Respiratory System

Lecturer: Dante Roel Fernandez

RT, M.D.
 Respiration
Definition

a. External Respiration:
- Ventilation and Breathing
- movement of air into and out of lungs
- the exchange of gases between air and the blood

b. Internal Respiration:
- the transport of gases in the blood (oxygen & carbon dioxide)
- exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues.

c. Cellular Respiration:
- Aerobic
- Anaerobic
 Functions of the Respiratory System

1. Gas exchange.
- oxygen supply & transport
- remove carbon dioxide
2. Regulation of Blood pH.
- changing & regulating blood CO2 levels
3. Voice Production.
- air movement passing the vocal cords
4. Olfaction.
- airborne molecules
5. Innate Immunity.
- protection from some microorganisms by:
a. prevent entry into the body &
b. remove them from respiratory surfaces
 Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Upper Respiratory Tract

 Nose
- Consists of external nose and nasal cavity.
- External nose-visible structure that forms a prominent
feature of face and composed of hyaline cartilage.
- The nasal cavity- extends from nares/ nostrils to choane
-nares=external openings of nose
-choane=openings into the pharynx
- Nasal septum-partition dividing the nasal cavity
- Deviated nasal septum–occurs when septum bulges to one
side of the other
- Hard palate–forms the floor of the nasal cavity separating
the nasal cavity to oral cavity
- Conchae–three prominent bony ridges, increases surface
area of nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses– air-filled spaces within the bone
- reduce the weight of skull, produce mucus and influence the quality
of voice by acting as resonating chambers

4 kinds of paranasal sinuses:

 Maxillary
 Frontal
 Ethmoidal
 Sphenoidal

Sinusitis–facial pain
- inflammation of sinuses

Nasolacrimal duct – carry tears from eyes and open into nasal cavity
 Pharynx – 13 cm funnel shaped tube; common passageway
of both respiratory and digestive system
- receives air from nasal cavity and air, food and
water from the mouth

3 divisions of pharynx:
 Nasopharynx – pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium
- only air can pass through

Oropharynx – stratified squamous epithelium which
protects against abrasion
- both respiratory and digestive tube

Laryngopharynx – stratified squamous epithelium and
ciliated columnar
- both respiratory and digestive pathway
Soft Palate – incomplete muscle and connective tissue
partition separating the nasopharynx from oropharynx
- prevents food from entering oral cavity

Uvula – posterior extension of soft palate

Pharyngeal tonsil – posterior part of nasopharynx which aids in

defending body against infection

Palatine tonsil and Lingual tonsil – part of oropharynx

Sneeze reflex – triggers the sensory receptors that stimulate

trigeminal as you are trying to get rid of foreign substances
Lower Respiratory tract
 Larynx
- consists of an outer casing of 9 cartilages connected to
one another by muscles and ligaments
- 3 unpaired and 6 forms three pairs

3 unpaired cartilages:

 Thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple – largest cartilage,

hyaline cartilage
- attached superiorly to hyoid bone
 Cricoid cartilage – forms base of larynx which other
cartilages rest
- most inferior cartilage
 Epiglottis – consists of elastic cartilage that helps prevent
swallowed materials form entering larynx
Lower Respiratory trachea

3 paired cartilages:

 Cuneiform cartilage– (wedge- shaped), top

cartilage
 Corniculate–(horn-shaped), middle cartilage

Arytenoid–(ladle- shaped), most important
because it anchors the vocal cords
Thyroid and cricoid cartilage – maintains opening or
passageway for movement of air.
2 pairs of ligaments:
 Vestibular - false vocal cords
-- superior
-- prevent air from leaving the lungs
-- prevents food and liquid from entering the larynx
 Vocal folds – true vocal cords
- primary source of voice production
Laryngitis – inflammation of mucous epithelium of vocal
cords
Cough reflex – dislodge foreign substances from trachea
The Respiratory System
 Trachea or windpipe
- connects the larynx to the main bronchi.
- reinforced with 16-20 C-shaped pieces of
cartilage
- pseudostratified columnar ciliated
epithelium
- projects through the mediastinum and
divides into right and left primary bronchi at the
level of 5th thoracic vertebra
- C-shaped cartilage
– protects trachea and maintain an opening
passageway of air.
Sized:
1.4- 1.6 cm diameter of adult trachea
10-11 cm long
Heimlich Maneuver – designed to force such an
object out of air passage by sudden application of
pressure to the abdomen forcing air up the
trachea to dislodge obstruction
 Bronchi
- form the division of trachea, also lined by
pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium.
- divides into two primary bronchi.
 Left main bronchus – more horizontal

 Right main bronchus – more vertical, bigger in

diameter, shorter
- foreign objects that enter the trachea
usually lodge here.
 Lungs
- principal organ of respiration
- cone- shaped

 Right lung – has three lobes: superior, middle and inferior

 Left lung – has two lobes: superior, inferior

Bronchopulmonary segments – divide each lobe

9 in left lung, 10 in right lung

Tracheobronchial tree – formed from branching of main bronchi

Lobar (secondary) bronchi – conduct air to each lobe

- give rise to segmental (tertiary) bronchi
Segmental (tertiary) bronchi – extend to
bronchopulmonary segments of lungs

Bronchioles – rise from branching of bronchi

- subdivides to give rise to terminal
bronchioles – respiratory bronchioles – alveolar
ducts which opens to alveoli

Alveoli – small air sacs

Alveolar sacs – chambers connected to two or

more alveoli
Conducting zones:
 Also called as dead space because there is no gas
exchange in these zones.
 These are the respiratory passages from the nose
to the terminal bronchioles.
Respiratory zones:
 Actual site of gas exchange, is composed of the
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli.
Alveolar macrophages – dust cells that cause lungs to
appear gray or black
Pleural cavity – surrounds each lungs
Pleura – is a thin double layered serosa.
- consisting of the following:
 Parietal pleura – lines the walls of thorax, diaphragm
and mediastinum
 Visceral pleura – covers surface of the lungs
 Cell types in the respiratory membrane:
1. Type I pneumocytes- walls of the alveoli composed of
simple squamous epithelium.
2. Type II pneumocytes- secretes fluid called surfactant.
Surfactant decreases surface tension.
The pleurae produce a small amount of fluid and function as:
 Act as lubricant – allowing the visceral and parietal
pleurae to slide past each other as lungs and thorax
change shape during respiration
 Helps hold pleural membranes together.
Lungs
Alveoli
Physiology of the Respiratory
System
 Ventilation and Lung Volumes

 Ventilation or breathing
- movement of air into and out of the lungs
 2 phases of ventilation:
1. Inspiration / Inhalation
- movement of air into the lungs
- diaphragm contracts & thoracic cavity increases
*Muscles of inspiration:
1. Diaphragm- large dome shaped skeletal muscle
- separates thoracic from abdominal cavity
2. External Intercostals- elevate the ribs and sternum
2. Expiration or Exhalation
- movement of air out of the lungs
- diaphragm relaxes & thoracic cavity decreases
*Muscles of expiration:
1.Internal Intercostals- depresses the ribs and
sternum

 Labored breathing- all inspiratory muscles are active

& contact more forcefully causing greater increase
in thoracic volume
 Pressure Changes & Airflow
*Flow of air are govern by 2 physical
principles:
1. Changes in volume result in changes in
pressure
2. Air flows from areas of higher to lower
pressure
 Ventilation Cycle

1. At the end of expiration, alveolar pressure is

equal to atmospheric pressure
*Alveolar pressure- pressure w/in alveoli
*Atmospheric pressure- pressure outside the body
2. During inspiration, contraction of inspiratory
muscles increases volume of thoracic cavity
3. At the end of inspiration, thorax & alveoli stop
expanding
4. During expiration, thoracic volume decreases,
producing a decrease in alveolar volume
 Lung Recoil- tendency for an expanded lung to collapse
*Occurs for 2 reasons
1.Elastic fibers in connective tissue of lungs
2. Surface tension of film of fluid that line alveoli
 Surface tension- exists because the oppositely charged
ends of H20 molecules attract each other
* 2 Factors that keep lungs from collapsing
1. Surfactant-mixture of lipoprotein molecule produced by
secretory muscles
2. Pressure in pleural cavity
 Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IDRS) or hyaline
membrane disease
- caused by too little surfactant
- common in premature infants delivered before 7
months of pregnancy
 Pleural Pressure
- pressure in pleural cavity
- less than alveolar pressure, alveoli tend to
expand
 Changing alveolar volume
- results in changes in alveolar pressure
- responsible for movement of air in and out
of the lungs
 Pressure Changes and Airflow

-Respiratory muscles cause changes in

thoracic volume which cause changes in
alveolar volume and pressure.

-During inspiration air flows into the alveoli

because atmospheric pressure is greater than
alveolar pressure.

-During expiration, air flows out of the alveoli

because alveolar pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure.
 Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

-There are four pulmonary volumes: tidal volume,

inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve and residual
volume.

-Pulmonary capacities are the sum of two or more

pulmonary volumes and include vital capacity and total lung
capacity.

-The forced expiratory vital capacity measures the rate at

which air can be expelled from the lungs.

 Gas Exchange
-respiratory membrane– where gas exchange between air
blood occurs.

-The dead space – where gas exchange between air and

blood does not occur.
 Gas Transport in the Blood
Oxygen Transport
-Most oxygen (98.5%) is transported bound
to hemoglobin.
-Some oxygen (1.5%) is transported
dissolved in plasma.
Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH
-Carbon Dioxide is transported as HCO3
(70%) in combination with blood proteins
(23%) and solution in plasma (7%).
Oxygen Transport
 Rhythmic Ventilation
 Medullary respiratory centers:
1. Dorsal inspiratory group- pacesetting nucleus which is
responsible for the rhythm of breathing. Inspiratory
neurons fire nerve impulses to the diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles for contraction.

2. Ventral respiratory group- contain both inspiratory and

expiratory neurons. There activity are more of tonic
than cyclic.
When forceful breathing occurs the expiratory center
sends activating impulses to the muscles of expiration
causing immediate muscle contraction.
 Pons respiratory centers:
1. Pneumotaxic center- fine tunes the breathing
rhythm and prevents over inflation of the lungs.
Continuously sends inhibitory impulses to the
inspiratory center shortening the inspiration.
2. Apneustic center- provides inspiratory drive by
continuously stimulating the medullary
inspiratory center. Its effect is to prolong
inspiration and to shorten expiration or to cause
breath holding.
Thank You Very Much