Engineering in Aerospace Technologies

Engineering in Aerospace Technologies

Engineering in Aerospace Technologies

Nanda Iyengar

Engineering in Aerospace Technologies

Nanda Iyengar

ISBN - 9789361521744

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Preface

Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. Avionics engineering is similar but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering.

Aeronautical engineering was the original term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include vehicles operating in outer space, the broader term aerospace engineering has come into common use. Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as rocket science.

Aerospace Engineering is considered among the toughest branches of engineering that has carved its niche among the students. However, once completed, this course gives ‘wings’ to your career, taking it to new heights.

Let us go ahead with this book, and all your queries will be solved regarding the aerospace engineering program.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 1

1.1 What do you mean by Aerospace Engineering? 1

1.2 Interesting facts about Aerospace Engineering 2

1.2.1 Fun Facts 2

1.3 Required skills for Aerospace Engineering 4

1.4 Aerospace Engineering: Eligibility Criteria 4

1.5 About the Field 5

1.6 The sky is not even close to the Limit 6

1.7 Exercise 7

2 Aerospace Propulsion 8

2.1 Aircraft Propulsion 8

2.2 Aero-Engine Types 11

2.2.1 Shaft Engines 12

2.2.2 Jet Engines 12

2.3 Jet Fuel History 13

2.4 Matching Engines and Aircraft 15

2.4.1 propulsive Matching 15

2.4.2 Location Matching 15

2.5 Exercise 16

3 Aerospace Structural Mechanics 17

3.1 Introduction 17

3.2 What is an Aerospace Structure? 18

3.3 Aircraft Structures 21

3.4 Aircraft Designing 22

3.4.1 What is Design? 22

3.5 Aircraft Conceptual Design Process 24

3.6 Fuel-Fraction Estimation 26

3.7 Exercise 29

4 Aerodynamic Drag and Required Propulsion Power 30

4.1 Drag 30

4.1.1 Viscous Drag 30

4.1.2 Non-Viscous Drag 31

4.2 Aerodynamics of aircraft 32

4.3 Graphical Analysis for Thrust and Power Required 35

4.4 Exercise 37

5 Landing Under Canopies 38

5.1 Landing Accidents 38

5.2 Human Spaceflight Program 39

5.3 Three Canopies into the Pacific: Project Apollo 42

5.4 Lunar Missions 45

5.5 Spaceplane Fantasies 46

5.6 Lifting Reecentry 50

5.6.1 Lifting Bodies 50

5.7 Air Force 52

5.8 Spaceplane Reality 53

5.9 Titan 55

5.10 Four Phase Processes 57

5.11 The Rise (and Fall) of the X-30 National Aero-Space Plane 59

5.12 Exercise 62

6 Spaceflight Mechanics 63

6.1 Orbital Mechanics 63

6.2 Conic Sections 63

6.3 Orbital Elements 64

6.4 An Orbiting Satellite 65

6.4.1 Inclination 66

6.4.2 Periapsis 66

6.5 Types of Orbits 67

6.5.1 Geosynchronous Orbits 68

6.5.2 Polar Orbits 68

6.5.3 Walking Orbits 68

6.5.4 Sun-synchronous Orbits (SSO) 69

6.5.5 Molniya Orbits 69

6.5.6 Hohmann Transfer Orbits 69

6.6 Newton’s Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation 71

6.6.1 The First Law 71

6.6.2 The Second Law 71

6.6.3 The Third Law 71

6.7 Uniform Circular Motion 72

6.8 Motions of Planets and Satellites 74

6.9 Launch of a Space Vehicle 76

6.10 Orbit Tilt, Rotation and Orientation 77

6.11 Orbit Perturbations 78

6.11.1 Third-Body Perturbations 78

6.11.2 Perturbations due to Non-spherical Earth 79

6.11.3 Perturbations from Atmospheric Drag 79

6.11.4 Perturbations from Solar Radiation 80

6.12 Orbit Maneuvers 80

6.13 Orbit Altitude Changes 81

6.14 Orbit Plane Changes 82

6.15 Orbit Rendezvous 83

6.16 Launch Windows 83

6.17 Orbit Maintenance 84

6.18 ∆V Budget 84

6.19 The Hyperbolic Orbit 85

6.20 Exercises 85

7 Aerospace Structural Dynamics 86

7.1 Introduction to Aircraft Structural Dynamics 86

7.2 Dynamics 89

7.2.1 3 Types of Motion 89

7.3 Consequences of Vibration - 89

7.4 Oscillatory Motion 90

7.4.1 The Study of Vibration 90

7.4.2 Damping 91

7.5 Harmonic Motion 92

7.6 Coupled Nonlinear Flight Dynamics/Aeroelasticity of

Very Flexible Aircraft 93

7.7 Aero thermoelastic Modeling of Hypersonic Vehicles for Control Design Hypersonic Vehicle (HSV) 93

7.8 Active Vibration and Noise Control of Helicopters 94

7.9 Micro Air Vehicles (MAVs) Structural Dynamics

and Aeroelasticity 94

7.10 Structural Health Management 95

7.10.1 Blade Vortex Vibration Alleviation in Helicopters

Using Actively Controlled Trailing Edge Flaps 96

7.10.2 Vibration Reduction in Helicopters Using the Active Control of Structural Response Approach and Improved Aerodynamics Modeling 96

7.10.3 Rotary-Wing Aeroelastic Scaling and its Application

to Adaptive Materials-Based Actuation 96

7.10.4 Aeroservo Elasticity of a Hypersonic Vehicle 96

7.11 Exercise 97

8 Environmental Impact 98

8.1 Environment Effects 98

8.2 Aviation Fuel Consumption, Emissions 99

8.3 Aircraft Noise 102

8.4 Aeronautical Impact of Epoxy/Carbon

Nanotube Nanocomposite 103

8.4.1 Abstract 103

8.5 Architect of Polymer Nanocomposites for Aerospace Applications 106

8.6 Noise Level 108

8.7 Sound Pressure 108

8.8 Sensors and Control Systems 108

8.9 Beyond Air and Space 109

8.10 Space Systems 110

8.11 Exercise 111

9 Aerospace Projects 112

9.1 Nested Channel Hall Thrusters 112

9.2 Cubesat Ambipolar Thruster 112

9.3 Nanoparticle Micropropulsion 113

9.4 Cubesat Investigating Atmospheric Density Response

to Extreme Driving 113

9.5 Thermal Protection Systems 115

9.6 Three Different Active Cooling Concepts have been

Widely Investigated 117

9.7 Better Warheads 118

9.8 The Corona Satellite Reconnaissance Program 120

9.9 Man in Space Soonest 123

9.10 Project Mercury 125

9.11 Project Gemini 134

9.12 Project Apollo 139

9.13 Recovery from Long-Duration 148

9.13.1 Earth-Orbital Flight: Project Gemini 148

9.14 Pursuit of the Gemini Paraglider 151

9.15 process of Flying Vehicle 159

9.15.1 As The Test Report Stated 160

9.15.2 A synopsis of the Test Program was Contained in

the Paraglider Development Effort’s Final Report 165

9.16 Gene Love from Langley 169

9.17 Three Canopies into the Pacific: Project Apollo 170

9.18 The Air Force and the X-37B 175

9.19 The Orion Capsule as the Next Generation Piloted Vehicle 180

9.20 According to NASA Specifications 182

9.21 Challenges Faced 184

9.22 CPAs 188

9.22.1 As envisioned, the CEV Parachute Assembly

System (CPAS) would rely on 188

9.23 Exercise 189

Appendix 190

Glossary 191

Index 203

Chapter - 1 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

1.1 What do you mean by Aerospace Engineering?

Aerospace Engineering is a branch of Engineering that provides skills and knowledge to design, manufacture and maintain spacecraft, aircraft, missiles and weapons systems. A large part of Aerospace Engineering consists of Mechanical Engineering covering a wide range of topics, including computer application, structures, mathematics, physics, drafting, electricity, robotics, aeronautics etc. It also covers two aspects of engineering, namely Aeronautical Engineering and Astronomical Engineering.

Aerospace Engineering is considered among the toughest branches of engineering that has carved its niche among the students. However, once completed, this course gives ‘wings’ to your career, taking it to new heights.

Here is an overview of Aerospace Engineering for aspirants who wish to make a career in the field.

It is thus a challenging field to work in, but at the same time, it widens your mind and can fulfill all your desires regarding space

Fig.1.1 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fadastra.fit.edu%2Fblog%2Ffloridatechbound%2Faerospace-engineering-degree%2F&psig=AOvVaw0ss66BPQO8JZu2Jx16X3zz&ust=1581932656104000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAMQjB1qFwoTCLjSt-rk1ecCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

Aerospace engineering is a training program having unique scopes all around, and this degree is a dream for many aspirants all around, and the only thing required is the terms which are used for it.

This degree can be used to make further practices and achieving the goal of being the performer and thus exploring the space.

1.2 Interesting facts about aerospace engineering

Are you interested in airplanes? Do you like to build things? How about a career designing, building, and testing aircraft? Imagine creating the next commercial airliner, designed for carrying hundreds of passengers. Or working on the fastest, stealthiest military plane. These are two projects an aerospace engineer might work on.

1.2.1 Fun Facts

1. Aerospace engineers work on airplanes, space shuttles, satellites, and even missiles. They need advanced training in mathematics and physics. Aerospace engineering is one of the most challenging engineering fields.

2. In addition to designing and engineering aircraft, engineers must test the crafts for safety. Simulations with small models allow engineers to evaluate a design’s potential flaws.

3. Aerospace engineers typically need a bachelor’s degree in aeronautics engineering or a similar field. Thirty percent of aerospace engineers have a master’s degree.

4. Aerospace engineers earn an average of $58.00 per hour, higher than most fields. Annually, engineers can expect to earn between $73,000 and $143,000, depending on their experience and education.

5. Jobs are limited for thiFieldld since the air and space industry is a small one. Companies like Boeing need only a few airplanes designed.

6. Aerospace engineers usually work for the federal government or manufacturing industries. A few work for NASA. Engineers generally work in an office environment.

Fig:1.2 Space Fantasy

Source: https://unsplash.com/s/photos/engine-of-plane-or-rockett

1.3 Required skills for Aerospace engineering

Aerospace Engineering is a highly specialized technical field that requires overall excellence in mathematical, calculative and observational skills. Research in this field takes years to be completed. Thus, resilience and persistence are important. Here are a few essential qualities/skills you would require to be a successful Aerospace Engineer:

• Excellent academic background in Science stream

• Creativity and innovativeness in product designing

• Ability to work under pressure and for long hour

• Physical stamina

• Strong analytical and mathematical skills

• Eye for detail

• Scientific acumen

• Ability to work in a team and be able to lead a team

1.4 Aerospace Engineering: Eligibility Criteria

An Aerospace Engineering aspirant must meet the minimum eligibility criteria to be able to pursue the course. Check the minimum eligibility criteria for Aerospace Engineering below:

check it out if you are eligible for pursuing this course and if yes then go-ahead to explore the space :

• Minimum eligibility criteria for pursuing Aerospace Engineering are passing higher secondary or Class 12 with a minimum of 60 percent marks in Science stream (Physics, Chemistry and Maths)

• Aerospace Engineering degree courses are offered at the post-graduate level. For this, the candidate is required to have 60 percent marks in Bachelor’s degree (BE/B Tech or equivalent)

• For admission to post-graduate and Doctoral programs and research, the GATE score is required.

• Candidates with three-four year degree in Engineering, technical diploma, five-year Architecture Post-graduate in Mathematics/Science/Statistics/Computer Applications are also eligible to pursue Aerospace Engineering

If one aspires to join National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States (U.S.), they must be informed that NASA recommends a degree in a variety of disciplines, including biomedical engineering, ceramic engineering, chemistry, industrial engineering, materials engineering, metallurgy, optical engineering, and oceanography Ph.D. is highly recommended for those who want to join NASA.

1.5 About the Field

Fig:1.3

Source: https://unsplash.com/s/photos/engine-of-plane-or-rockett

1.6 The sky is not even close to the limit

Yes, five Michigan aerospace alumni have walked on the moon, but you can find our graduates all over the earth as well. They work in government, academia and every facet of the aerospace industry. Careers include:

• Pilot Astronaut

• Mission Specialist

• Payload Specialist

• Astronomer

• Chemist

• Geologist

• Meteorologist

• Oceanographer

• Physicist

Aerospace engineers tackle the unique challenges that come with maneuvering heavy vehicles safely and efficiently through the air. We combine advanced technologies and cutting-edge materials to design smaller, lighter, more efficient aircraft and spacecraft and find innovative ways to power and control them.

Fig:1.4 work Afieldld

Source: https://unsplash.com/s/photos/engine-of-plane-or-rockett

1.7 Exercise

1 what do you mean by aerospace engineering?

2 describe something interesting about aerospace engineers?

3 what are the future scopes of an engineer?

4 write a short note about your views in the skillset?

5 do you fit for this degree?

6 check your eligibility criteria for this degree?

Chapter - 2 Aerospace Propulsion

2.1 AIRCRAFT PROPULSION

Humans have always dreamed with flying, from Icarus’ wax-glued feathered-wings myth to Da Vinci’s flying machines, but, leaving aside lighter-than-air balloons, only in the early 20th century enough specific propulsion power was available to sustain human flight, with the compact petrol engine of 80 kg of Flyer-I, supplying 9 kW to a twin-propeller. You may compare this engine power-to-mass ratio, W m &=9000/80H100 W/kg, with typical manpower of (150 W)/(75 kg)=2 W/kg, or with modern airliner engines of (25 MW)/(6400 kg)≈4000 W/kg.

But the foundations of powered flight can be set in 1799 when Sir George Cayley, the father of Aerodynamics, first identified the four basic forces of flying: weight, lift, drag, and thrust, and set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine (no flapping wings like in bird flight), with separate systems for lift (tilted planes), propulsion (engine), and controls, designing the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft.

Sustained aerodynamic flight requires almost-permanent propulsion, as opposed to other transportation means (land vehicles, aerostats, surface vessels, submarines, or spacecraft), which can live for some time without propulsion. We say in Spanish: Le Dijo el ala al motor: tu empuja, que yo te subo (y el motor respondió: por ahorrar combustible, que si no, me no e haces falta).

Taking advantage of moving within a fluid, aircraft propulsion is achieved by air-breathing engines, i.e., engines that take a stream of air and throw it at higher speed backward. The energy source is the combustion of a fuel (carried onboard) with oxygen in the air, but it might also be solar power or nuclear power. The standard in aircraft propulsion is the jet engine, basically consisting of a gas turbine delivering most of its work through a shaft that drives either a few-large-blade propeller or a many-small-blade ducted fan. Even for the same type of engine (e.g., a gas turbine), different notations are used in specific propulsion fields, like aviation, then on general power plants or in basic thermodynamic studies, further modified by different traditions and language.

Modern aircraft engines routinely stayed in service for 20 or 25 years, often without experiencing a problem significant enough to warrant removal from aircraft. They are extremely reliable; the engine go-out rate is less than 2 times per 100 000 hours of operation (engine life). Pilots could go through an entire career without a single-engine emergency. More than 50 % of the reduction in energy intensity of airliners (from 6 MJ/pkm in 1950 to 1.5 MJ/pkm in 2000)