Predestination and Free Will: A Comparative Theological Study

Predestination and Free Will

A Comparative Theological Study

Ömer Atilla Ergi

New Jersey

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Adherence to causality is a requirement of respect to their Creator.

Fethullah Gülen

Preface

The concepts of predestination and free will have been and continue to be two of the most difficult problems of classical and contemporary theology and philosophy. The debate on the perplexing coexistence of predestination and free will has been the focal point of discourse among theologians and philosophers since antiquity. The deliberations on determinism also played an important role in the formation of Islamic theology, as the creedal statements of Islamic doctrines define belief in predestination as one of the essential articles of creed while asserting that human agents possess some form of will defined as irāda al juz’īyya , ‘the minor will’ in the Arabic lexicon.

Evidently, the creed of mainstream Islam necessitates that the two concepts are reconciled or at least a conceivable argument is provided to support the notion that predestination could indeed coexist with free will. Arguments for coexistence constructed on scriptural revelation and Prophetic tradition were proposed by various Muslim theologians from the formative period to contemporary times, during which several theological schools emerged due to a number of significant differences in views. This book is primarily based on an examination and analysis of the theological arguments proposed by mainstream Islamic theologians and Fethullah Gülen, a contemporary Muslim scholar, and his theoretical framework on the reconciliation of predestination and free will. The methodology of this project includes comparative and detailed analysis of arguments put forward by formative, classical and contemporary Islamic scholars and examination of arguments proposed by Western theologians and philosophers with an objective to establish the similarities and differences in the theoretical frameworks of scholars from different schools, traditions, and faiths.

The main argument of this book is based on the theological premises proposed by Fethullah Gülen and mainstream Sunni theologians that support the coexistence of predestination and free will.

Acknowledgements

Although this project is based on comparative analysis of theological and philosophical arguments proposed by many scholars and academics from different faith traditions, cultures, and schools of thought, Gülen’s literature was the primary focus of this project. For this reason, first and foremost, I would like to thank the distinguished sholar, Fethullah Gülen who was my primary inspiration in writing this book.

A special thanks to my editor Vicki Snowdon for her great work, flexibility and assistance in nurturing this project.

I would also like to take the opportunity to acknowledge the invaluable support provided by Professor Salih Yucel and Professor Mehmet Ozalp who have shown great encourement and reassurance all the way until the completion of the book.

And how could I forget the continuous support and contributions of a few cherished advisors, Professor Ismail Albayrak, Dr. Recep Dogan, Dr. Derya Iner, Dr. Suleyman Sertkaya, Dr. Hakan Coruh and Associate Professor Zuleyha Keskin for providing instrumental assistance to this project.

And of course, many thanks to my beloved wife Tulin who has shown great patience and support during my long hours in front of the computer, especially on weekends. And, to my dear friends who for the last three years persistently asked me when the book will be ready for publishing.

Finally, I would like to thank the Almighty Lord for blessing me with such a wonderful family, friends, colleagues and giving me the opportunity to complete and publish this book.

Glossary of Terms

Ahl al Sunnah wa’l jamā’ah

Refers to mainstream Islam adherents to Prophet Muhammad’s tradition

Ahkām

Ruling or judgment

‘Amal

Deeds – a term generally used for all human deeds, good or evil.

‘Aqīda

The creed of Islam containing the six essential articles of belief. A Muslim is obligated to have belief in all six articles.

‘Aql

Literally intellect: however, in Islamic theology it is used in the context of ‘reasoning.’

‘Aradth

Accident; something that occurs due to randomness or chance.

Asbab

Plural of sabab. Means cause or, in the context of theology, causality.

Baqa

Eternity; everlasting; the attribute of endlessness.

Dharra

Atom; the smallest particle of matter.

Biqadarin

A due amount or a measure amount.

‘Ilm

Divine Omniscience. Refers to the infinite knowledge of God. It is one of the affirmative attributes of God in Islamic theology.

Imamun mubin

Defined as Manifest Record by Gülen (2009) and refers to the all-encompassing or infinite knowledge of God, ie His omniscient attribute. Described as knowledge beyond which nothing can escape or exist; imamun mubin refers to Divine Knowledge.

Istita’a

Defined as the ability to perform an act. In the Arabic lexicon, the term is described as ‘power’ or ‘ability’ (Nasafī, 1993, p. 226). According to Nasafī (1993), there are two types of istita’a: one related to causes where the conditions must be right for it to apply; for example, a Muslim is required to fast during the month of Ramadan providing their health permits. The other is the power or ability that exists in living beings at the time of an act. This is the concept that concerns the debate about free will. According to Nasafī, istita’a is the ability that materialises at the time of an act; therefore, it is a vital component of an act. Māturīdītes describe it as the power that brings about the act (p. 227).

Juz’-ī irāda

Refers to human free will. The exact translation of the term is ‘minor or limited will.’ When Islamic scholars refer to human will, they use the adjective ‘minor or limited’ as Islamic theological doctrines assert that ‘absolute will’ belongs only to God. As opposed to kulli, the term juz’-i means minor or limited.

Khaliq

The creator or originator.

Khalq

To create; the act of creation.

Kasb

Defined as ‘acquisition,’ it is an ability given to human free will for the purpose of petitioning for the creation of an action. It is a key concept for moral responsibility and accountability. It includes human intentions and inclinations towards an act. It is a faculty of free will that requests a human act to be created by God. The concept of kasb is crucial in the debate on free will as it is the source of moral responsibility and liability for all human acts.

Kitābun mubin

Defined as the Manifest Book by Gülen (2009), it is a title given to Divine will or decree. The term also refers to God’s creational and operational laws in the universe. It is delineated as the creation of objects or events that have prior existence in Divine knowledge. It also means God’s timely creation of what is already been recorded in the Divine Register, lawh al mahfuz.

Kullī irāda

Refers only to the absolute will of God. In Islamic creed, no other being possesses absolute will. In Islamic theology, kulli irada is an attribute of God where kulli means total or absolute and irada means will. Classical scholars describe it as a ‘will’ that cannot be limited or restricted by anything.

Lawh al mahfūz

Mentioned in the Qur’an nine times either directly or indirectly. The term translates as ‘the Preserved Tablet,’ which is defined by Islamic scholars as the Divine Register where all things and events in the past, present and future are recorded. Islamic scholars refer to it as a register that contains all phenomena preordained or predestined by Divine will.

Lawh al mawh isbat

A register that contains amendable destiny. Some scholars refer to this as the probable destiny.

Ilmi muhīt

All-encompassing knowledge

Makhluq

Creation: what is created; an entity or living being that was created.

Mukhalafatun lil hawadith

An attribute of God meaning unlike the creation.

Mukallaf

Defined as a responsible agent or a person who has responsibility. In Islamic law, a person who has reached the age of adolescence becomes religiously responsible.

Muktasib

Acquirer: the one who requests or desires for something to occur.

Musabbib al Asbab

The cause of causes, in reference to God.

Naql

What is transmitted; revelation; tradition.

Qiyam bī nafsī

An attribute of God meaning self-subsisting.

Qadar

‘To measure’ or ‘to determine,’ but in its derivations it means ‘determination,’ ‘destiny,’ ‘giving a certain measure and shape,’ ‘dividing’ and ‘judging’ in classical Arabic literature. Islamic theologians, however, define the term as ‘Divine measure,’ ‘Divine destiny,’ ‘Divine determinism’ and ‘Divine judgment in the creation of things.’ In Islamic contexts, the theological discussions on determinism and free will in this study, the term qadar will generally carry the meaning ‘Divine destiny, determination or will.’

Qaḍa

Refers to the concepts of the creation of what is recorded in the Divine Register when it materialises.

Qudrah

Power; an attribute of God.

Tadbir

Order and harmony based on natural laws that indicate governance.

Tanasüb’ü illiyet

A term from the Ottoman language meaning the connection between cause and effect.

Taqdir

Will of God; something that is willed by God.

Taqwin

An attribute of God meaning an ability to create, originate or bring into existence.

Taslim

Literally means surrendering. In Sufi teaching, it refers to unconditionally submitting to the will of God.

Tawḥīd

Meaning Divine Unity, it is the most important article of the Islamic Creed.

Tawakkul

Reliance on God.

Wujud

Existence; an attribute of God meaning the necessarily existent.

Chapter One

Theological Discourse on Predestination

Throughout known history, concepts of predestination, preordainment, determinism, compulsionism, indeterminism, free will and free action have been the focal point of discussions for many renowned theologians and philosophers, including a significant number of Muslim scholars. These profound topics maintain their popularity in contemporary philosophy and theology. There is a considerable amount of literature that predominantly focuses on the nature of human will and determinism; however, most of these scholarly works do not agree on a universally accepted argument for the reconciliation of determinism and free will where the philosophical premises are based on empirical evidence that substantiates the coexistence of the two concepts. Many contemporary philosophers and theologians continue to propose arguments for either determinism or free action. This is chiefly because of an apparent philosophical inconsistency and scientific incongruity that challenge the coexistence of determinism and free will. Evidently, these presumed inconsistencies and incompatibilities form a great hurdle for theologians and philosophers who wish to formulate a theory based on the coexistence of determinism and free will. The main argument of this book is based on the concept that determinism and free will can theologically be reconciled.

For Muslim theologians, establishing a philosophical argument that supports the coexistence of predestination and free will is quite significant because belief in destiny is one of the essential tenets of the Islamic creed, ‘aqīda. The literal meaning of ‘aqīda in the Arabic dictionary is to tie a knot or to attach to something wholeheartedly¹. Theologically, it refers to a list of essential articles of faith that each Muslim within the tradition of ahl al sunnah wa’l jamā’ah is required to believe. Since the creed is the most important component of the Islamic faith, as much as it is in every faith tradition, research in the field of theology is imperative in contemporary times when there seems to be less focus on this in the Islamic literature that chiefly addresses social, political, practical, and cultural matters of the religion. Within the discipline of theology, concepts of predestination and free will occupy significant space. Although formative and classical scholars have established theological methodologies to solve the problem of coexistence from creedal and philosophical perspectives, the development of modern science has seen the emergence of gaps that need to be filled.

The establishment of belief in Divine Destiny originates from several verses of the Qur’an and an authentic prophetic report referred to as the Gabriel hadith where Archangel Gabriel asked Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) to define faith. The Prophet then lists the six essential articles of faith, where one of them was belief in destiny². The angel then confirmed the Prophet’s definition. Based on this Prophetic report, all mainstream Islamic scholars agree that belief in Divine Destiny is an integral part of the Islamic faith. According to Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur, the Arabic term qadar – along with its common meaning due measure, also carries the meaning knowing the actual reality of something or some event. Thus, apart from having meanings like to create with due measure, predestination and preordainment, qadar also refers to the precise knowledge of God³.

While belief in qadar has become an essential article of the creed of Islamic theology, its doctrines also assert that human beings possess some form of free will, as human life on earth is considered as a period of testing during which all humans have moral responsibilities and therefore a liability towards their Creator⁴. The Qur’an refers to this responsibility with the following verse: [He] who created death and life to test you [as to] which of you is best in deed…⁵ Accordingly, majority of Islamic theologians agree that such responsibility requires the existence of some sort of free will⁶.

This, in turn, necessitates the formulation of an argument that verifies the philosophical premise that the two concepts are acquiescent. For this reason, Islamic scholars in general have shown great interest for the topics of determinism and free will. However, instead of using terms such as determinism, causal determinism or compulsionism, mainstream Islamic theologians use the terms ‘destiny’ or ‘predestination,’ for according to Islamic creed, there is an important distinction between compulsionism and Divine Destiny. While compulsionism suggests absolute determinism or fatalism, which gives no freedom of choice to human beings, the concept of Divine Destiny allows for the existence of free will.

The theological discourse on free will and Divine Destiny in Islam dates back to the time of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). It is reported by Ali, the Prophet’s son-in-law, that one day Prophet Muhammad said, …There is not one amongst you who has not been allotted his seat in Paradise or Hell. Those present asked: then, why should we perform good deeds, why not depend upon our destiny? Thereupon he said: No, do perform good deeds, for everyone is facilitated in that for which he has been created⁷. In this report, although Prophet Muhammad asserts that the fate of all humans has already been decided, he also encourages his followers to uphold the principles of morality and human values. This indicates that humans should possess some form of free will that enables them to decide on a path to follow. For this reason, mainstream Islamic theologians have agreed that free will and predestination coexist⁸. However, reports like these and some pertinent verses from the Qur’an were interpreted differently by theologians of the formative period as some scholars withdrew from mainstream Islamic theology, Ahl al Sunnah wa’l jamā’ah, to form schools like the Jabrīyyah, a fatalist or compulsionist school, and Mu‘tazila, the school of reason or rationalism⁹.

The school of Jabrīyyah

The name Jabrīyyah derives from the Arabic root word jabr or jabran, which means to force, forcibly or compulsorily. The school’s theological discourse claims destiny is something that is experienced compulsorily by human beings; therefore, human will is only an illusion. The term jabr or jabran does not appear in the Qur’an, but Jabbar, which etymologically comes from the same root word as jabr, is mentioned once, referring to an attribute of God as being the One who can do whatever He wills by force and on nine occasions for people who dominate or oppress others.¹⁰ Based on this etymological definition, the school of Jabrīyyah maintains that God has predetermined the lives of all human beings; therefore, there is no room for free will in such divine scenario¹¹.

The Jabrīyyah view is important for critical analysis purposes as it rejects the mainstream view that the two concepts can coexist. The fatalistic or compulsionistic view of Jabrīyyah on Divine Destiny is also based on the verse: And you do not will except that Allah [God] wills. Indeed, Allah [God] is ever knowing and wise.¹² The derived conclusion is that since nothing or no one can supersede the will of God, human beings cannot possess free will in the true sense. This argument is interesting as mainstream Islamic scholars do not dispute the inference that all phenomena, events and actions, including human actions, materialize through the absolute will of God¹³. The mainstream scholars argue that human free will is a requirement of moral responsibility. Therefore, an annulment of free will is also an annulment of moral responsibility.

The Qur’an supports the existence of human free will with the verse: Allah [God] does not charge a soul except [with that within] its capacity. It will have [the consequence of] what [good] it has gained, and it will bear [the consequence of] what [evil] it has earned.¹⁴ The verse indicates that humans have the capacity to act; therefore, they will face the consequences of their actions.¹⁵ For this reason, mainstream scholars believe the verses indicating predestination and free will do not contradict; on the contrary, they support each other. For the mainstream scholars, this view is further strengthened with the verse: And whatever strikes you of disaster – it is for what your hands have earned…¹⁶.

The school of Mu‘tazila

The rationalist school of Mu‘tazila, on the other hand, interprets these verses as, not only do human beings possess total freedom to act, but they also possess the power to create their own actions.¹⁷ The Mu‘tazilites did not reject predestination altogether, as Hisham ibn ‘Amr, a renowned Mu‘tazila scholar, stated that God is the All-Knowing and All-Powerful since eternity in the past, but I cannot say He knows the states of matter in the future.¹⁸ The intention was to protect tawḥīd, Divine Unity, one of the five principles of the Mu‘tazila theology, where they believed that prior knowledge of future states of matter would give matter an eternal existence, even if it was in the form of knowledge. For this reason, they claimed that human agents are the originators of their actions.

They arrived at this conclusion by claiming the etymology of the term qadar (destiny or due measure) is derived from the term qada, which means to compare or to provide an example. Thus, for the Mu‘tazilites, the exegesis of the verse God creates human actions is God provides an example about the creation of human actions.¹⁹ So, according to some Mu‘tazila scholars, this verse affirms that God has knowledge of human actions prior to their creation, but He does not create them. For the Mu‘tazilites, qadar does not carry the meaning forcing someone into doing something; rather, it indicates God’s commandment and judgment. All Mu‘tazila scholars concur on the notion that God does not create evil, unlawful acts and the acts of others, except His own.²⁰

For this reason, Mu‘tazila theologians reject the opinion that God creates human acts and argue that qadar refers to God’s pronouncement of an incident or event. They further claim, in the following verse about Lot: So We saved him and his family, except for his wife; We destined her to be of those who remained behind²¹ – the term destined should be interpreted as discretion as it indicates that God is enunciating the inevitable demise of Lot’s wife, which came about through her own doing, rather