Richard Palin

The oldest blueschists—metamorphic rocks formed during subduction—are of Neoproterozoic age, and 0.7–0.8 billion years old. Yet, subduction of oceanic crust to mantle depths is thought to have occurred since the Hadean, over 4 billion years ago. Blueschists typically form under cold geothermal gradients of less than 400 °C GPa−1, so their absence in the ancient rock record is typically attributed to hotter pre-Neoproterozoic mantle prohibiting such low-temperature metamorphism; however, modern… Show more

The oldest blueschists—metamorphic rocks formed during subduction—are of Neoproterozoic age, and 0.7–0.8 billion years old. Yet, subduction of oceanic crust to mantle depths is thought to have occurred since the Hadean, over 4 billion years ago. Blueschists typically form under cold geothermal gradients of less than 400 °C GPa−1, so their absence in the ancient rock record is typically attributed to hotter pre-Neoproterozoic mantle prohibiting such low-temperature metamorphism; however, modern analogues of Archaean subduction suggest that blueschist-facies metamorphic conditions are attainable at the slab surface. Here we show that the absence of blueschists in the ancient geological record can be attributed to the changing composition of oceanic crust throughout Earth history, which is a consequence of secular cooling of the mantle since the Archaean. Oceanic crust formed on the hot, early Earth would have been rich in magnesium oxide (MgO). We use phase equilibria calculations to show that blueschists do not form in high-MgO rocks under subduction-related geothermal gradients. Instead, the subduction of MgO-rich oceanic crust would have created greenschist-like rocks—metamorphic rocks formed today at low temperatures and pressures. These ancient metamorphic products can hold about 20% more water than younger metamorphosed oceanic crust, implying that the global hydrologic cycle was more efficient in the deep geological past than today. Show less

Pseudosection modelling is rapidly becoming an essential part of a petrologist’s toolkit and often forms the basis of interpreting the tectonothermal evolution of a rock sample, outcrop, or geological region. Of the several factors that can affect the accuracy and precision of such calculated phase diagrams, “geological” uncertainty related to natural petrographic variation at the hand sample- and/or thin section-scale is rarely considered. Such uncertainty influences the sample’s bulk… Show more

Pseudosection modelling is rapidly becoming an essential part of a petrologist’s toolkit and often forms the basis of interpreting the tectonothermal evolution of a rock sample, outcrop, or geological region. Of the several factors that can affect the accuracy and precision of such calculated phase diagrams, “geological” uncertainty related to natural petrographic variation at the hand sample- and/or thin section-scale is rarely considered. Such uncertainty influences the sample’s bulk composition, which is the primary control on its equilibrium phase relationships and thus the interpreted pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions of formation. Two case study examples—a garnet–cordierite granofels and a garnet–staurolite–kyanite schist—are used to compare the relative importance that geological uncertainty has on bulk compositions determined via (1) X-ray fluorescence (XRF) or (2) point counting techniques. We show that only minor mineralogical variation at the thin-section scale propagates through the phase equilibria modelling procedure and affects the absolute P–T conditions at which key assemblages are stable. Absolute displacements of equilibria can approach ±1 kbar for only a moderate degree of modal proportion uncertainty, thus being essentially similar to the magnitudes reported for analytical uncertainties in conventional thermobarometry. Bulk compositions determined from multiple thin sections of a heterogeneous garnet–staurolite–kyanite schist show a wide range in major-element oxides, owing to notable variation in mineral proportions. Pseudosections constructed for individual point count-derived bulks accurately reproduce this variability on a case-by-case basis, though averaged proportions do not correlate with those calculated at equivalent peak P–T conditions for a whole-rock XRF-derived bulk composition... Show less

An integrated field, petrological and geochronological study of the Basong Tso region of south-eastern Tibet has constrained the timing and P–T conditions of north–south Lhasa terrane accretion and provides new insight into the tectonothermal evolution of the Tibetan plateau. Two distinct high-grade metamorphic belts are recognised in the region: a southern belt (the Basong Tso complex) that consists of sheared schist and orthogneiss; and a northern belt (the Zhala complex) that comprises… Show more

An integrated field, petrological and geochronological study of the Basong Tso region of south-eastern Tibet has constrained the timing and P–T conditions of north–south Lhasa terrane accretion and provides new insight into the tectonothermal evolution of the Tibetan plateau. Two distinct high-grade metamorphic belts are recognised in the region: a southern belt (the Basong Tso complex) that consists of sheared schist and orthogneiss; and a northern belt (the Zhala complex) that comprises paragneiss and granite. Combined pseudosection modelling and U–Pb geochronology of monazite and zircon indicates that the Basong Tso complex records peak metamorphic conditions of 9 ± 0.5 kbar and 690 ± 25 ◦C at c. 204–201 Ma, whereas the Zhala complex experienced peak metamorphic conditions of 5.0 ± 1.0 kbar and 740 ± 40 ◦C at c. 198–192 Ma. Microstructural analysis suggests that the two belts share a common early prograde history, after which the Basong Tso complex attained peak conditions following rapid burial, and the Zhala complex approached peak conditions along an isobaric path. Overall it is inferred that the Basong Tso and Zhala complexes represent the lower and upper structural levels of an evolving orogen that underwent Barrovian-type metamorphism following collision (M1), followed by Buchan-style overprinting at higher structural levels due to heat advection by syn-tectonic granites (M2). Mylonitisation (sensu lato) of the Basong Tso complex and juxtaposition of the two units occurred after attainment of peak conditions. The dominance of Mesozoic regional metamorphism across most of the Tibetan plateau indicates that Cenozoic crustal thickening processes, where present, are only manifest at depth. Show less

The Dongjiu–Milin shear zone located on the northwest flank of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis, southeast Tibet, separates Indian and Asian plate rocks. It is characterized by a thick sequence of highly strained and ductilely deformed mylonite (sensu stricto and sensu lato) bound between a pair of sub-parallel transtensive brittle normal faults. An integrated geochronological, petrographic, and thermobarometric study of three samples of pelitic and semi-pelitic mylonite (sensu lato) from the… Show more

The Dongjiu–Milin shear zone located on the northwest flank of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis, southeast Tibet, separates Indian and Asian plate rocks. It is characterized by a thick sequence of highly strained and ductilely deformed mylonite (sensu stricto and sensu lato) bound between a pair of sub-parallel transtensive brittle normal faults. An integrated geochronological, petrographic, and thermobarometric study of three samples of pelitic and semi-pelitic mylonite (sensu lato) from the shear zone provides new insights into its thermal and structural evolution, and hence the tectonic processes operating in the region since the India–Asia collision. U–Th–Pb in-situ dating of monazite, garnet–ilmenite thermometry, and textural relationships show that mylonitization and peak-thermal staurolite-grade metamorphism occurred at 23.4 ± 0.7 Ma at a temperature of at least ~ 610 ± 30 °C. Cooling of these units through 420–500 °C occurred at c. 11–8 Ma, as constrained by the retrograde breakdown of allanite to form monazite. These data show that the cooling history of mylonite (sensu lato) in the shear zone and the tectonic evolution of the syntaxis region can be divided into two distinct stages. Slow cooling at a rate of 6–12 °C/Myr during c. 23–8 Ma is attributed to exhumation during ductile deformation and mylonitization caused by the ongoing India–Asia collision. This was followed by a period of significantly faster cooling at a minimum rate of 57 °C/Myr since c. 8 Ma, most likely associated with brittle normal faulting that facilitated the final stages of excavation to the surface. These new thermochronological data provide evidence of deep-seated exhumation-related cooling processes occurring in a convergent margin orogenic setting. Show less

Phase equilibria modelling of post-peak metamorphic mineral assemblages in (ultra)high-P mafic eclogite from the Tso Morari massif, Ladakh Himalaya, northwest India, has provided new insights into the potential behaviour and source of metamorphic fluid during exhumation, and constrained the P–T conditions of hydration. A series of P–M(H2O) pseudosections constructed in the Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O–TiO2–O (NCKFMASHTO) system show that a number of petrographically distinct hydration… Show more

Phase equilibria modelling of post-peak metamorphic mineral assemblages in (ultra)high-P mafic eclogite from the Tso Morari massif, Ladakh Himalaya, northwest India, has provided new insights into the potential behaviour and source of metamorphic fluid during exhumation, and constrained the P–T conditions of hydration. A series of P–M(H2O) pseudosections constructed in the Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O–TiO2–O (NCKFMASHTO) system show that a number of petrographically distinct hydration episodes occurred during exhumation from peak P–T conditions (~640 °C, 27–28 kbar), resulting in the formation of abundant compositionally zoned amphibole and minor clinozoisite poikiloblasts at the expense of a peak assemblage dominated by garnet and omphacite. Initial hydration is interpreted to have occurred as a result of the destabilization of talc following isothermal decompression to ~23 kbar, which led to the formation of barroisite–winchite amphibole core domains. An episode of fluid infiltration from an external source at ~19 kbar, with or without syn-decompressional cooling to ~560 °C, resulted in further barroisitic–winchitic amphibole growth, followed by the formation of clinozoisite poikiloblasts. Continued buoyancy-driven exhumation to the base of the lower crust is constrained to have taken place with no additional fluid input. A final hydration event is characterized by the formation of magnesiohornblende rims on the barroisite–winchite cores, with the former interpreted to have formed during later prograde overprinting in the middle crust associated with the final stages of exhumation. Notably, the vast majority of externally sourced H2O, comprising just over half of the current bulk rock fluid content, was added during this later hydration event. In a middle crustal setting, this is interpreted as the result of devolatilization reactions occurring in migmatitic host orthogneiss and/or metasedimentary units, or following the crystallization of partial melt. Show less

A combined geochronological and petrological study of pelitic migmatites from the northwestern flank of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis has constrained the timing and P–T conditions of two high-grade metamorphic events that affected the south Lhasa block (Asian margin) and provides new insight into the tectonothermal evolution of the India–Asia collision. U(–Th)–Pb dating of in situ monazite shows that upper amphibolite-facies sillimanite-grade metamorphism and consequent partial melting… Show more

A combined geochronological and petrological study of pelitic migmatites from the northwestern flank of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis has constrained the timing and P–T conditions of two high-grade metamorphic events that affected the south Lhasa block (Asian margin) and provides new insight into the tectonothermal evolution of the India–Asia collision. U(–Th)–Pb dating of in situ monazite shows that upper amphibolite-facies sillimanite-grade metamorphism and consequent partial melting occurred between c. 71 and 50 Ma at P–T conditions above 6.3 ± 1.2 kbar and 750 ± 30 °C. Further partial melting at upper amphibolite-facies kyanite-grade conditions occurred between c. 44 and 33 Ma at minimum P–T conditions of 10.4 ± 1.0 kbar and 698 ± 20 °C. These data are interpreted to record a south Lhasa block mid-crustal sillimanite-grade melting event in the Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene related to regional heat advection caused by coeval and prolonged emplacement of Gangdese batholith units. This was followed by a higher pressure and lower temperature kyanite-grade melting event during the Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene associated with deformation and crustal thickening in the south Lhasa block, coeval with kyanite-grade metamorphism along the Himalaya, as a result of the on-going India–Asia collision. These partially-melted crustal lithologies offer potential sources (or otherwise analogs for sources) for the Miocene emplacement of adakitic intrusions previously documented in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis region. Show less

The Danba Structural Culmination is a tectonic window into the late Triassic to early Jurassic Songpan-Garzê Fold Belt of eastern Tibet, which exposes an oblique section through a complete Barrovian-type metamorphic sequence. Systematic analysis of a suite of metapelites from this locality has enabled a general study of Barrovian metamorphism, and provided new insights into the early thermotectonic history of the Tibetan plateau. The suite was used to create a detailed petrographic framework… Show more

The Danba Structural Culmination is a tectonic window into the late Triassic to early Jurassic Songpan-Garzê Fold Belt of eastern Tibet, which exposes an oblique section through a complete Barrovian-type metamorphic sequence. Systematic analysis of a suite of metapelites from this locality has enabled a general study of Barrovian metamorphism, and provided new insights into the early thermotectonic history of the Tibetan plateau. The suite was used to create a detailed petrographic framework, from which four samples ranging from staurolite to sillimanite grade were selected for thermobarometry and geochronology. Pseudosection analysis was applied to calculate P–T path segments and determine peak conditions between staurolite grade at ∼5.2 kbar and 580 °C and sillimanite grade at ∼6.0 kbar and 670 °C. In situ U–Pb monazite geochronology reveals that staurolite-grade conditions were reached at 191.5 ± 2.4 Ma, kyanite-grade conditions were attained at 184.2 ± 1.5 Ma, and sillimanite-grade conditions continued until 179.4 ± 1.6 Ma. Integration of the results has provided constraints on the evolution of metamorphism in the region, including a partial reconstruction of the regional metamorphic field gradient. Several key features of Barrovian metamorphism are documented, including nested P–T paths and a polychronic field gradient. In addition, several atypical features are noted, such as P–T path segments having similar slopes to the metamorphic field gradient, and Tmax and Pmax being reached simultaneously in some samples. These features are attributed to the effects of slow tectonic burial, which allows for thermal relaxation during compression. While nested, clockwise P–T–t loops provide a useful framework for Barrovian metamorphism, this study shows that the effects of slow burial can telescope this model in P–T space. Show less