim et al, 2020). Research has
linked child abuse to long-term negative physical and
emotional health outcomes such as risk taking
behaviours, chronic stress, anxiety and depression
(Carr et al, 2018). Child abuse has also been
associated with the development and diagnosis of
post-traumatic stress disorder (P.T.S.D), (De Bellis &
Thomas, (2003).
Stress, lack of parenting skills or family support make
the pressure of caring for children overwhelming and
can cause abuse. Early child bearing has been linked
to an increased risk for child abuse (Connelly &
Straus, 1992). Compared with other mothers for
example, younger mothers are more likely to have
children referred to Child Protective Services for
abuse and neglect or circumstances suggestive of
child abuse (Parish et al, 2011; Partnam-Hornsein &
Needell, 2011). Brown & Colleagues (1997) found
that the relative youth of a mother at child birth was a
significant risk factor for child abuse.
Another related cause or risk factor for child abuse is
that, parents who were abused or neglected during
their childhood are likely going to abuse or neglect
their own children. This notion of intergenerational
transmission was the premier development hypothesis
in the field of abuse (Garborino and Gilliam, 1980). A
number of studies have evidence to support a history
of child abuse as a risk factor for perpetuation of
abuse and neglect. Estimates are that, about one-third
of individuals who were abused will abuse their own
children with the proportion ranging from 25 to 35
percent (Jackson et al, 1999, Kaufman & Zigler,
1987).
The World Health Organisation (2020), defines child
abuse as all forms of physical and or emotional ill-
treatment, sexual abuse and neglect resulting to actual
or potential harm to a child. This definition gives four
categories of child abuse namely; physical abuse,
sexual abuse, emotional abuse and child neglect.
The Concept of Sexual Abuse
As to Finkelhor, (1979), Russel, (1983), Timnick,
(1985), child sexual abuse is any sexual experience
between a child, (usually under 16 years and an adult
of at least 5 years older than the child. It is any
penetration, nor matter how light of the vagina or
anus with any body parts or objects or oral sex,
penetration by a sex organ of another person without
the concern of the victim.
According to the sexual Harrassment Awareness and
Prevention Education Manual (2020), Sexual abuse
generally includes a repeated, unwanted verbal,
behavioural sexual advances, sexually explicit or
derogatory remarks, pictures, jokes or other non-
verbal matter and or statements that are sexually
offensive. Peters, Wyatt, and Finkelhol, (1986) adds
that, Sexual abuse refers to any unwanted or coerced
or tricked sexual interaction with a child. Such
unwanted sexual interaction may include; kissing,
fondling, oral sex, anal sex, sodomy and intercourse.
Effects of Sexual Abuse
According to the study by Stack, Bell, Boyer and
Connell (1997), adolescent girls who had been
sexually abused are more likely than non-abused girls
to be sexually active and to engage in risky sexual
behaviours. Child sexual abuse remains a significant
public health concern according to Maikovich-Fong
(2010), its consequences are devastating as sexually
abused victims show many internalized behavioural,
emotional and cognitive problems during childhood
and adulthood (Crome LD, Glodsmith Re (2010).
Research studies by Garnefski and Arends (1998),
Garnefski and Diekstra (1997) et al have consistently
found that adolescent survivors of sexual abuse report
greater depression and genera psychological distress,
more conduct problems and aggression, lower self-
esteem, and more substance abuse problems. This

reflects that, the adolescents’ psychological well-
being is affected.
Forms or Categories of Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse is classified into type one (contact
abuse), type two (noncontact abuse) as Peters
classification. Type one involves penetration abuse
like rape and sodomy as well as touching and
fondling of genitals, etc. Type two involves exposing
the child to pornography, talking sexually explicit
things and exhibition in front of the child (Barth J.,
Bermetzl, 2013).
Causes of Sexual Abuse
Although sexual abuse has been observed to exist
more in homes and school (Mfonobong and
Umobong, 2016), work and religious places (Gesinde
and abiodun, 2013), it is more prevalent in families
affected by complex socio-economic factors
including unemployment and poverty (Cry, C, Euser,
et al , 2010). Some parents and caregivers lack the
resources needed to provide basic needs for their
children and wards (Donna Wynd, 2013). Sometimes,
this lead to neglect and child labour and consequently
makes the child vulnerable to sexual exploitation
(Cry, C,Euser, et al, 2010). More so, low educational
attainment of parents and caregiver has been linked
with less understanding of issues associated with
parenting, (Donna Wynd, 2013).
Other risk factors which could predispose children to
being sexually abused includes living in a
dysfunctional home, domestic violence and assault as
well as single parenting (Goodyear-Brown, 2012),
inappropriate relationships and child trafficking
(NSPCC, 2013) use of social media including internet
and web forum without parental guide and
supervision (Leonard, 2010), and certain cultural
practices such as child marriage, use of daughters or
wife for sexual entertainment of guests, culturally
accepted child sex and beliefs which posit that sexual
contact with virgin cures impotence and other
diseases like Human Immune Deficiency Virus
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrom
(HIV/AIDS), Cromer LD, Goldsmith RE, 2010).
The Concept of Emotional Abuse
Emotional child abuse refers to acts such as ridiculing
a child, threatening to harm a child or other emotional
abuses (Mc Guigan and Pratt, 2001). In the same
light, as to Good win (2012), “constantly belittling,
threatening or ignoring children can be as damaging
to their mental health as physical or sexual abuse”. It
means constantly blaming the child, belittling or
barating the child, being unconcerned about the
child’s welfare and overtly rejection of child by
parents or caregivers (Mba, 2003). Health Canada
(1996) defines emotional abuse as including rejecting,
degrading, terrorizing, isolating, corrupting/exploiting
and denying emotional responsiveness of someone. It
is about one person maintaining power or control over
another person (Health Direct, n.d). it frequently
occurs between parents and children and also in
settings like schools.
The US Department of Justice (1996) has seen
emotion abusive traits as including causing fear by
intimidating, threatening, physical harm to self,
partner, children or partner’s family or friends,
forcing isolation from family, friends or school.
Brassard, Hart & Hardy (1993) view psychological
maltreatment as a repeated pattern of behavior that
conveys to children that they are worthless, unloved,
unwanted, or only of value in meetings another’s
needs. All of the behaviours be it by parents,
caregivers or other significant figures, seriously
interfere with a child’s cognitive, emotional,
psychological or social development.
Causes of Emotional Abuse
Straus & Field (2003) report that psychological
aggressions is a pervasive trait of American families;
“verbal attacks on children, like physical attacks are
so prevalent as to be just about universal” A study in
(2008) by English et al, found that fathers and
mothers were equally likely to be verbally aggressive
towards their children. Parents’ aggressiveness may
be associated with, addiction to drugs or alcohol,
relationship problems, family arguments, mental
health issues, just to name a few. Some parents may
emotionally and psychologically harm their children
because of stress, poor parenting skills, social
isolation, and lack of available resources or
inappropriate expectations of their children.
Categories of Emotional Abuse
Briere, (1992), Garborino et al, (1986), Hart and
Borssard, (1987) proposed the following as kinds of
emotional abuse, rejecting, degrading/devaluing,
terrorizing, isolating, corrupting, exploiting, denying
essential stimulation, emotional responsiveness or
availability and unreliable or inconsistent parenting.
When a parent or caregiver or others does not show a
child love, or make him or her feel wanted, secured,
and worthy, these actions results in emotional
deprivation. According to the University of
Tennessee (n.d), there are three forms of emotional
abuse: aggressing, denying and minimizing. These
can take different forms, at one end of the spectrum
are, insults or belittling words or actions while at the
other end can be total indifference and neglect(eg
calling names, telling you that you are stupid,
constantly rejecting your thoughts, ideas or opinions).

Effects of Emotional Abuse
According to Chitiyo et al, (2019), the psychological
impact of maltreatment on a child’s wellbeing might
vary depending on the type of abuse. For instance,
Nezlek et al (2012), found that the people who
regularly feel ignored also report lower level of self-
esteem, belonging and meaning in their lives, while
Hornor, (2012), found that children subjected to
emotional abuse then looses access to protective
elements such as healthy relationship, friends or other
family fathers, major negative results are quite likely.
Hence, children who have been abused are more
likely to develop melancholy, anxiety, Stress-related
disorders and post-traumatic disorders (Lambie, 2005;
Tillman et al, 2015; Usakli, 2012).
Cohen, Brown and Smailes, 2001; Ehrensaft et al,
2003; TI Herrenkohl, 2011 opined that, the emotional
pain and trauma associated with emotional abuse can
become later manifested in poor psychological
functioning and impairment during adolescence and
childhood. Victims of child emotional aggression are
also more likely than others to report physical health
problems such as arthritis, chronic ulcers, (Coke,
Smith, et al, 2000; Crouch, Milner, et al, 2010; Street
and Arias, 2001).
The Concept of Child Neglect
Neglect according to (Carr et al, 2018 and Chitiyo
and Pietrantoni, 2019) is the failure of an adult to
meet the needs of a child or adolescent (eg Clothing,
housing, food). Child neglect includes lack of
supervision, medical neglect, failure to provide food
or clothing, inadequate shelter, desertion,
abandonment, and other physical neglect (McGargan
and Pratt, 2001).
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA,
2003), defines child neglect as any act or failure to act
on the part of a parent or caregiver which results in
death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual
harassment or exploitation or an act or failure to act
which presents an imminent risk of serious harm to
the child. This term child neglect is considered as any
maltreatment or neglect of the child by parent or
caregiver that result in non-accidental harm or injury
and which cannot be easily identified (Axmaher,
2004). Child neglect usually takes various forms such
as; mild neglect which does not warrant a report to
Child Preventive Services (CPS) but might
necessitate a community based intervention eg. a
parents failing to instruct a child on the dangers of
playing with sharp objects. The next form is moderate
neglect which occurs when less severe neglect is
caused to the victim eg when a child consistently is
inappropriately dressed for the weather such as
moving bare footed during the rainy season. With
moderate neglect, C.P.S may be involved. The last
form is severe or long-term neglect when harm has
been done to the child e.g a child with asthma who
has not received appropriate medications over a long
period of time, be it mild, moderate or severe, child
neglect leaves the victims with serious negative
consequences such as; since child neglect is often
perpetuated by parents, teachers, primary caregivers
and others, children are often left with no one to turn
to and they can experience traumatization as they
might lack social and emotional support to cope with
such situations.
Several large scale studies have supported that
children subjected to maltreatment may suffer from
depression, anxiety, stress related disorders and post-
traumatic disorders (Lambrie, 2005); Tilllman et al,
2015, Usakli, 2012) e.g a study by Widom (1995)
showed that children (n-1196) who were maltreated
before the age of 12 and assessed at age 29, had a
post-traumatic disorders diagnosis. Existing research
shows that, those individuals with a post-traumatic
disorders are more likely to have committed suicide
(Gilbert et al, 2009), and More to have alcohol and
drug problems (Widom, Weiler and Cottler, 1999).
Neglect is practiced by some teachers in schools who
turn to have some lukewarm attitude towards
particular students. This can also be as a result of
anger, laziness, discrimination just to name a few
which will go a long way to affect those students’
psychological well-being negatively.
The Concept of Psychological Wellbeing
WHO (2014) defines well-being as a state of “health,
which is a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of
diseases or infirmity”. She further expands that, well-
being refers to a state in which an individual realizes
his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal
stresses of life, can work productively and is able to
contribute to his or her community (as stated in
Graham et al, 2011). Gross & Munoz, 1995, Ruff;
1995, Ryan and Deci, 2001, Community
Translational Science Team (CTST), 2016 define
psychological well-being as including hedonic
(enjoyment, pleasure) and eudaimonic (meaning
fulfilment), happiness as well as resilience (coping
emotion regulation) and healthy problem solving.
The two important components in psychological
wellbeing are hedonic and eudaimonic. Hedonic well-
being refers to the subjective feelings of happiness. It
comprises of two components, an effective
component (high positive effects and low negative
affects) and a cognitive, component (satisfaction with
life). It is proposed that an individual experiences

happiness when live affect and satisfaction with life
are both high (Carruthers and Hood, 2004).
Eudaimonic well-being on the other hand refers to the
purposeful aspect of psychological well-being. The
psychologist Carol Ryff has developed a model that
breaks down eudaimonic well-being in to six
components of psychological well-being, namely;
self-acceptance, environmental mastery, positive
relation with others, personal growth, purpose in life
and autonomy.
Students’ well-being encompasses the overall health
of students including their social, mental, physical
and emotional health. Elements of psychological
well-being includes a sense of balance in emotions,
thoughts, social relationships and pursuits which
necessitates active engagement of self-control
processes such as; emotion regulation (Brown and
Ryan, 2003; Community Translational Science Team,
2016; Feller et al, 2018; NIH Report 2018).
Accumulating evidence has supported a causal
relationship between greater psychological well-being
and overall health and improved diseases- specific
outcomes (Ong, 2010; Diener & Chan, 2011; DcStem
et al, 2013).
Kiecolt Glaser et al, 2002; Howell et al, 2007; Diener
and Chan, 2011; Feller et al, 2018 further exemplified
that, changing states of well-being by increasing
positive emotions and decreasing negative emotions
result in salytary physiological biological changes e.g
inflammation, immune functioning and contributes to
diverse positive health outcomes e.g cardiovascular
health. Students who portray positive psychological
wellbeing will participate in activities that are
significant and meaningful to them, possess a sense of
emotional control, experience sense of belonging,
being part of positive connections and being regarded,
cherished and pushed to achieve success. Meanwhile,
students who portray negative psychological well-
being will be unable to cope with stress, cannot
cultivate healthy relationships and will suffer from
poor academic performance and even achievement in
life.
Theoretical Review
Hierarchy of needs theory – Abraham Maslow
(1943) situated this study. Maslow's hierarchy of
needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic
needs at the bottom (Maslow, 1943). Maslow used the
terms "physiological", "safety", "belonging and love",
"esteem", "self-actualization", and "self-
transcendence" to describe the pattern through which
human motivations generally move. The goal of
Maslow's Theory is to attain the sixth level or stage:
self-actualization needs where in a person must meet
the basic or physiological need need at the bottom
before moving to the highest need (self-actualisation)
at the top (Maslow, 1954).
Figure 1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Source: Adapted from Seong, 2018
An interpretation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at
the bottom, physiological needs. Physiological needs
are the physical requirements for human survival. If
these requirements are not met, the human body
cannot function properly and will ultimately fail.
Physiological needs are thought to be the most
important; should be met first. Air, water and food are
metabolic requirements for survival in all animals,
including humans. Clothing and shelter provide
necessary protection from the elements. While
maintaining an adequate birth rate shapes the
intensity of the human sexual instinct, sexual
competition may also shape said instinct (Cianci &
Gambrel, 2003).
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the
individual’s safety needs take precedence and
dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety-
due to war, natural disaster, family violence,
childhood abuse, etc.-people may (re)experience post-
traumatic stress disorder or Trans-generational trauma
(Maslow,1971). In the absence of economic safety-
due to economic crisis and lack of work
opportunities- these safety needs manifest themselves
in ways such as preference for job security, grievance
procedures for protecting the individual from
unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance
policies, reasonable disability accommodations etc
(Wahba & Bridwell, 1976). This level is more likely
to be found in children because they generally have a
greater need to feel safe. Safety and security needs
include; personal security, financial security, health
and well-being and safety need against
accidents/illness and their adverse impacts.

This theory reflects a clear picture of what the topic is
trying to show because students will obviously not
learn or go to school when they are hungry, have no
uniforms, no books, no school shoes, basic school
materials, lack of financial, personal, health security,
safety against accidents and diseases and other
necessities that will facilitate proper acquisition of
knowledge. Rather children will prefer to go late to
school, absent from school and classes, boycott
school and classes, steal from their friends and
engage in other activities such as gambling, cheating,
prostitution, sexual relationships with their teachers in
order to self- provide such needs (Garcia-
Romeu,2010)
Again, even those who engage in out of school and
after school jobs like doing unskilled labor and petty
trade which involves hawking, selling in beer parlors,
washing dishes and serving in the restaurant often
retire late at home and with a lot of fatigue, they go
late to school, absent from school and have little or no
time to study may end up getting sexually transmitted
marks or cheating during examinations to succeed
and all of these constitutes all what it takes to firmly
ascertain the creation and existence of discipline
problems (Brazelton & Greenspan,2000).
Finally, the absence of basic needs and safety needs
will prevent the students from engaging in family and
personal relationships in fact they feel they do not
belong which in the long run will lead to low self-
esteem thus making the students to feel less important
and as such act accordingly thus posing a barrier to
move upwards to complete the hierarchy of needs
theory (Maslow, 1971).
The theory posits that each person has a hierarchy of
needs that must be satisfied, ranging from
physiological requirement to love, esteem and finally
self-actualization (Tay &Diener,2011). Therefore, for
the home and school to maintain discipline, certain
basic requirements such as food and shelter need to
be provided to the children. Failure to meet the basic
needs may lead to deviant behaviour. Besides, when
children come to school, they come with the needs or
reasons that need to be satisfied. It is the needs that
motivate the pupils to behave accordingly so that they
achieve their desired ambitions.
RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE
This study used a mixed methods (triangulation)
research design. The main reason for using this
design is that mixing two methods provides a deep
insight into the research phenomena that cannot be
fully understood by using only qualitative or
quantitative method. Mixed method research
approach allows researchers to broaden their inquiry
with sufficient depth and breath.
The population of this study consists of all the
teachers and students of all secondary schools in Ndu
Municipality. The total population of teachers stands
at 180 and that of students is 2228. The target
population of this study comprised of all students of 4
selected schools in Ndu Municipality, Donga
Mantung Division, North West Region of Cameroon.
The researcher in this study focuses on forms four
and five students and teachers of G.B.H.S. Ndu,
J.M.B.C. Ndu, G.H.S. Talla and Hope Institute Ndu
for the accessible population
A purposive sampling technique was used to select
the secondary schools, teachers and students needed
for the study. A sample of 150 students and 27
teachers was selected using Krejcie and Morgan
(1970), table of determining sample size for research
activities.
The instruments that were used for data collection
were close ended questionnaires for students and
interview guide for teachers. These instruments were
validated using face and content validity and
reliability analysis checked which stood at 0.707.
The data was analysed using Statistical Package for
Social Science (SPSS version 23.0) with the aid of
descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive
statistical tools used were frequency count and
percentages. The hypotheses of the study were tested
using a-none parametric test, the Spearman Rho
because the data for all the variables were not
approximately normally distributed.

FINDINGS
Findings were presented based on demographic data and research questions of the study
Table 1: Distribution showing respondents by demographic data
Demographic information Frequency Percentage
Gender
Male 92 61.3
Female 58 38.7
Total 150 100
Age Range
13-15 50 33.3
16-20 70 46.7
21-25 20 13.3
26 and above 10 6.7
Total 150 100
Class
Form 4 84 56
Form 5 66 44
Total 150 100
Marital Status
Single 150 100
Married 0 0.0
Total 150 100
Among the 150 students sampled, 92(61.3%) were male while 58(38.7%) were female. Based on age range,
50(33.3%) of the students were between the ages of 13-15, 70(46.7%) of them ranges from 16-20 years of age,
20(13.3%%) of the students were between21-25 years while 10(6.7%) were 26 years and above. Based on class,
84(56.0%) were in form 4 while 66(44.0%) were in form 5. Based on marital status, 150(100%) of the students
were single and non 0(0.0%) was married.
Research question one: To what extent does sexual abuse have on students’ psychological wellbeing?
Table 2: Appreciation of sexual abuse and students' psychological wellbeing
Statements
Stretched Collapsed
Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Agree Disagree
I like seeing my mates exposing body
parts like breast, private parts and I
always move with them
30
(20.0%)
72
(48.0%)
27
(18.0%)
21
(14.0%)
102
(68.0%)
48
(32.0%)
I don’t watch pornographic pictures
29
(19.3%)
59
(39.3%)
27
(18.0%)
35
(23.3%)
88
(58.6%)
62
(41.3%)
I always keep away from people who
make insulting sexual jokes.
31
(20.6%)
67
(44.7%)
23
(15.3%)
29
(19.3%)
98
(65.3%)
52
(34.6%)
I always report cases where sexual
advances are made to me or my mates
19
(12.7%)
29
(19.3%)
79
(52.7%)
23
(15.3%)
48
(32.0%)
102
(68.0%)
I don’t welcome sexual gestures e.g.
finger signs and I don’t like to
interact with students who do that.
19
(12.6%)
33
(22.0%)
61
(40.7%)
37
(24.7%)
52
(34.6%)
98
(65.4%)
Multiple response set
128
(17.0%)
260
(34.7%)
217
(28.9%)
145
(19.4%)
388
(51.7%)
362
(48.3%)
In aggregate, findings revealed that 388 (51.7%) of the students opined that sexual abuse have negative effect on
their psychological wellbeing meanwhile 362 (48.3%) of the students do not. Specifically, 102 (68.0%) of the
respondent like seeing their mates exposing body parts like breast, private parts and the always move with them
while 48(32.0%) did not. Also, 88 (58.6%) of respondent don’t watch pornographic pictures while 62 (41.3%)
always like to watch pornographic pictures. Also majority of the student 98(65.3%) said they always keep away
from people who make insulting sexual jokes. In addition, 102(68.0%) of the student don’t always report cases
where sexual advances are made to them or their mates.
Also 98(65.4%) student agreed that they welcome sexual gestures e.g. finger signs and like to interact with
students who do that while 52(34.6%) did not. In summary sexual abuse have negative effect on their
psychological wellbeing

Figure 2: Appreciation of students' experience sexual abuse
Also, among the 150 students that were sampled for the study, 51.70% of the students were experiencing sexual
abuse while 48.3% of them were not.
Table 3: Teachers opinion on the impact of sexual abuse on students' psychological wellbeing
Opinions Groundings ‘Sample quotations
Yes 3 Depression
3 aggression,
3 low self-esteem
2 risk taking behavior
1 poor academic performance
1 mental health problems
Based on the interview guide from the teacher’s sexual abuse have negative consequences on students’
psychological wellbeing such as depression, aggression, low self-esteem, risk taking behavior, poor academic
performance and mental health problems
Verification of hypothesis one
(Ho1): There are no significant relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing.
Table 4: Relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing
Test statistics Sexual abuse Psychological wellbeing
Spearman's rho
R-value 1.000 .170**
P-value . .001
N 150 150
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Statistically, there was a significant and positive relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological
wellbeing (P=0.000, <0.001). However, the positive sign of the correlation value (R=0.170**) imply that when
students sexual abuse is high, their psychological wellbeing is more likely to low. The null hypothesis that there
is no significant relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing was rejected and the
alternative that there is a significant relationship between sexual abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing
was retained
Research question two: What is the impact of Emotional Abuse On Psychological Wellbeing?
Table 5: Appreciation of Emotional Abuse on Psychological Wellbeing
Statements
Stretched Collapsed
Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Agree Disagree
I always feel depress when someone
calls me an idiot or say I am stupid
79
(52.7%)
29
(19.3%)
27
(18.0%)
15
(10.0%)
108
(72.0%)
42
(28.0%)
I always feel discouraged and
sometimes give up my effort in a task
when I am shamed at.
90
(60.0%)
26
(17.3%)
14
(9.3%)
20
(13.3%)
116
(77.3%)
34
(22.7%)

I always like calling my mates by
nicknames usually mocking names.
25
(16.7%)
80
(53.3%)
28
(18.7%)
17
(11.3%)
105
(70%)
45
(30%)
I don’t like seeing people insulting each
other because insults bring shame.
79
(52.7%)
37
(24.7%)
15
(10.05)
19
(12.7%)
116
(77.4%)
34
(23.2%)
I feel happy declaring my intentions to
harm my school and classmates
27
(18.0%)
80
(53.3%)
25
(16.7%)
18
(12.0%)
107
(71.3%)
43
(28.7%)
300
(40.0%)
252
(33.6%)
109
(14.5%)
89
(11.9%)
552
(73.6%)
198
(26.4%)
In aggregate, findings revealed that 551(73.6%) of the students that were experiencing emotional abuse which
affect their Psychological Wellbeing negatively meanwhile 198(26.4%%) of the students do not. To be more
specific, majority of the students 108(72.0%) of the students agreed that they always feel depress when someone
calls them an idiot or say they am stupid. To another degree, 116(77.3%) of the students said they always feel
discouraged and sometimes give up their effort in a task when they are shamed at. Also, majority of the students
105(70.0%) agreed that they always like calling them mates by nicknames usually mocking names while
minority 45(30.0%) of them disagreed.
Also, majority of the students 116(77.4%) agreed that they don’t like seeing people insulting each other because
insults bring shame. Moreover, 107(71.3%) agreed they feel happy declaring their intentions to harm their
school and classmates. Conclusively findings revealed that students that were experiencing emotional abuse
which affect their Psychological Wellbeing negatively.
Figure 3: Appreciation of students’ emotional abuse
Also, among the 150 students that were sampled for the study, 73.6% of the students were experiencing high
level of emotional abuse while 26.4% were expiring low.
Table 6: Teachers opinion on the impact of emotional abuse on students’ psychological wellbeing
Opinions ‘Sample quotations
Negatives Depression
aggression,
low self-esteem
risk taking behavior
poor academic performance
mental health problems
Based on the interview guide from the teachers on emotional abuse, they opined that it has negative
consequences on students’ psychological wellbeing such as depression, aggression, low self-esteem, risk taking
behavior, poor academic performance and mental health problems
Verification of hypotheses two
(Ho2): There are no significant relationship between emotional abuse and students’ psychological
wellbeing

Table 7: Relationship between emotional abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing
Test statistics Emotional abuse Psychological wellbeing
Spearman's rho
R-value 1.000 .353**
P-value . .000
N 150 150
Statistically, there was a significant and positive relationship emotional abuse and students’ psychological
wellbeing (P=0.000, <0.001). The positive sign of the correlation value (R=0.353**) imply that when students
emotional abuse is high, their psychological wellbeing is more likely to be low. The null hypothesis that there is
no significant relationship between emotional abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing was rejected and the
alternative that there is a significant relationship between emotional abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing
was retrained.
Research question three: What is the impact of child neglect on students’ psychological wellbeing?
Table 8: Appreciation of child neglect and students’ psychological
Statements
Stretched Collapsed
Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Agree Disagree
I like mocking and laughing at my
mates who dress poorly to school.
70
(46.7%)
36
(24.0%)
27
(18.0%)
17
(11.3%)
106
(70.7%)
44
(27.3%)
I always feel angry and sometimes
aggressive when I am refused food.
71
(47.3%)
55
(36.7%)
14
(9.3%)
10
(6.7%)
126
(84.0%)
24
(16.0%)
I am always depressed when I see a
mate who is not given adequate
medical attention.
45
(30.0%)
45
(30.0%)
21
(15.0%)
39
(26.0%)
90
(60.0%)
60
(40.0%)
I sometimes encourage my friends to
isolate a particular friend for not
always providing food for the group.
20
(13.3%)
22
(14.7%)
68
(45.3%)
40
(26.7%)
42
(28.0%)
108
(72.0%)
I always feel inferior and discouraged
when my teacher consistently rejects
my opinions in class.
67
(44.7%)
32
(21.3%)
26
(17.3%)
25
(16.7%)
99
(66.0%)
51
(44.0%)
273
(36.4%)
190
(25.3%)
156
(20.8%)
131
(17.5%)
463
(61.7%)
287
(38.3%)
In aggregate, findings showed that 463 (61.7%) of the students accepted that child neglect impact students’
psychological wellbeing meanwhile 287 (38.3%) of the students were not. To be more explicit, 106(70.7%)
students agreed that they like mocking and laughing at their mates who dress poorly to school. Also, majority of
student 126(84.0%) agreed that they are always feel angry and sometimes aggressive when they refused them
food. Moreover, 90(60.0%) students agreed that they are always depressed when they see their mate who is not
given adequate medical attention.
Furthermore, majority of student 108(72.0%) disagreed that they sometimes encourage their friends to isolate a
particular friend for not always providing food for the group. In addition, 99(66.0%) agreed that they always feel
inferior and discouraged when their teacher consistently rejects their opinions in class. conclusively, child
neglect impact students’ psychological wellbeing.
Figure 4: Appreciation of students’ of students’ level of child neglect

Finally, among the 150 students that were sampled for the study, 61.7 % of the students’ experience child
neglect meanwhile 38.3% of them do not.
Teachers opinion on the impact child neglect on students’ psychological wellbeing, most teachers opined that
child neglect have negative consequences on students’ psychological wellbeing such as depression, aggression,
low self-esteem, risk taking behavior, poor academic performance and mental health problems.
Based on method to abolish child neglect, there should be massive sensitization about the negative consequences
of child abuse on students’ psychological wellbeing. Perpetuators of child abuse should be sanctioned seriously
by law. Government should open child protective centres in our communities where victims of child abuse will
be catered for. Schools should have counselors who will always carry-out counseling services in schools
Verification of hypothesis three
(Ho3): There are no significant relationship between child neglect and students’ psychological wellbeing
Table 9: Relationship between child neglect and students’ psychological wellbeing
Test statistics child neglect Psychological wellbeing
Spearman's rho
R-value 1.000 .346**
P-value . .000
N 150 150
Statistically, there was a significant and positive relationship between child neglect and students’ psychological
wellbeing (P=0.000, <0.001). The positive sign of the correlation value (R=0.346**) imply that when child
neglect is high, their psychological wellbeing is more likely to be low. The null hypothesis that there is no
significant relationship between child neglect and students’ psychological wellbeing was rejected and the
alternative that there is a significant relationship between child neglect and students’ psychological wellbeing
was retained.
Discussions
Discussed in themes and how each of these supports
or contradicts the existing findings.
Sexual Abuse and Psychological Well-being
There was as significant and positive relationship
between sexual abuse and students’ psychological
well-being. The positive correlation implies that when
students’ sexual abuse is high, their psychological
wellbeing is normally going to be low. This means
that sexual abuse contributes negatively, to students’’
psychological well-being as it is associated to low
self-worth, difficulties in socialization among
students. Findings form teachers also reveals that
sexual abuse has negative impact on students’
psychological wellbeing as sexually abused students’
show signs of aggression, low self-esteem, risk taking
behavior, poor academic performance and health
problems which are characteristics of negative
psychological wellbeing.
Findings of this study are similar with that of
Brandernburg (1997), who revealed that, the effects
of sexual abuse can be devastating to individual’s
self-worth, emotional health, career path,
interpersonal relationship and the entire course of
one’s personal and professional life. Bietchman et al
(1992), theorized that childhood anxiety symptoms
and disorders have long been identified as both long
and short term psychological effects of child sexual
abuse.
Emotional Abuse and Psychological Well-being
There was a significant and positive relationship
between emotional abuse and students’’
psychological wellbeing. The positive sign of the
correlation implies that psychological disorders is
more likely going to be reduced if emotional abuse is
not too high. On the other hand a minority of
respondents say emotional abuse does not impact
students’ psychological wellbeing. The majority of
respondents who say there is a significant relationship
between emotional abuse and psychological
wellbeing testify that, they always feel depressed,
discouraged, ashamed when they are emotional
abused. Majority of the teachers attest to the fact that
emotional abuse impacts students’ psychological
wellbeing negatively as it creates psychological stress
disorder in students such as anxiety, depression,
aggression, low-self-esteem and poor academic
performance.
Findings from the study agrees with McEachern,
Aluede and Kenny, (2008) who opined that,
emotional abuse have detrimental outcomes on
secondary school childrens’ wellbeing and that
emotional abuse by teachers or school personnel is
associated with emotional and behavioural problems.
It is also noted that emotional abuse may reduce
childrens’ self-worth and confidence Twenlow and
Fonagy, (2005).

Child Neglect and Psychological Well-being
There was a significant and positive relationship
between child neglect and students’ psychological
wellbeing. The positive sign of correlation value
implies that when child neglect is high, students’
psychological wellbeing will likely be low. Majority
of teachers attest to the fact that, child neglect
negatively affects students’ psychological wellbeing
as it causes depression, aggression and inferiority,
poor academic performance among others in children.
This was confirmed as majority of students testified
that child neglect causes them to exhibit anger,
aggression and inferiority.
Such a positive relationship between child neglect
and students’ psychological wellbeing is in line with
Sidebotham, (2002) who says that, persistent neglect
can lead to serious impairment of health and
development, and long-term difficulties with social
functioning relationship and education progress in
extreme cases, neglect can also result in death, 40
percent of maltreatment-related deaths are probably
the result of neglect, or a combination of neglect and
other forms of abuse Sidebotham, (2007).
Conclusion
All the findings revealed that child abuse has a great
impact on students psychological wellbeing. Based on
the findings, it can therefore be concluded that there
is a significant and negative relationship between
child abuse and students’ psychological wellbeing.
When students are sexually, emotionally abused and
neglected, it impacts their psychological wellbeing. A
growing body of knowledge shows that they will
exhibit negative psychological wellbeing than
positive. Briere, (1996), Heim and Nemeroff, (2001)
suggested that victims of child abuse are associated
with negative mental health outcome; low self-esteem
and depression, severe anxiety. Also as per the study
victims of abuse were found to act in fear, timidity
and inferiority. Some face the problem of anxiety,
anger, and substance misuse. Many students agree
that abuse has caused them to exhibit psychological
disorders and thereby facing a lot of problems in
school with their teachers and mates. Some of them
become withdrawn, do not socialize and keep to
themselves. Furthermore, the presence of child abuse
in school in this municipality, has pushed some
students in to social deviant behaviours such as
smoking, joining dangerous groups in order to
revenge or protect themselves which only go a long
way to mare their psychological wellbeing.
Recommendations
Government should employ more counselors to help
and guide parents on how to treat their children and
avoid abuse. Parents and guardians should adopt a
good parental care, love and concern for their
children, this could help to boost their psychological
wellbeing. Head teachers or principals should refer
cases of child abuse to counsellors for expertise
action and if need arise to higher appropriate
authorities.
The study also recommends that policy makers
should ensure proper creation, implementation and
dissemination of policies to address child abuse both
at home and in schools. In order to address child
abuse, policies need to be created with all actors
involved. Also, school authorities should ensure
proper implementation of the policies in the school
milieu.
Parents should strengthen their communication lines
with their children as this is very important to help
them keep in touch with their children’s school work,
friends and activities both in school and at home.
Parents and educators should encourage students to
always report cases of sexual, emotional abuse and
neglect.
Also, parents, teachers, and Counsellors foster the
teaching of sex education which is an aspect of the
school curriculum and continuously create respectful,
safer and comfortable environment for children both
in the home and in school. School professionals
should avoid the use of inappropriate language,
remaining calm and restraining from angry outburst
towards students, being sensitive and encouraging to
students. On the part of the parents, they should be
supportive towards their children and letting children
know that they care and are concerned for their
personal and academic wellbeing.
REFERENCES
[1] Adler, A., & Seligman, M. E. (2016). Using
wellbeing for public policy: Theory,
measurement, and recommendations.
International journal of wellbeing, 6(1).
[2] Altafim, E.R.P and Linhares, M.B.M. (2016),
Universal Violence and Child Maltreatment
Prevention Programs for Parents: A systematic
review. Psychological Intervention 25(1), 27-
38.
[3] Axmaher, L. W. (2004). Causes of child abuse.
Health plus: Vanderbit family and staff
wellness programme.
[4] Axmaher, L.W. (2004). Causes of child abuse.
Health plus: Vanderbit family and staff well
programme.
[5] Barth, J., Bermetz, L. (2013) "The current
prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: A
systematic review and meta-analysis."

International journal of public health 58: 469-
483.
[6] Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E.,
DaCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E.
(1992). A review of the long-term effects of
child sexual abuse. Child abuse & neglect,
16(1), 101-118.
[7] Bernette, D., Oleson, M., Torgerud, R., Steiner,
P., & Odiet, M. (1998). Improving nursing
home quality of life: residents helping
residents. American Journal of Alzheimer's
Disease, 13(3), 138-145.
[8] Brandenburg, J.B. (1997). Confronting sexual
harassment: What schools and colleges
[9] Brassard, M. R., Hart, S. N., & Hardy, D. B.
(1993). The psychological maltreatment rating
scales. Child Abuse & Neglect, 17(6), 715-729.
[10] Brazelton, T. B., & Greenspan, S. (2000). Our
Window to The Future. Newsweek, 136(17a),
34-36.
[11] Briere, J, (1992), Child abuse trauma: Theory
and treatment of the lasting effects. Nurburg
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
[12] Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptoms checklist
for children (TSCC): Professional manual,
psychology Assesement Resources: Odessa,
Florida.
[13] Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., &
Smailes, E. M. (1999). Childhood abuse and
neglect: specificity of effects on adolescent and
young adult depression and suicidality. Journal
of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(12), 1490-1496.
[14] Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The
benefits of being present: mindfulness and its
role in psychological well-being. Journal of
personality and social psychology, 84(4), 822.
[15] Cameroon Tribune (2015). Student Stabbed in
Lycée Polyvalent. http://ct2015.cameroon-
tribune.cm/index.php?option=com_content&vi
ew=article&id=92929:bonaberi-student-
stabbed-in-lycee-
polyvalent&catid=4:societe&Itemid=3#contenu
[16] CAPTA (2003).
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/docu
ments/cb/capta.pdf
[17] Carr, A., Duff, H., & Craddock, F. (2018). A
systemic review of reviews of the outcome of
noninstitutional child maltreatment. Trauma,
Violence, & Abuse, 21(4), 828–843.
https://doi.org/10.1177/152483018801334
[18] Carruthers, C., & Hood, C. D. (2004). The
power of the positive: Leisure and well-being.
Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 38(2), 225-
245.
[19] Center for Disease Control in the US (2013).
https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21875/cdc_218
75_DS1.pdf
[20] Chitiyo, J., & Pietrantoni, Z. (2019). The
impact of child maltreatment on the educational
and psychological well-being of students.
Journal of School Counseling, 17(18), 2–19.
[21] Chitiyo, J., May, M. E., Mathende, A. M., &
Dzenga, C. G. (2019). The relationship between
school personnel's confidence with using the
school‐wide positive behaviour intervention
support model and its sustainability. Journal of
Research in Special Educational Needs, 19(3),
232-240.
[22] Cianci, R., & Gambrel, P. A. (2003). Maslow's
hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a
collectivist culture. Journal of Applied
Management and Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 143.
[23] CNA (2020).
https://cameroonnewsagency.com/teachers-
sodomise-14-year-student-to-death/
[24] Cohen, P., Brown, J., & Smailes, E. (2001).
Child abuse and neglect and the development of
mental disorders in the general population.
Development and Psychopathology, 13(4), 981-
999.
[25] Coker, A. L., Smith, P. H., McKeown, R. E., &
King, M. J. (2000). Frequency and correlates of
intimate partner violence by type: physical,
sexual, and psychological battering. American
journal of public health, 90(4), 553.
[26] Connelly, C. D., & Straus, M. A. (1992).
Mother's age and risk for physical abuse. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 16(5), 709-718.
[27] Cromer, L. D., & Goldsmith, R. E. (2010).
Child sexual abuse myths: Attitudes, beliefs,
and individual differences. Journal of child
sexual abuse, 19(6), 618-647.
[28] Crouch, J. L., Milner, J. S., Skowronski, J. J.,
Farc, M. M., Irwin, L. M., & Neese, A. (2010).
Automatic encoding of ambiguous child
behavior in high and low risk for child physical
abuse parents. Journal of Famil,y Violence, 25,
73-80.

[29] CRTV (2019).
https://www.crtv.cm/2019/04/gbhs-deido-
rochman-bleriot-stabbed-to-death-as-the-
school-comes-under-public-scrutiny/
[30] CTST (2016). Policy report: Building a public
health model for promoting emotional well-
being. University of California, Los Angeles
[31] Cyr, C., Euser, E. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg,
M. J., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2010).
Attachment security and disorganization in
maltreating and high-risk families: A series of
meta-analyses. Development and
psychopathology, 22(1), 87-108.
[32] De Bellis, M. D., & Thomas, L. A. (2003).
Biologic findings of post-traumatic stress
disorder and child maltreatment. Current
psychiatry reports, 5(2), 108-117.
[33] Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy
people live longer: Subjective well‐being
contributes to health and longevity. Applied
Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 3(1), 1-43.
[34] Ehrensaft, M. K., Wasserman, G. A., Verdelli,
L., Greenwald, S., Miller, L. S., & Davies, M.
(2003). Maternal antisocial behavior, parenting
practices, and behavior problems in boys at risk
for antisocial behavior. Journal of Child and
Family Studies, 12, 27-40.
[35] English, D., Everson, M. D., Smith, J. B.,
Hussey, J. M., Litrownik, A. J., Dubowitz, H.,
... & Runyan, D. K. (2008). Concordance
between adolescent reports of childhood abuse
and child protective service determinations in
an at-risk sample of young adolescents. Child
maltreatment, 13(1), 14-26.
[36] Feller, S. C., Castillo, E. G., Greenberg, J. M.,
Abascal, P., Van Horn, R., Wells, K. B., &
University of California, Los Angeles
Community Translational Science Team.
(2018). Emotional well-being and public
health: Proposal for a model national initiative.
Public Health Reports, 133(2), 136-141.
[37] Feller-Kopman, D. J., Reddy, C. B., DeCamp,
M. M., Diekemper, R. L., Gould, M. K., Henry,
T., ... & Balekian, A. A. (2018). Management
of malignant pleural effusions. An official
ATS/STS/STR clinical practice guideline.
American journal of respiratory and critical
care medicine, 198(7), 839-849.
[38] Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized
children. New York: Free Press.
[39] Garbarino, J., & Gilliam, G. (1980).
Understanding Abu-sive Families (Lexington,
Mass.: Lex.
[40] Garbarino, J., Guttmann, E., & Seeley, J. W.
(1986). The psychologically battered child (p.
8). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[41] Garcia-Romeu, A. (2010). Self-transcendence
as a measurable transpersonal construct.
Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 42(1),
26.
[42] Garnefski, N., & Arends, E. (1998). Sexual
abuse and adolescent maladjustment:
Differences between male and female victims.
Journal of adolescence, 21(1), 99-107.
[43] Garnefski, N., & Diekstra, R. F. (1997). Child
sexual abuse and emotional and behavioral
problems in adolescence: Gender differences.
Journal of the American Academy of Child &
Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(3), 323-329.
[44] Gilbert, R., Widom, C. S., Browne, K.,
Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, S. (2009).
Burden and consequences of child maltreatment
in high-income countries. The lancet,
373(9657), 68-81.
[45] Glaser, D. (2000). Child abuse and neglect and
the brain, a review. The journal of child
psychology and psychiatry and Allied
Disciplines, 41(1), 97-116.
[46] Glaser, D. (2002). Emotional abuse and neglect
(psychological maltreatment): A conceptual
framework. Child abuse & neglect, 26(6-7),
697-714.
[47] Goodwin, Tom. "Why we should reject
‘nudge’." Politics 32, no. 2 (2012): 85-92.
[48] Goodyear-Brown, P. (2012). Flexibly
sequential play therapy (FSPT) with sexually
victimized children. Handbook of child sexual
abuse: Identification, assessment, and
treatment, j297-319.
[49] Graham, A., Phelps, R., Maddison, C., &
Fitzgerald, R. (2011). Supporting children’s
mental health in schools: Teacher views.
Teachers and Teaching, 17(4), 479-496.
[50] Gross, J. J., & Muñoz, R. F. (1995). Emotion
regulation and mental health. Clinical
psychology: Science and practice, 2(2), 151.
[51] Gustavsson, N.S., & MacEachron, A.E.
(1998).Violence and lesbian and gay youth.
Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services,

[52] Hart, S.N., & Brassard, M.R., <1987) A major
threat to children's mental health. American
Psychologist. 42(2), 160-165.
[53] Health Canada (1996). "What is Emotional
Abuse?". Public Health Agency of Canada.
Acessed September 20, 2023 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_ab
use#:~:text=In%201996%2C%20Health%20Ca
nada%20argued,as%20characteristic%20of%20
emotional%20abuse.
[54] Health Direct (n.d).
https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/emotional-
abuse#:~:text=Emotional%20abuse%20is%20
when%20someone,you%20in%20public%20an
d%20bullying.
[55] Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role
of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of
mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and
clinical studies. Biological psychiatry, 49(12),
1023-1039.
[56] Herrenkohl, T. I. (Ed.). (2011). The context of
violence. Violence in context: Current evidence
on risk, protection, and prevention (pp. 5-11).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[57] Hornor, G. (2012). Medical evaluation for child
physical abuse: what the PNP needs to know.
Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 26(3), 163-
170.
[58] Howell, A. J., Dopko, R. L., Passmore, H. A.,
& Buro, K. (2011). Nature connectedness:
Associations with well-being and mindfulness.
Personality and individual differences, 51(2),
166-171.
https://cameroonnewsagency.com/teachers-
sodomise-14-year-student-to-death/
[59] Huppert, F.A. Marks, N, Clark. A (2009).
Measuring Well-being across Europe.
Description of the ESS Wellbeing Models and
Preliminary findings. Social indicators.
Research, 91(3), 301-315.
[60] Jackson, S., Thompson, R. A., Christiansen, E.
H., Colman, R. A., Wyatt, J., Buckendahl, C.
W., ... & Peterson, R. (1999). Predicting abuse-
prone parental attitudes and discipline practices
in a nationally representative sample. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 23(1), 15-29.
[61] Joshanloo, M. (2019). Investigating the
relationships between subjective well-being and
psychological well-being over two decades.
Emotion, 19(1), 183.
[62] Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1987). Do abused
children become abusive parents?. American
journal of orthopsychiatry, 57(2), 186-192.
[63] Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire, L., Robles, T.
F., & Glaser, R. (2002).
Psychoneuroimmunology: psychological
influences on immune function and health.
Journal of consulting and clinical psychology,
70(3), 537.
[64] Kim, H., Drake, B., & Jonson-Reid, M. (2020).
Longitudinal understanding of child
maltreatment report risks. Child abuse &
neglect, 104, 104467.
[65] Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970).
Determining sample size for research activities.
Educational and psychological measurement,
30(3), 607-610.
[66] Lambie, G. W. (2005). Child abuse and neglect:
A practical guide for professional school
counselors. Professional School Counseling,
249-258.
[67] Leonard, A. (2010). The story of stuff: How our
obsession with stuff is trashing the planet, our
communities, and our health-and a vision for
change. Simon and Schuster.
[68] Logan-Greene, P., & Jones, A. S. (2015).
Chronic neglect and aggression/delinquency: A
longitudinal examination. Child abuse &
neglect, 45, 9-20.
[69] Maikovich-Fong, A. K. (2010). Subtype and
sex differences in children's maltreatment
experiences and outcomes: Four empirical
analyses using the National Survey of Child
and Adolescent Well-Being dataset (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Pennsylvania).
[70] Maslow, A. H. (1954). The instinctoid nature of
basic needs. Journal of personality.
[71] Maslow, A. H. (1971). Self-actualization.
Tiburon, CA, USA: Big Sur Recordings.
[72] Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human
motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-
396.
[73] Mba, A.L. (2003). The Problem of child abuse
in Nigeria, Edited conference proceeding; 77-
82.
[74] McCoy, M. L. & Keen.S.M. (2013).Child abuse
and neglect (2nd end.).NewYork, NY:
Psychology Press

[75] McCoy, M. L., Keen, S. M. (2013).
Introduction. Child abuse and neglect (2nd
Ed.). New York: Psychology Press.
[76] McEachern, A.G, Aluede, O. and Kenny,
M.C(2008). Emotional abuse in the classroom,
Implications and interventions for counselors:
Journal of counselling and development,
86(10), 3-10.
[77] McGuigan, W. M., & Pratt, C. C. (2001). The
predictive impact of domestic violence on three
types of child maltreatment. Child abuse &
neglect, 25(7), 869-883.
[78] National Child Abuse and Neglect Training and
Publications Project. (2014). The Child Abuse
Prevention and Treatment Act: 40 years of
safeguarding America’s children. Retrieved
from https://www.acf.
hhs.gov/sites/default/files/cb/capta_40yrs.pdf
[79] Neba, E. (2021). B.(2021)“The impact of Self-
efficacy and resilience and the effect of the
socio-political crisis, Covid 19 in the North
West and South West Regions of Cameroon on
the academic success of adolescent students in
the University of Buea, Cameroon”. Aditum
Journal of Clinical and Biomedical Research,
2(1).
[80] Neba, R. A., Warner, M., Manning, S. E.,
Wiener, R. C., & Sambamoorthi, U. (2023).
The Association of Multimorbidity With Whole
Health Activities Among Adults in the United
States: Evidence From the NHIS and BRFSS.
Global Advances in Integrative Medicine and
Health, 12, 27536130231156857.
[81] Nezlek, J.B, Wesselmann, E.D, Wheeler, L.
and Williams, K.D. (2012). Ostracism in
everyday life. Group Dynamics: Theory,
Research and Practice, 16(2), 91.
[82] NIH Report (2018). Emotional Well-Being:
Emerging Insights and Questions for Future
Research. Bethesda, MD
[83] NSPCC (2013). Prevention in mind: All babies
count: Spotlight on perinatal mental health.
London: NSPCC
[84] Obekpa, I. A. (2001). Child abuse:
Consequences and Effects on education and
society. International Journal of Continuing
Education, 2(2)136-147.
[85] Obekpa, I. A. (2011) Child abuse:
Consequences and effects on education and
society: International Journal Of Continuing
Education 2 (2),4-1
[86] Ong, A. (2010). Spirits of resistance and
capitalist discipline: Factory women in
Malaysia. Suny Press.
[87] Park, K. (2014). The effect of parents’ neglect
and abuse on the school adjustment in
adolescent. The mediating effect of social
withdrawals. Korean J. child stud 35,1-15.
[88] Parrish, J. W., Young, M. B., Perham-Hester,
K. A., & Gessner, B. D. (2011). Identifying risk
factors for child maltreatment in Alaska: A
population-based approach. American Journal
of Preventive Medicine, 40(6), 666-673.
[89] Peters, S. D., Wyatt, E. E., & Finkelhor, D.
(1986). Prevalence. In D. Finkelhor (Ed.). A
sourcebook on child sexual abuse (pp. 15-59).
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
[90] Prevention, C.A (2010). Treatment act as
amended by PLIII-320. The CAPTIA
Reauthorization Act of 42.
[91] Putnam-Hornstein, E., & Needell, B. (2011).
Predictors of child protective service contact
between birth and age five: An examination of
California's 2002 birth cohort. Children and
Youth Services Review, 33(8), 1337-1344.
[92] Ramez, G, Widom, S., Browne, G, Fergusson,
D., Webb, El, and Sinow, J. (2009), Burden and
Consequences of Maltreatment in High Income
Countries. The Lancet, 375(9657): 68-81
[93] Robertson, I, (2018), December 16. What is
psychological well-being? Robertson Cooper.
https://www.roberttsoncopper.com/blog/what-
is-psychologicial-well-being/
[94] Ruff, C. B. (1995). Biomechanics of the hip
and birth in early Homo. American Journal of
Physical Anthropology, 98(4), 527-574.
[95] RUSSEL, D. H. (1983). The incidence and
prevalence of intrafamilial and extrafamilial
sexual abuse of female children. Child abuse &
neglect, 7(2), 133-146.
[96] Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On
happiness and human potentials: A review of
research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-
being. Annual review of psychology, 52(1),
141-166.
[97] Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or
is it? Explorations on the meaning of
psychological well-being. Journal of
personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069.
[98] Sidebotham P. (2007). Fatal child
maltreatment: Sidebotham P. Fleming P. eds.

Unexpected death in childhood. Chichester:
Wiley: 75-94
[99] Stock, J. L., Bell, M. A., Boyer, D. K., &
Connell, F. A. (1997). Adolescent pregnancy
and sexual risk-taking among sexually abused
girls. Family Planning Perspectives, 200-227.
[100] Straus, M. A., & Field, C. J. (2003).
Psychological aggression by American parents:
National data on prevalence, chronicity, and
severity. Journal of marriage and family, 65(4),
795-808.
[101] Street, A. E., & Arias, I. (2001). Psychological
abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder in
battered women: Examining the roles of shame
and guilt. Violence and victims, 16(1), 65-78.
[102] Stuewig, J; McCloskey, L.A. (2005). The
relation of child maltreatment to shame and
guilds among adolescents. Psychological routes
to depression and delinquency. Child
maltreat,10.234-336.
[103] Taylor, C. and Steward W. (2011). Women and
Child abuse. London: Hertman (Pub.) Ltd.
[104] Tillman, K. S., Prazak, M. D., Burrier, L.,
Miller, S., Benezra, M., & Lynch, L. (2015).
Factors influencing school counselors’
suspecting and reporting of childhood physical
abuse: Investigating child, parent, school, and
abuse characteristics. Professional School
Counseling, 19(1), 1096-2409.
[105] Timnick, L. (1985, Aug. 26). Los Angeles
Times/rimes Mirror Company
[106] UNICEF (2003). Stocktaking of child abuse
and trauma materials. Dar es Salaam: UNICEF.
[107] US Department of Justice (1996).
https://www.ojp.gov/taxonomy/term/emotional-
abuseharm
[108] Usakli, H. (2012). School help professionals'
ideas on child abuse and neglect. Online
Submission, 2(2).
[109] W.H.O (2014). Global status report on violence
prevention.
[110] Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976).
Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on
the need hierarchy theory. Organizational
behavior and human performance, 15(2), 212-
240.
[111] Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga,
B. L., Ravert, R. D., Williams, M. K., Bede
Agocha, V., ... & Brent Donnellan, M. (2010).
The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being:
Psychometric properties, demographic
comparisons, and evidence of validity. The
journal of positive psychology, 5(1), 41-61.
[112] WHO (2002). Acessed September 20, 2023
from https://www.who.int/news/item/03-10-
2002-first-ever-global-report-on-violence-and-
health-released
[113] WHO (2014). Health and Well-Being. Acessed
September 20, 2023 from
https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/major-
themes/health-and-well-being
[114] WHO (2020).
https://www.who.int/teams/social-
determinants-of-health/violence-
prevention/global-status-report-on-violence-
against-children-2020
[115] Widom, C. S. (1995). Victims of childhood
sexual abuse: Later criminal consequences. US
Department of Justice, Office of Justice
Programs, National Institute of Justice.
[116] Widom, C. S., Weiler, B. L., & Cottler, L. B.
(1999). Childhood victimization and drug
abuse: a comparison of prospective and
retrospective findings. Journal of consulting
and clinical psychology, 67(6), 867.
[117] World Health Organization (W.H.O), United
Nations (2014), Global status report on
violence prevention.
[118] Wynd, D. (2013). what role does poverty play?.

Child Abuse and Its Impact on Students’ Psychological Well Being in NDU Municipality

More Related Content

Similar to Child Abuse and Its Impact on Students’ Psychological Well Being in NDU Municipality

More from ijtsrd

Recently uploaded

Child Abuse and Its Impact on Students’ Psychological Well Being in NDU Municipality