Develop the Territory Under Your Hat—Think!: Critical Thinking: a Workout for a Stronger Mind

Contents

CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER FOUR

CHAPTER FIVE

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Appendix F

Appendix G

Appendix H

Appendix I

First off, I would like to thank the Creator

for his Amazing Grace and Mercy.

I dedicate this book to my husband Tim, children Najuwan and Nylah, parents Delores and Woodrow Billups, Jr., brother and sister-in-law Woodrow and Monique Billups, III, nephew Josiah Billups,

mother-in-law Mabel Thomas, aunts, uncles, cousins. Without you, my loving, nurturing and supportive family, this journey, this book would not have been possible.

Acknowledgements

My deepest thanks go to my family. Najuwan, because of you, mommie realizes the importance of not giving up and continues to strive forward. My parents, Delores and Woodrow A. Billups, Jr., brother Woodrow A. Billups III, grandmother, Virginia Maynor, aunts, uncles, cousins, I thank you for stepping in being a surrogate to Naj, taking him to the park, library (story time), swimming, fishing, visiting other relatives as well as baby-sitting him during my labor of this doctoral degree. And of course, the Divine Creator who always knows exactly what I need, and exactly when I need it.

To my deceased grandparents – Mildred A. Billups, Woodrow A. Billups, Sr., Horace Maynor, and Theodore Richardson for the influential part you played in my life. I love you and thank you!

To my committee members: Dr. Lenneal Henderson, chair; Dr. Lee Mahon, research faculty; Dr. Malcolm Bonner, faculty reader; Obie Clayton, external reader; and Gregory Farngalo, student reader, I sincerely thank you for your encouragement, advice, and support.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Overview of the Study

Chapter one of this study of a selected group of fifth grade student’s ability to utilize higher order thinking skills describes a statement of the problem, purpose of the study, historical background, research goals/objectives, and limitations of the study, definition of terms, and significance of the study. As a result of America’s Choice program on critical thinking and writing skills, this study will focus on the impact of this program on students’ critical thinking and writing skills.

Research on writing by Langer & Applebee (1987) clearly indicated that carefully crafted writing assignments engage higher order thinking skills allowing students to move beyond mere knowledge and comprehension skills to application, analysis, and evaluation (the more cognitively complex skills on Bloom’s taxonomy).

Fulwilder and Young (2000) explained in their introduction to Language and Connections: Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum—Write to Communicate that higher order thinking skills were related to students’ ability to write. Britton, Martian, McLeod, and Rosen (1975) reported that transactional writing was synonymous with writing to accomplish something, to inform, instruct, or persuade. Writing to learn is different. People write as well as talk with others to convey their perceptions of reality. The primary function of expressive language is not to communicate, but to order and represent experience to our own understanding. In this sense, language provided us with a unique way of knowing and becomes a tool for discovering, for shaping meaning and for reaching understanding (Fulwilder & Young, 2000).

According to Ennis and Norris (1989, p. 4), Critical thinking is a reflective and reasonable method of thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe in or do Patrick (1986) indicated that limited definitions focus on evaluation or appraisal. Critical thinking is the formulation and use of criteria to make warranted judgments about knowledge claims, normative statements, and methods of inquiry, policy decisions, alternative position on public issues, or any other object of concern (p. 1).

Patrick further found that critical thinking, defined narrowly, is an essential element of general cognitive processes, such as problem solving or decision making, but not synonymous with them. Patrick explained that critical thinking, whether conceived broadly or not implied curiosity, skepticism, reflection, and rationality. Critical thinkers have a propensity to raise and explore questions about beliefs, claims, evidence, definitions, conclusions, and actions.

Patrick (1986) acknowledged that:

The ability to think critically can free students from fetters or ignorance, confusion, and unjustified claims about ideals and reality. Ability thinking may also contribute to dissatisfaction with tyrants or totalitarian societies and to the improvement of democratic governments and free societies (p. 2). Strategies and skills in critical thinking are keys to independent and learning, which can be transferred to subjects and objects of inquiry within and outside of school. Patrick (1986) avows that students can gain enduring intellectual abilities, which can be used long after particular facts have been forgotten. Students are empowered as learners and as citizens to think and act more effectively" (p. 2).

Patrick (1986) further confirms that all students, regardless of social class or presumed limitations in ambition or ability have some degree of potential to think critically. This potential can be developed to the fullest by embedding critical thinking in the core curriculum, and school subjects required of all students. Students’ capabilities to think critically are likely to be increased if they practice strategies and skills systemically and extensively in all subjects in a matter that is consistent wit their development and prior learning experiences.

Furthermore, subject-specific teaching of critical thinking may be the most effective means to develop students’ abilities to transfer strategies and skills to similar subjects in school and problems in life outside school. By contrast, separate courses on critical thinking seem to be rather weak means of developing cognitive strategies and skills (Patrick, 1986).

Statement of the Problem

Why are critical thinking and writing skills important for elementary students? As many educators may seem to agree, the information explosion is a reality increasing, both the amount of information and the rate of increase, which is itself increasing (Bloom, 1956). Those who seek knowledge need the ability to rapidly select, comprehend, analyze, and synthesize information (Bloom, 1956).

According to Johnson (1993), writing across the curriculum has been emphasized in the literature since the early 1980s, when the National Assessment of Education Progress found that students writing performance has shown little improvement over that period. Writing to learn emphasizes better thinking. The focus is on development of ideas, leaving mechanics and forms to be dealt with after students have control of content (Pearce, 1983).

Carefully chosen tasks require active involvement of students in connecting and integrating ideas as they write (Emig, 1977; Fulwilder, 1986; Gere, 1985; Tchudi & Huerta, 1983). Frequent participation in write-to-learn activities also helps students improve their writing, even though this may not be the main purpose. Although writing has often been used to assess learning in secondary classrooms, little time has been devoted to write-to-learn activities such as journals or first-draft writing (Applebee, 1981; Britton et al., 1975; Gere, 1985). Langer and Applebee (1987) found that content area writing can be assist learning in three primary ways: (1) to gain relevant knowledge and experience in preparing for new activities; (2) to review and consolidate what is known or has been learned; and, (3) to reformulate and extend ideas experiences (p. 136).

Elementary school students are at an ideal age to undertake the process and practice of storing information. The challenge that students face is the absence or prior instruction or exposure to higher order thinking skills. The students at the elementary school selected for this study are not disciplined about developing critical thinking skills in their school subjects. Part of this challenge may be the absence of prior instruction or exposure to higher order thinking skills.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is two-fold. First, to analyze the effects and impact of using higher order thinking skills in social studies using