I5 = OUT

Basic Electricity
Electrically Neutral I4 = IN

-+

I2 = OUT

+--

Positive Ion

Negative Ion

I3 = OUT Fig. 4-1 Kirchoffs current law 1 Figure 1-9 Free Electron

Basic Electricity

Published by Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

INTRODUCTION
2 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Todays automobiles are becoming even more dependent on electrical and electronic technology to manage systems that control power train, passenger compartment, and safety devices. Because of this, it is very important that automotive technicians have a good understanding of how electricity works, both in theory and practical application. KIA Motors Technical Service Training Department is aware of the daily challenge technicians face when diagnosing a vehicle with electrical or electronic problems. We also understand the specialized knowledge required to effectively isolate, troubleshoot and repair electrical problems which may occur in a vehicle. In consideration of this, we have developed this new course titled, Basic Electrical Training as part of our training program. This course is designed to be instructed in two segments; first a refresher reviewing basic electrical principles (such as circuit types, Ohms Law, and schematic diagram reading); and second (and most important), learning how to apply the theory to diagnose actual on-vehicle circuitry. Through carefully prepared worksheets, students will learn how to pinpoint circuit locations, conduct measurements, and determine how voltage, current or resistance values contribute toward determining the necessary repair. This course has been design to be instructed mainly in a workshop environment with the intent of demonstrating the practical on-vehicle application of the course content. It is our hope that use of this training technique will optimize the individual learning experience and technicians will relate the knowledge gained directly to vehicle repairs at the dealership. We at KIA motors hope that the information received during this course improves technicians knowledge of electricity and electronics. We also encourage that the procedures shown become part of each technicians regular diagnostic routine and are applied whenever possible to help ensure customers receive the best possible service.

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Contents
1. Electricity General
1.1 Fundamental 1.2 Occurrence of Electricity

2
2 3

8. Magnetic Force
8.1 Occurrence of Magnetic Force 8.2 Magnetic and Magnetic Force 8.3 Electro Magnetic Induction 8.4 Solenoid 8.5 Electromagnets 8.6 Relay 8.7 Transformers

65
65 65 68 69 70 71 73

2. Current, Voltage & Resistance

2.1 Current 2.2 Potential difference VS Current 2.3 Voltage 2.4 Potential difference VS Voltage 2.5 Resistance 2.6 Conductor, Insulator and resistor 2.7 Current, Voltage and Resistance Relation 2.8 Direct & Parallel Current Circuit

13
13 14 16 16 19 20 21 25

9. Capacitor
9.1 Capacitance and the Capacitor 9.2 Calculating Capacitor 9.3 Types of Capacitor 9.4 Transient Response of Capacitor 9.5 RC Time Constant 9.6 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

81
81 83 84 86 88 89

3. Ohms Law
3.1 Determining Current 3.2 Determining Resistance 3.3 Determining Voltage 3.4 Voltage drop

33
34 35 36 36

10. Generator
10.1 Magnetic Induction 10.2 Construction of a Generation 10.3 Types of Generator 10.4 Voltage and Current Regulation 10.5 Alternating Current 10.6 The Alternator

91
91 94 97 101 102 104

4. Kirchoffs Law
4.1 Kirchoffs Current Law 4.2 Kirchoffs Voltage Law

39
39 40

5. Electric Power and Watt

5.1 Electric Power 5.2 A mount of Electric Power

43
43 43

11. DC Motor
11.1 Motor Operation Principles 11.2 Counter Electromotive Force 11.3 DC Motors 11.4 Types of Motors 11.5 Start Motor

107
107 110 111 113 114

6. Summery for basic Electrical

6.1 To understand easily formula of electrical 6.2 Troubleshooting methods in Circuit
6.3 Check for Ground condition in Parallel circuit

45
45 46 46

7. Multi Meter
7.1 Measurement Items (Analog Multi Meter) 7.2 Volt meter 7.3 Ohm Meter 7.4 Digital Meter

51
51 54 56 59

Appendix

117

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

1. Electricity General
1.1 Fundamental
Everything in the universe is made up of matter. Matter can be defined as anything that occupies space or has mass. Matter can be found in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. However, these states are subject to relative temperature. Water is usually found in liquid form. Yet water can be readily changed to solid or a vapor form by changing its temperature. Matter can also be described by color, taste, and aridness, but these are only observable characteristics. They may not truly identify a substance. To truly identify a substance, the substance must be broken down into its smallest parts. The substance must be described in term of its atomic structure. Only then can it truly be defined and its behavioral characteristic identified. A substance has been broken down to its purest form when breaking it down further it down further will change its atomic characteristics. This form is called an element. There are over 100 elements. Most of these elements occur naturally in our universe. Some of the elements do not occur naturally, but have been created in laboratories. Some common examples of naturally occurring elements are iron, copper, gold, aluminum, carbon, and oxygen. If two or more of these elements are mixed together, a compound is created. A compound can be reduced to its individual elements. An element can be reduced to its atomic structure

1.2 Occurrence of electricity Substance

1.2.1 what is electricity?

Element

Atom

First, need to understand about structure of material before understand electricity. Figure 1-1 Structure of material is composed as following.

Material

Molecule

Atom

Atomic nucleus

Nucleus

Proton
7 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Electron

Basic Electricity

Material

Molecule

Atom

Figure 1-2 Structure of material Characteristic of molecule and atom Melecul : Atom has propensity of material being minimum unit that can no longer split. Atom : It is material that can no longer split. no nature of material . Atom makes of following element again, and the structure is with figure. Electrons Electron Nucleus

+ + + Neutron

Protons

Shell Structure of Atom . Detail structure of Atom

Figure 1-3 Structure of Atom

Protons located in the nucleus of an atom, are the positive (+) charged particles. Neutrons also in the nucleus, have no electric charge and are electrically neutral Electrons are the particles that orbit the nucleus and have a negative (-) charge. Electrons move or flow from atom to atom because it is possible for an atom to gain or lose electrons in certain circumstances. Electrons that have been driven from an atom are called free electrons. The loss of one electron means the atom has an extra proton, which results in a more positive charge 8 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
than negative. Positively charged atoms attract free electrons to replace the ones that were lost. If an atom gains an extra electron, it will have a more negative charge. The atom will repel other Negatively charged particles and will easily give up this extra electron if it is attracted away by a positively charged atom. To understand this better, think of a line of cars in traffic on a highway. When one car turns off, an opening is available. When an opening is available, another car, wanting in, sees it and is attracted to it and fills it in. This movement or flow of free electrons from one atom to another is electrical current or electricity. 1.2.2 Ionization The number of electrons and protons that make a particular atom are usually equal in number. This equal number creates a canceling effect between the negative and positive charge. The atomic structure of each element can be described as having a fixed number of electrons in orbit. Usually, an atom remains in its normal state unless energy is added by some exterior force such as heat, friction, or bombardment by other electrons. When energy is added to an atom, the atom becomes excited. If the exterior force is of sufficient strength, electrons in the atoms outer rings or orbits can leave their orbit. How tightly bound these outer electrons are to an atom depends on the element and the number of electrons in the outer orbit. If electrons leave the outer orbit, the atom becomes out of balance electrically. Shells (K, L, M, N.) Nucleus K L 8 Protons (+) 8 Neutrons 8 Electrons (-)

Oxygen Atom Figure 1.4 Atom ionization

When the electron leaves the outer orbit. The atom becomes ionized. An atom that loses an electron from its outer orbit has more protons. The atom becomes a positive ion and displays positive charged characteristics. When an atom gains an extra electron, it becomes a negative ion. Negative ions display negatively 9 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
charged characteristics.

Figure 1-5 Atom ion 1.2.3 Electrostatic Field The field or force surrounding a charged body is called the electrostatic field or dielectric field. The field can exhibit a positive or negative charge depending on a gain or loss of electrons. Two charged masses are shown in Figure 1-6. Lines represent the electrostatic fields of opposite polarity and the attractive force existing between the masses. In Figure 1-7, two charged masses are shown with like polarities. A repulsive force exists the charged masses due to the electrostatic fields. The field strongest very close to charged body. The field strength diminishes at a distance inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

Figure 1-7 Figure When two electrostatic fields are 1-6 joined together, the electrons flow from the mass with an excess of electrons to the mass that has a need of electrons flow from the mass with excess of electrons. Figure 1-8 illustrates this principle. The excess electrons flow from the body that is negatively charged to the positively charged body that has electron deficiency. This transfer of electrons can be accomplished by touching the two bodies together or by connecting them with a material that supports the flow of electrons between the two bodies. This connecting material is known as a conductor because it conducts electricity.

Conductor path
Figure 1-8 When two charged bodies are connected with a conductor, Excess electrons will flow through the conductor from he mass having a surplus of 10 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
electrons to the mass having a deficit of electrons 1.2.4 Electron Movement The actual flow of current through the circuit is based on the principles you have just learned. As you saw earlier, normal atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. This makes the atom electrically neutral. However, it is possible for an atom to gain or lose electrons. If normal atom loses one electron that means the atom has an extra proton. Since there are more positive charges than negative ones, the atom has a positive charge. In case an atom gains an extra proton, the atom will have a negative charge. The outermost orbital electrons are sometimes held very loosely to the nucleus like a distant planet may be to the Sun. Collisions may occur, which result in some electrons being driven from their normal path and drifting through the material lattice. These are called free electrons.

Some atoms gain or lose electrons more easily than others. The ones that do are the conductors. Copper atoms, for example, give up electrons very easily. The atoms in materials such as plastic or rubber do not give up electrons at all, which makes them excellent insulators.

Fundamental question
Q1 Write correct answer to blank

Material

Molecule

Atomic nucleus

11

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Q2 All atoms made up of three particles. What are they?

Q3 Which particles in the atoms gives rise to electric current

Q4. If we compare a thin conductor to a thick on, which is the better conductor?

Q5 If we compare two similarly thick conductors, but one is warm and others is cold, which of them is the better conductor if current?

Q5 Select incorrect answer ------ (

1) Current of electricity is begun from movement free electron 2) If transfer of free electron is much, transfer of electricity is many (high current). 3) If free electron is seceded, electricity occurs 4) Atom has nature of material

2. Current, Voltage, Resistance

2.1 Current
Since free electrons are all negatively charged, they will all repel one another. If there is a surplus of electrons in one area and a shortage in another, electrons will flow toward the shortage - then try to get away from each other. When this movement happens, a flow or current of electrons is created. The current continues until the electrons have spread themselves out evenly. 12 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Current can be described as the rate of electron flow. A measure of the amount of electron flow, like a water pipe. The larger pipe is greater capacity to carry flow. This meaning is that current flow much if electron's number moves much, so that water wheel's moving becomes lively in picture below. Conclusively, electron's transfer is flowing of current, and can speak current intensity by electrons the transfer amount. Water tank A (Positive terminal) Water tank B (Negative terminal) Tank A Tank B

Water level difference (Potential difference) Current flow Water wheel rotate Lamp ON Figure 2-1 No current flow

Same water level No potential Difference

No water wheel Rotate

Lamp OFF

Current represent: The ampere is expressed using the letter I. The ampere describes the rate of flow of electrons past any given point in a circuit. Current unit: A (Ampere) 1 Ampere: One ampere is equal to one coulomb of charge flowing part a point in one second I = Q / T (Q: Coulomb, T: Second) 1 coulomb : = 1 / 1.6012910-9 = 6.251018 Thus, The electric charge amount that pass per time 1 A: 1,000 mA 1 mA: 0.001 A 1 kA: 1,000 A

2.2 Potential and potential difference VS. Current

Lets talk about more detail through water for the current. When a battery is connected to a lamp, its light up. The current flow mean is because deference of potential between + and -. This is because current flows through the lamp, this meaning is electron moving to + so, that lamp On. Then how and why current flows? Lets talking a water wheel in the water tank as example. 13 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

If no electronic current flows, the lamp will not light up and if there is no water flow, the water wheel does not turn either. Then, when will water flow in the example shown below? When the water tank A and B are at the same water level water does not flow and the water wheel does not turn When there is water level difference between the two tanks, water flow from tank at higher level to the tank at lower level since water is to flow from high to low level by nature. As result, the water wheel turns. The same is turn with electricity . When is no potential difference current will not flow. If there is potential difference, current flows from higher potential to low one As a result The current is electric power. If transfer of free electron is much, it is meaning that electric power is big therefore heat generator a lot.
Water tank A
High water level

Water tank B

Water tank A

Water tank B

Water level Difference (Potential Difference)

Low water level Water wheel work

No water level Difference (Potential same)

Water wheel does not work No Water Flow Water wheel

Water current

Water Flow

No water current

Water wheel

Water flow (Current flow) Figure 2-2

No water flow(No current flow)

When connect by wire between charge body and - charge body, electrons are moving and neutralized. At this time, heat generate by electrons transfer.

This heat occurrence function says that is 3 function of current. Heat function If current passes, heat happens. Ex) cigar lighter, electric stove etc Magnetism function 14 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
If current passes, self-discipline happens around wire. Ex) solenoid Chemistry function: EX) battery. Lets talk about in the vehicle battery for current flow. The source of the electrical energy, the battery, contains two terminals, positive and negative. From our explanation of positive and negative charges, we can say that the atoms at the positive terminal contain more protons than electrons. This gives the positive terminal a positive charge. On the other side, atoms at the negative terminal have more electrons than protons. As a result, that terminal has a negative charge. The negative terminal has a tremendous supply of free electrons. All these electrons, confined to a small area, are repelling each other trying to get away.

Summary for current

Flowing of current is transfer of electron. If transfer of electron is much, mean that current passes much. Though there is potential difference, current passes when connected between high and low potential. If transfer of free electron is much, heats generate, Therefore, electric wire bunt out that is done because so much current passed. Quantity of current can explain by quantity of water that passes a pipe. Current passes much to some actuator means that amount of electric power is strong .

2.3 Voltage
If different electrical nature connects other two charged bodies by wire, current passes, because it is difference of electric potential between two charged bodies that current passage. It is known that this electrical difference is electric potential 15 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
It is known that advance guard's difference is voltage. Because there is electric potential difference, occur electromotive force. The volt (V) is the electrical unit used to express the amount of electrical pressure present, or the amount of electrical force produced by chemical action inside the battery. Symbol E Voltage unit: V 1 volt: When 1 coulombs' electric charge moves to charged body and work 1joule, for two point charged bodies between potential differences. E = W (joule) / Q(coulombs) Volt W: Electric power Q: Electric charge amount 1 volt: 0.001 1 volt : 1,000 1 : 1,000 v

2.4 Potential & Potential Difference VS. Voltage

Voltage can be expressed by potential and potential difference. Figure 2-3 explains how these are related to each other, referring to water tank. When the two water tanks are connected by pipe, water will flow from the tank of higher water level to the tank of lower level. The water level has been measured with reference to ground. Similarly, potential is measured related to certain standard level, which is called earth or ground, and the potential of earth (ground) is taken as 0 (V). Usually the physical earth is taken as the ground but in the case of automobiles the negative ( ) terminal of battery is taken as the ground. The water level of the lower tank is taken as the reference (water level 0). In case of the battery, 12 volts means the potential difference between the two terminals of the Water tank A Water tank B battery. (Positive terminal) (Negative terminal)

Water level difference (Potential difference) Water level 12(Potential) Water level 0 (Ground) Water current (Electrical current) Figure 2-3 Potential & potential difference If open valve in above Fig.2-3, because position of water is different, water is flowed water tank A to water tank B. But, if it is no difference position (or pressure), water does not flow even if opened valve. That is, if difference of pressure becomes same, current means stagnant. 16 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Therefore, because it is no flowing of current, actuator is not working, and there is no heat occurrence by current. If, so difference pressure of the between tank A and B, pipe is burst and heat occurrence. Meaning positive is 12volts and negative means that is 0volt in Battery of passenger car. Thus, difference of electrical potential is 12 in battery of passenger car. This meaning positive (+) is 12 volts and negative (-) means 0volt. If close switch in below figure 2-4, because current is passed, lamp may become ON Voltage of each position according to ON or OFF switch, become different in below fig. 2-4 It is same with as follow. A C B +(Positive) D Lamp E 12 Volt BATTERY Switch F Figure 2-4 Potential & potential difference Voltage of each position Voltage measure position A~B B~C C~D D~E E~F F~A C~E C~F D~F Switch OFF condition (Lamp OFF) 12 volt Nothing volt Nothing volt Nothing volt 12 volt Nothing volt Nothing volt 12 volt 12 volt Switch ON condition (Lamp ON) 12 volt 0 volt 12 volt 0 volt 0 volt 0 volt 12 volt 12 volt 0 volt

-(Negative)

Although voltage between E and F are 12volts because resistance is infinity before switch closed, switch if do closed resistance because to 0 ohms become 0 volt. And, current passes when switch closed, at this time, voltage between D and A become 0 volts

17

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
because resistance is 0. Also, while current is flowing, voltage between C and D are 12volt, however, switch off if is done become nothing volt. As a result, important is thing while flowing current, voltage between B and C are 12volt, and voltage between D and A are become 0 volts.

How many voltage each other position at below circuit?

Condition 1 : before room lamp switch on.(Lamp OFF) Q1. Voltage measure position between C40-1 and Battery earth ----( Q2. Voltage measure position between C40-2 and G9 ----( Q3. Voltage measure position between R25 and R26 ----( Condition 1 : after room lamp switch on.(Lamp ON) Q1. Voltage measure position between Battery positive and R25 ----( Q2. Voltage measure position between R25 and Battery earth ----( Q3. Voltage measure position between R26 and Battery earth ----( ) volt. ) volt. ) volt. ) volt. ) volt. ) volt.

FUSE F8 5A
Battery Battery +

BATTERY COMPARTMENT FUSE BOX #1

4
0.5R/L

C22 C40-1 CR02

ROOM LAMP SWITCH

12 Volt Battery

0.5R/L R25 ROOM LAMP

C40-2 0.5R/L Battery earth G09 R26 0.5 B

2.5 Resistance
If free electron moves on interior of some material, because electrons have electrical nature, become 18 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
flowing of current. That is current studied already that 1 ampere passes if 6.28*10E+18's electron move during 1 second follow in number of electron to move per unit time. By the way, all kinds of materials are composed of atoms and after all, these are an obstacle for free electrons to move inside among them. It is called Electric Resistance to prevent the movement of electron. So, the electric resistance in a material is changed according to the following variables: - Kind of material - Sectional area of wire - Length of wire - Temperature Also, all materials have different kind of structure of atoms. Therefore, the environment for free electrons to move in the materials is various in any kind of material. Thus, even if the electrons of same quantity are engaged, the amount of electrons, which can pass through the narrow space per unit time, can be change. And, when the thickness become big in same material, the passageway, that electrons can move is getting wider. In addition, if transfer distance of electron is long, it takes much time for electron to move in the passageway. Therefore, the amount of electron that moves within unit time can be decreased. This means that there are many electric resistances. Now, the formula that expresses the electric resistance is as follows: R=LS R: Resistance of material : an invariable by kind of material( m) L: Length of wire (m) S : Sectional area() Also, if temperature of most material rises, motions of atom liveliness get worn out. Therefore, these atoms can be obstacle to free electrons of their movement. So, electric resistance of material increases temperature rises on the whole. Expression of resistance: R Unit of resistance : (ohm) Symbol of resistance:

1 ohm: Resistance value of when supplied 1volt to conductor and current of 1 ampere flowing. 19 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
1 Ampere 1 Ampere

1 1 volt 1 :1,000 1 : 0.001 1 : 1,000,000 1 volt

2.6 Conductor, insulator and resistor

If electrical current flows easily through a material, that material is called a conductor. Metals such as copper, silver, gold, aluminum, and steel are used as paths in automobiles because they are good conductors. Copper is used almost exclusively in wires because of its durability and cost. The opposite of a conductor is an insulator. Insulators do not allow current to flow through them. Glass, plastic, rubber, and ceramics are good insulating materials. The plastic coating on the outside of a wire is an example of an insulator. When free electron moves on conductor interior, Some electrons collide with atoms and part of kinetic energy emits as light or heat. Thereby, generator heat called Joule heat. The generator heat is proportional with square of current and in size of resistance. Joule heat = Square of currentResistance Utensils that to use Joule heat. - Electric stove - Electric iron - Lamps - Etc. Conductors Copper Iron Steel Aluminum Silver Tin Damp earth Salt Water Insulators Glass Air Dry wood Sand Distilled water Some plastics Paper Rubber Oil

20

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
2.7 Current, Voltage, and Resistance relation
Current, voltage, and resistance determine how electricity will behave in a circuit. These three characteristics are closely related. When one changes, it immediately causes one or both of the others to change as well. The relationships between current, voltage, and resistance can be expressed with a set of mathematical formulas. The formulas are part of a set of rules called Ohms Law. These rules can be used to explain or predict the behavior of electricity in all types of circuits. Current: A measure of the amount of electron flow. Like a water pipe, the larger the pipe the greater the capacity to carry flow. Measured in Amperes, or Amps (A). Voltage: A measure of the potential of a source to supply electromotive force (EMF), or electrical pressure. Measured in Volts (V). Resistance: A measure of the opposition to current flow in a circuit. Measured in Ohms (). Explain more through figure below. - If pump operates, water circulates for clockwise direction. - Operation pressure of motor is 12kg/cm2. - At this time, actuator working 100% moving. Condition 1 When there is no resistance in circuit, pressure of each position. P1 P1, P2 = P actuator =12kg/cm2. Pa, Pb = 0kg/cm2. P1 = P2 Pa = Pb (P1, P2) (Pa, Pb) = 12 Pressure - Between pump and actuator: 12kg/cm - Between actuator and pump: 0kg/cm2 Quantity of water Even if pressure of water is different, quantity of flowing water is same in any place.
2

P2

Pa
actuator

Pb

Actuator

P
Pump

21

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Condition 2 When there is resistance between P1 and P2 in circuit, pressure of each position. P1 = 12kg/cm2. P2 = P1 R1 (Quantity which pressure of water is been blocked by R1). R1 (Quantity which pressure of water is been blocked by R1). = Pump (or P1) P P2 = P P
actuator actuator actuator

(Apply pressure to the actuator)

= P2 Pa

Pa = Pb = 0kg/cm2. Pressure - Between pump and actuator: 12kg/cm2 (pump pressure) - R1 - Between P1 and P2: Pressure is drop as much as quantity, which is been blocked by R1. - Between actuator and pump: 0kg/cm2 As a result pressure is trembled as quantity, which is been blocked by resistance. Quantity of water As much as R1 disturbs, that water of flowing quantity is decrease. P1 P2 Pa Pb

R1

P actuator Actuator

Pump Condition 3 When there is resistance between Pa and Pb in circuit, pressure of each position. P1 = 12kg/cm2. P1 = Pump = P2 = 12kg/cm2 R2 (Quantity which pressure of water is been blocked by R2) = Pa - Pb P P
actuator actuator

= (Pump or P1 or P2) Pa apply pressure is decrease as much as R2 pressure.

Pa = R2 Pb Pb = 0kg/cm2 Pressure 22 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Between pump and actuator: 12kg/cm2 (pump pressure)

- Between actuator and pump: Pressure is drop as much as quantity, which is been blocked by R2. - Between Pb and pump: 0kg/cm2. When is normally, pressure between actuator and B is pump. By the way, if there is resistance between actuator and pump, pressure does not drop to zero as the resistance. Quantity of water As much as R2 disturbs, that water of flowing quantity is decrease. P1 P2 Pa Pb

P actuator Actuator

R2

P
Pump

23

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Current, Voltage and Resistance summary.

Resistance

Voltage

Current

Voltage - If there is electric potential, electron's transfer is begun. - Thus, flowing of current is begun. - If voltage is high, electrons transfer much have. -Thus, The flowing of current becomes much. Current - Current is transfer amount of free electron. - Current operates electric actuators - If voltage is high, current flow much. But, overheat if flowing of current exceeds. - Resistance disturbs flowing of current. Thus, if resistance is high, flowing of current is decreased. - If current passes excessively, heat occurrence. - A magnetic field occurs around wiring that when current passes. Resistance - Resistance disturbs of free electron flowing. Thus, disturb flowing of current. - If there is much resistances, electricity actuator of 100% does not operate. Because, It is current 100% does not pass. - Resistance is started aging or degradation of wiring in wire harness. - Electricity problem is begun from resistance in a car. They are contact resistance of connector, disconnect of connector, poor ground.

24

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

2.8 Direct & Parallel current Circuit

Basically, an automobile uses DC (Direct Current) electric source, but electric circuit is consist of series current circuit, parallel current circuit, and series/parallel current circuit. Therefore, the major electric circuit of automobile is series/parallel circuit. 2.8.1 Direct current circuit (Series circuit) A typical complete circuit contains an energy supply, circuit protection, a load, some kind of control, and a path. When a conductor connects all of these components end-to-end, the result is called a series circuit. When batteries are connected in series (end-to-end), the total output voltage equals the sum of all the individual battery voltages. Although this set-up provides a higher output voltage, their combined capacity to supply current is the same as that of a single cell.

Fig. 2-5 Series connect in batteries Namely, resistance or power source is connecting method is linked by series, and circuit composition that is linked to resistance is same with Fig. 2-6 below. R1 I E 12 Volt I1 R2 I2 E I Lamp1 R1 Lamp2 R2

I1
12 Volt

I2

Direct circuit of equivalence 25

Direct circuit of 2 lamps Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Fig. 2-6 Direct current circuit Several resistances of connection of resistance compose by series, become in one resistance form. E = I R = I (R1 + R2) In this formula, (R1 + R2) says that is equivalence resistance or combined resistance and combined resistance increases is many if there is much resistances. However, value of current is decrease relatively. To calculation total resistance in series circuit Total resistance R = Sum of all resistances of circuit (R1 + R2 ------ R9) There are common characteristics to all direct current circuits: Summary for direct current There is a single path for current. The same amount of current flows through every component. An open at any point prevents current flow. At series connection of resistance, total resistance increases connect resistance. Total resistance increases, flowing current decreases in circuit. Flowing current is always same in series circuit even if measure in any place.

Series connect in circuit Series connect in lamp Fig. 2-7 Direct current circuit 1) Circuit with load in direct-current circuit V = (R1 + R0) I R total = R1 + R0 R1: Load (Resistance) R0 : Wire line resistance I = V (R1 + R0) 26 V Chonan Technical Service Training Center I R1 R0

Basic Electricity
Fig. 2-8 Direct current circuit 2) To calculate both end voltage of resistance in D.C circuit. --- 1 What is the total resistance in below circuit?

- What is the current in below circuit? - What are the individual voltages of E1, E2, E3 in picture below? Total resistance R is R = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 Ohms Current I = 12Volt 6 = 2 A E1 = I R1 12V = 2A 1 = 2 volt E2 = I R1 12V = 2A 2 = 4 volt E3 = I R3 12V = 2A 3 = 6 volt E = E1 + E2 + E3 12 Volt Fig. 2-9 Direct current circuit E1=?v 2A=2V E2=?v E3=?v 2A=4V 2A=6V R1=1 R2=2 R3=

E = 2volt + 4volt + 6volt = 12 Volt

3) To yield both end voltage of resistance in D.C circuit. --- 1 Sum of variable resistance is 20 k between x and z in below circuit. In case resistance of between x and y is 5 k 3-1) How much V0 volt? 3-2) How much volt between x and y? 3-3) E = (x ~ y volt) + V0 volt = [ Direct current ] Volt 12Volt Rv
y X

V0=?

Fig. 2-10 Direct current circuit

Moving charges give rise to a current I whose strength is measured in ampere. The direction of flow and magnitude of direct current are independent of time. Direction of current flow and measurement Current flowing from positive pole to negative pole outside current source is designated as positive(in reality, the electronic travel from the negative to the positive pole). An ampere meter in the current path measures current flow. : Voltage is measured by a voltmeter connected in shunt. Voltage measurement in direct current circuit. : Parallel connected voltage meter.

Volt meter 27 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Current measurement in direct current circuit. : Series connected voltage meter.

Ampere meter

2.8.2 Parallel current circuit (Parallel circuit)

In a parallel circuit, there is more than one path for current to flow. Each current path is called a branch. Branches are connected to one common positive and one common negative terminal; therefore, the voltage applied to each branch is the same. When batteries of the same voltage are connected in parallel, the total output voltage is the same as for any single battery. However, since current flows from all the batteries simultaneously, this arrangement will supply a larger current. The illumination system in an instrument cluster is a good example of a parallel circuit. If one lamp burns out or is removed the others will still work.

Parallel connect in circuit

Parallel connect in batteries 28 circuit Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 2-11 Parallel

Basic Electricity

1) First, must know resistance value to know flowing current in parallel circuit. Therefore below formula is formed. E = E1 = E3 E=IR Rtotal = 1 (1/R1 + 1/R2) = 1 (R2 + R1) / R1 R2 To calculate easily total resistance Rtotal = Multiplication of resistance Sum of resistance Rtotal = (R1 R2) (R1 + R2) If, in this circuit E=12volt, R1=4, R2=6. Total resistance? Rtotal = (46) (4+6) = 24 10 = 2.4 I total = E R = 12 volt 2.4 ohm =5A Also, I 1 = 12 volt 4 ohm = 3 A I 2 = 12 volt 6 ohm = 2 A I total = I 1 + I 2 = 3 Ampere + 2 Ampere = 5 Ampere E1 = I 1 R1 = 3 A 4 = 12 V E2 = I 2 R2 = 2A 6 = 12 V 2) When impressed electromotive force in below circuit that formula of I1 = E/R1, I2 = E/R2, I3 = E/R3 is formed. 3) Also, whole current I is same with sum of current that each 3 lamp consumes in circuit 4) When each switch did ON, to each light bulb flowing current I1 = E/R1 I2 = E/R2 29 Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 2-12 Parallel circuit E R1 I1 E1 I2 E2

R2

Basic Electricity
I3 = E/R3 I = I1 + I2 + I3 = E/R1 + E/R2 + E/R3 = E (1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3) (A)

I1 I E I2 I3

R1 C R2 R3

I1 I2 I3

sw1 sw2 sw3

I
E

D E

Parallel equivalence circuit

3 lamp's parallel circuits Fig. 2-13 Parallel circuit

5) There are two common characteristics to all parallel circuits: The total current in the circuit equals the sum of the branch currents. Therefore, resistance values of current according to addition or delete change. An open in one branch affects only the load in that branch; other branches continue to operate normally. Current in parallel circuit is different according to point that measure. That is, when measure current in above circuit of right hand side. . A point current = (I 1+I 2+I 3) = B point current I = 60mA If connect batteries by parallel circuit, voltage are fixed, but current consumes becomes more per I 2 E2 I1 E1 time. E = 12 V

R1=60 I and R2= 90 6) Find total resistance(R) value in below circuit and calculate value of each current voltage E. Total resistance R = R1 R2 / R1 + R2 = ( E=IR=[ E = E1 = E2 In formula E1 = R1 I2, I1 = E/R1 = [ In formula E2 = R2 I2, I2 = E/R2 = [ I = I1 + I2 = [ R2 = [ ] Ohm 30 Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 2-14 Parallel circuit ]A Total resistance R = R1 R2 / R1 + R2 = [ ]A ]A R1 = 100 ] Ohm E = 12 V R2 = 20 ] Volt I1 I2 )

Basic Electricity
I1=( I2=( )A )A

2.8.3 Series - Parallel Circuit

A series-parallel circuit combines both series and parallel circuits, along with their respective characteristics. The first step in analyzing a series-parallel is to break the circuit down to its simplest form. Then analyze only the particular series or parallel circuit characteristics that apply to that component. That is, composition of car circuit belongs to series-parallel circuit as circuit that series and parallel are mixed. I I1 E E1 a I2 I a E1 R1 R2 E

R1,2(R1+R2) b

b E2 R3 c Figure A Fig. 2-15 Series-Parallel circuit

E2

R3

c Figure B

1) Equivalent circuit of figure A is circuit that series and parallel are mixed, and figure B R1.2 is combined resistance value of R1+R2 of figure A that figure B circuit diagram computation combined resistance of parallel resistance R1 R2 of figure A and represent by equivalent circuit of series 2) Because current I is increased according as parallel resistance increases in this circuit, can be represent by total resistance of I=/R1,2 + R3. 3) Whole combined resistance R of this circuit - Combined resistance of between a and b = (R1R2) / (R1+R2) ohm ---- R1,2 - Combined resistance of between a and c= R1,2 + R3 ohm ------- R (Combined resistance) 4) Whole circuit current I - I = E / R(Combined resistance ) = E / ( R1 R2 / R1 + R2) + R3 5) Current of circuit 31 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
- I1 = R2 / R1 + R2 X I (A) - I2 = R2 / R1 + R2 X I (A) - I3 = I = I1 + I2 (A) 6) Voltage - E3 = R3 I3 = R3 I - E1 = E2 so E = E1 + E3 = E2 + E3 (Volt) 7) Current flowing when switch ON In below circuit. At this time 1.How much resistance of each lamp? 2.How much combined resistance between a and b? 3 All current I? 4.How much voltage between a and b? 5.How much voltage between b and c? Here, when lamp ON temperature ignores of lamp L1 = 2A

I
E

L2 = 3A

SW b

L3 = 4A Fig. 2-16 Series-Parallel circuit c

32

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

3.Ohms Law
Any operating electrical circuits must have three factors, voltage, current, and resistance. Their relationship can be described by Ohms Law statement: The amount of current that will flow in any circuit is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. In other words, as voltage goes up, current goes up, but as resistance goes up current goes down. VOLTAGE (V) UP SAME SAME CURRENT (A) UP UP DOWN RESISTANCE () SAME DOWN UP

Ohms Law is the basis for electrical troubleshooting. Taken as a statement, Ohms Law expresses the characteristics that govern electrical behaviors in a circuit. However, Ohms Law can also be expressed as an equation. Using this equation, calculating a specific value for any three electrical factors is possible: How much current, if voltage and resistance are known. How much voltage, if current and resistance are known. How much resistance, if voltage and current are known. When you know any two values, you can use Ohms Law equation to calculate the third value. As, previously discussed, single letters of the alphabet are used to represent current, voltage, and resistance; current by the letter I for intensity; voltage by either V or an E for electromotive force; and resistance by the letter R.

E=IR
I
33

Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 3-1 Ohms law formula

Basic Electricity
E : Voltage I : Current R : Resistance

Ohms Law circle A handy memory tool is the Ohms Law circle. If you hold your finger over the letter of the unknown value, the correct formula stands out. For example, to solve for I, place your finger over that letter and the correct formula is seen to be: I = E / R or I = E R Cover E with your finger to see that the formula is: E=IR Cover R with your finger to see that the formula is: R = E /I or R = E I Its only necessary to remember that the E is always on top. The order of the other two letters makes no difference.

3.1 Determining Current

The circuit on the right shows the values of the voltage and the resistance. To determine the current, we merely substitute the unknown value into the formula: I=? I=E/R I = 12 volt / 6 ohms I = 2 Amperes

+ _ E = 12 volt

R=6

Fig. 3-2 Ohms law current 1

I = current. ? According to the Ohms law, when the voltage increases, so does the To prove this, lets look at the same circuit we just did, but only this time well double the voltage. We still use the same formula as before. I=E/R 34 Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 3-3 Ohms law current 2

+ _ E = 24 volt

R=6

Basic Electricity

I = 24 volt / 6 ohms I = 4 Amperes

Notice that when the voltage doubles, the current also doubles. We expect this because current is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to voltage as Ohms Law states. That statement also says that current is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to resistance. So, lets find out. Again, using the same circuit, only this time well double the resistance. I=? I=E/R I = 12 volts / 12 ohms I = 1 Amperes E = 12 volt B Fig. 3-4 Ohms law current 3 Thus, when the resistance is doubled, the current is reduced to half its former value 3.2 Determining Resistance Using the Ohms Law circle, place your finger over the R and we can see the formula is: R = E / I or R = E I Therefore, to find the resistance in the circuit on the right, we apply the values we know. I = 3A A E = 12 volt I = 3 ampere R=? E = 12 volt R = ? B Fig. 3-5 Ohms law resistance A R = 12

35

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
To calculate, divide 3 into 12 and the answer is 4.

3.3 Determining Voltage The formula to determine voltage is the easiest of the three. Voltage = current times the resistance. The circuit on the right shows us there is 2 amps of current and 3 ohms of resistance. Therefore: I = 4A A E=IR E=43 E = 12 volts 3.4.1 Voltage Drop 1 The voltage removed from the circuit by the load (light bulb, motor, incorrect wire size, etc.) is called the voltage drop. The total voltage lost must equal the voltage applied. The amount of this loss can be calculated by using the formula we studied, V = I R. In practical terms, if you have a simple circuit that consists of a source (the battery) and a load (a lamp), the voltage drop across the lamp is determined by the amount of current times the resistance of the lamp. Question Estimates the resistance R1, R2 and V1's voltage in below circuit diagram? V2=10 Current I=4A
Lamp

E = ? volt

R = 3 B Fig. 3-6 Ohms law voltage

R1 12 volt R2 36 V2=? Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

1. R1(Lamp resistance) = ( 2. R2 Resistance = ( 3 .V2 voltage = ( ) ) volt

3.4.2 Voltage drop 2 If current flows in the load (resistance) of circuit, voltage drops as much as impressed electromotive force in the load (resistance). In other word, exhausted voltage is same with impressed voltage in resistance. When switch turned ON in below circuit. As 12volt's voltage are supplied to this circuit and lamp is operated, current that consume in lamp passed. At this time, the voltage drop as much impressed volt in both side of the lamp between + and -. This is voltage drop. By the way, if there is some contact resistance in S/W contact point, flowing current and lamp voltage drop as much S/W contact point resistance to lamp. Thus, it means that the current and voltage drop caused by the contact resistance of S/W are moved from lamp to S/W contact point. If summarize, when actuator (lamp, motor, solenoid, etc) operates, must be happen to actuator.

Impressed voltage = Voltage drop from actuator

This is a kind of very important theory to repair the vehicle. SWITCH LAMP

12VOLT Earth BATT. V2 V1 VoltageVoltage When switch 12= Volt in normality. when ON SW Off 12Volt If lower when than 12Volt, the SW ON =0lamp Volt does not work normality because it means that resistance exists somewhere. SW R2 R1 I 123-7 Voltage + Fig. drop 1 VOLT V2 V1 3.5 To understand voltage drop in equivalent circuit 4volt 8volt G11 V4 12volt 37 V3 SW ON : 0volt SW Off : 12 Volt

G2

Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 3-8 Voltage drop 2

Basic Electricity

1) In above circuit, when switch turned ON, the current flowing through R1 and R2. At this time, V3 is12 volts before switch turned ON. However, V3 is 0 volt, when switch turned ON. 2) If V1's voltage is 8 volt, it is voltage drop 8 volt in R1. At this time, V2's voltage become 12 - 8 = 4 volt, because battery voltage is 12Volt. Also, because expressed as "V1(voltage drop of R1) = I (Total current of circuit) R1(R1 resistance)" R1's voltage drop and R2's voltage drop are inverse proportion each other. 3) If R1's voltage drop rise, R2's voltage drop reduced relatively. 4) Sum of voltage drop of R1 and R2 is same with Battery applied voltage. 5) When current passes, if resistance does not exist, voltage is 0 volt.

38

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

4. Kirchoffs Law
Electric circuits are divided into series circuit, parallel circuit and series/parallel circuit according to connecting method. The sum of input current and output current are equal in this circuit. Also, impressed voltage and sum of voltage drop is same, this is Kirchoffs law. There are two laws in Kirchoff's law.

4.1 Kirchoffs current law (Kirchoffs first law)

In circuit inflow current's sum and outflow sum of done current same. Inflow current outflow current = 0 In this current flow below formula is formed in below circuit. Written as a formula: I1+I4 (INPUT CURRENT) = I2+I3+I5 (OUTPUT CURRENT)

R1 I I1

R2 I1 I2 I I2 I3 I4

Law of E Kirchoffs current in circuit diagram.

In series circuit I = I1 = I2 I = Total current, I1 = consumption current of R1 I2 = consumption current of R2

In parallel circuit I = I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 I,I4 = Total current in circuit I1 = consumption current of lamp1 I2 = consumption current of lamp2 I3 = consumption current of lamp

39 Chonan Service Training Center Fig. 4-2 Kirchoffs current lawTechnical 2

Basic Electricity

4.2 Kirchoffs voltage law (Kirchoffs second law)

The source voltage of a series circuit is equal to the total value of each individual voltage drop, and sum of voltage drop and sum of applied voltage big number are 0 (Zero). Input source voltage Sum of voltage drop = 0 1) When flow current in below circuit, voltage drop occurrence in resistance R1 and R2. 2) This voltage drop is proportional in resistance value of each resistance 3) Sum of voltage drop that is occurrence in each resistance is same with applied voltage. R1 R2 I1 E1 I I2 E2

E1 = R1 I (Volt)

E2 = R2 I(Volt)

Fig. 4-3 Kirchoffs voltage law 1 E = E1 + E2 (Kirchoffs voltage law) E = E1 + E2 = R1 I + R2 I = (R1 + R2) I 4) Kirchoffs voltage law material for exercise. Value of resistance R1 and R2 is different in this picture Current is 4A and value of voltage drop is 8Volt in resistance R1. How many voltage drops from R2? 12Volt(power source) - 8Volt(R1 voltage drop) = 4Volt or V2(R2 voltage drop) = 4A(total current)R2 resistance V1 = 2(R1) 4(current I) = 8Volt V2 = 1(R2) 4(current I) = 4Volt 8Volt 4Volt = 12Volt(power source voltage) 40 E I 12 Volt R1=2 R2=1 I1 I2

Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 4-3 Kirchoffs voltage law 2

Basic Electricity

Summary for Kirchoffs law If there is electric potential in a circuit, current passes and energy of electricity is converted by machine energy or energy of light by this. At this time, it is a kind of big resistance that produces energy and applied voltage or current consumed all in resistance this operation resistance that energy of 100% emanates be. But, for example, if there is another big or small resistance behind or front of effectors, effectors does not get energy as much this resistance consumes current Because voltage and current does not pass in effectors as much consume in this resistance does not get energy 100%.

41

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

42

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

5. Electrical power and Watt.

5.1 Electric power (P)
Amount of work that electricity during 1 second. Amount of electrical energy, that consume during per time. Expression of electric power: P Unit of electric power: w (watt) The formula for electric power is: P(watt) = E(volt) I(current) = EE/R = E2/R E = P/I I = P/E For example Current that fuel pump motor consumes is 3A. How much is electric energy? P =I V P = 2 A 12volt = 24 watt Question A starter motor, rated at 1.2kw, is operated to 12-volt battery. How much current will this appliance use? P=EI I = P/I I = 1.2kw 12 = 1,200w 12volt = 100Ampare

5.2 Amount of electric power

Multiply time that use to electric power. Amount of electric power (W) = E I t = P t(joules) An electrical current produces heat when it passes through a resistance. Heaters and resistors will remain hot for some time after the power is removed. This is due to heat of joules. 43 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Heat of joules 1 joule = 0.24 cal Heat = 0.24 E I t = 0.24 R I2 t = 0.24 E2/R t (cal or k cal)

6. Summary for basic electrical

EI

E/ R P/ E

6.1 To understand easily 2 formula of electrical

I R

E2 / R

P R

I E

P / E

E/ I E2 / P

IR PR

P / I2

P/ I
44 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

P : Electric power(watt), E : Voltage(volt), R : Resistance(R), I : Current(Amp) 6.2 Troubleshooting method in circuit

When switch on motor's operation is not smooth in below circuit, it explains checking method and inspection order. B A E E

C D Switch

Check procedure 1st. Measure the voltage of battery. 2nd, 1st. Measure the voltage of between B and C. At this time, voltage must be 12 volts, and inspect following below order if is low than applied voltage. And, if voltage are 12 volts, it is motor itself defect. 3rd, Measure the voltage between A and B At this time, voltage bust be 0 volt, if higher than 0 volt, there is resistance between A and B. 4th, Measure the voltage between C and E At this time, voltage bust be 0 volt, if higher than 0 volt, there is resistance between C and E. Substantially, Cannot measure 0 volt correctly in circuit of the vehicles. Because ground connection state or itself resistance rate of wiring exists. Therefore, voltage in body electrical regard as normalcy if is low than 1 volt usually

6.3 Check for ground condition in Parallel circuit

45 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Switch1 I1 I I2 I3 Switch2 Switch3

I4

V
Current I4 is different according to switch ON in above circuit diagram. And voltage V is different according to ground connection condition. If it is normally, voltage V become 0volt. If is high than 0 Volts, 100% is not operated because is low than applied voltage to lamp. Important thing is that voltage V is different, according to current "I4". It is, because voltage and current are proportional. Therefore, it is important that measure in condition that all currents pass to know correctly ground connection state.

Troubleshooting a series circuit 1. Measure voltage 1

There is nothing volt when the switch opened With the switch open, The voltmeter will read a full 12-volt, the same as the source.

I 12 VOLT +

R1 V1

R2

SW

V2

An open switch in a series circuit produces a reading on a voltmeter equal to the source volt. G11 G2 46 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

2. Measure voltage 2

The voltmeter will now read the amount ofthe voltage drop across the R1.voltmeter will indicate zero volts across the switch. When switch is closed,

I 12 VOLT +

R1

R2

SW

When the series circuit is complete, there will be voltage drop across each load component in the circ G11 G2

Troubleshooting a parallel circuit 1. Measure resistance

Measure resistance 10 Calculated resistance 5 can provide a quick idea about the condition of the circuit. An ohmmeter An infinity reading would indicated an open, and a zero resistance reading would indicate a short circu

I 12 VOLT + Switch open Open R1=10 R2=10

Caution
The switch must be open or the power source disconnected when byTraining ohmmeter. 47 measuring Chonanresistance Technical using Service Center

Basic Electricity

2. Measure current

An ammeter can be connected across the open switch, It can measure the full load current of the circuit

I + 12 VOLT Switch R1 R2

The switch location of a circuit is an ideal location to connect an ammeter to the circuit.

Troubleshooting series-parallel circuit 1. Measure voltage in series-parallel circuit Measure voltage: 12 volt

I 12 VOLT G11 + Switch

R1 Open R2 R3

48

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Measure voltage to equal to R2 in series with R1

I 12 VOLT G11 An open in the parallel branch of a series-parallel circuit can be misreading when measuring for continuity. Always know the expected values to be measured. + Switch R1 R2 R3 Open

2. Measure current in series-parallel circuit

When measuring for current values in a series-parallel circuit, each resistance connected in parallel must have one end d

I 12 VOLT G11 + Switch

R1 Open R2

R3

An ammeter must have one end of the components disconnected before a reading c 3. Measure resistance in series-parallel circuit

The ohmmeter would read the R2 resistor.

I 12 VOLT G11 As when using the ammeter, one end of the component being tested must be disconnected when using the ohmmeter. 49 Chonan Technical Service Training Center + Switch R1 R2 R3 Open

Basic Electricity

7. Multi meter (Analog multi meter section Reference=Electricity & Electronic)

7.1 Measurement item
DC current (DAC) AC current (ACA) DC volt (DCV) AC volt (ACV) Ohm (Resistance)

7.1.1 Analog Multi Meter's operation principle

A common type of meter movement measures current and voltage. Its the DArsonval movement, or stationary magnet, moving coil galvanometer. The movement consists of a permanent-type magnet and a rotating coil in the magnetic field. 50 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
An indicating needle is attached to the rotating coil.(Fig 2-1) When a current passes through the moving coil, a magnetic field is produced. This field reacts with the stationary field and causes rotation of the needle. This deflection force is proportional to the strength of the current flowing in the moving coil. When the current ceases to flow, the moving coil is returned to its at reset position by hair springs. These springs are also connected coil against the restraining force these springs. See Figure 2-1
Scale

Very thin wire Indicated needle Spring Would on Meter

North field pole Positive lead wire

South field pole

Negative lead wire

Figure 7-1 Analog multi-meter

7.1.2 An ammeter measures electrical current in a circuit .

An ammeter will usually measure in amperes, milli amperes, or microamperes, depending on the scale or design of the instrument. The coil meter movement of an ammeter is wound with many turn of fine wire. If a large current is allowed to flow through this coil, the ammeter will quickly burn out. In order to measure larger current, a shunt, or alternate path, is provide for current. Most of the current flows through the shunt, leaving only enough current to safety work the meter movement coil. The shunt is a precision resistor connected in parallel with meter coil. The use of shunts is illustrated in Figure 7-2

Current Range: 0 ~ 1mA(Fig. 7-2)

First calculate the voltage required for full-scale deflection on the lowest setting, which is 0 ~ 1mA 51 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
V = I(Full scale current) R(Resistance of meter coil) V = 1mA 100
V = 0.1Volt M Range: 0~1mA Coil resistance 100

The meter will read from 0 ~ 1 mA without shunt, for full scale deflection 0.1 volt is required.

Figure 7-2. Meter measure 0 ~1mA

Range 0 ~ 10 mA(Figure. 7-3)

To convert this same meter to read from 0 ~ 10 mA, a shunt must be connected that will carry 9/10 of the current. Thus, 9 mA of current will travel through the shunt, leveling one milliampere to operate the meter. The first step in the calculation determined that 0.1 volt is required for full scale deflection. The shunt connected in parallel with the coil, so it will be also have 0.1 volt applied to it. Since 0.1 volt must be applied across the shunt, and shunt must be also account for 9/10 of the current, you can apply OHMS law to caudate the shunts resistance. R=V/I R = 0.1 volt / 0.009 A R = 11.1 The meter will require a shunt with a resistance value of 11.1 for the 0 ~ 19 mA scale.
R : 11.1 Rs=11.1 Figure 7-3. Meter measure 0 ~10mA 10 mA M R=100 9 mA 1 mA

Range 0 ~ 50 mA(Fig.7-4)
To convert this meter for the 0 ~ 50 mA scale, a shunt must be used that will carry 49/50 of the current or 49 mA. The computation is the same as in Range 0 ~ 10 mA R = 0.1 volt / 0.049 A = 2.04
50 mA 1 mA

M R=100

99 mA R : 2.04 Rs=11.1 Figure 7-4 Meter measure 0 ~ 50mA

52

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Range 0 ~ 100 mA(Fig.7-5)
To converter the meter for the 0 ~ 100mA scale, a shunt must be use that will carry 99/100 of the current, or 99mA.
100 mA M R=100 99 mA R : 1.01 Rs=11.1 Figure 7-5 Meter measure 0 ~100mA 1 mA

R= 0.1V / 0.099A

A shunt with an ohmic value of 10.1 is required for the meter to safety use a 1 ~ 100 mA range. Lock again at Figure 2.6. Notice the switch device use to change the range of the meter. The correct scale on the range dial must be used to correspond to the selected range.

0~1

M R=100 0~10 R=11.1 R=1.04 R=1.01

0~50 0~100

Figure 7-6 Analog current meter circuits

7.1.3 Caution, when measure current using analog multi-meter.

There are two important things to remember for the multi-meter safety. 1. An ammeter must always be connected in series with circuit device or the power supply. Never connect an ammeter in parallel with the power supply or circuit device. If connecting with parallel, will be ammeter broken. 2. The second thing to remember, is when the current value measure is unknown, start at the highest meter range. This way you will not exceed the highest value on the meter scale during the reading of a circuit. Ammeter 53 M Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 7-7.

Connecting ammeter to measure current --- incorrect way

M Ammeter

Figure 7-8.

Connecting ammeter to measure current -- correct way.

7.2 Voltmeter
The same basic meter movement that is used in an ammeter is also used measure voltage This providing that the impressed voltage across the coil never exceeds 0.1volt, as computed, for fullscale deflection. To arrange the meter to measure higher voltages, multiplier resistors are placed in series with the meter movement coil using a select switch.

Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with the device being measured
0~1 R=900 0~10 0~50 0~100 0~500 R=9.9 k R=99.9 k R=499.9 k

M R=100

Figure 7-9 Analog voltmeter54 circuit

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

7.2.1 Caution, when measure voltage using analog multi-meter.

A voltmeter always connected in parallel or across the circuit. To measure a voltage, the circuit does not have to be broken. As with the ammeter, when measuring unknown voltage, always start measuring with meter set it on its highest range. Adjusted downward to the proper range to avoid damaging the meter in addition, be sure that the leads are connected with the correct polarity. The brake lead is negative and the red lead is positive. M Ammeter V Voltmeter

Figure 7-10 A volt meter is connected in parallel with the device when taking a voltage

8 12

Resistance scale 4 0

7.3 Ohmmeter
A merter used to measure the value of an unknown resistance is called ohmmeter. The same meter Zero Adjuster 3 volt Battery A voltage source and movement that was used in the volt and ammeter can be used for the ohnneter. a variable resistor are added to the ohmmeters circuit. A serise type ohmmeter is shown in below picture.

Red lead wire

55 Resistor

Chonan Technical Service Training Center Black lead wire

Basic Electricity

Ohm Meter

Figure 7-11 Schematic diagram of ohmmeter inside.

3 and 9 volt are used as the source for the ohmmeter. The battery built into the meter case.

7.3.1 Characteristics of analog multi meter in resistance measuring mode

- When measure voltage or current, power is supplied from outside, and is measured according to flowing of current to millimeter. - When measure resistances with measurement mode of ohmmeter voltage supplied in resistance that these batteries. At this time, according to flowing of current, indicator needle move. Voltage that important thing is measuring in resistance mode voltage output through lead wire are 3volt and 12volt according to ohm mode switch position.

range 1, 10, 1k : 3-volt output range10k : 12 volt(3volt+9volt) output

Also, voltage output from read lead wire , and from black lead wire - volt. Therefore, diode or condenser checking method same as below picture in resistance mode.

025

Polarity:+

Polarity:-

56 Polarity:+ Chonan Technical Service Training Center Polarity:-

Basic Electricity

Figure 7-12

Figure Check for condenser: correct way Figure 7-13 Check for diode: correct way important thing when measures Battery 3volt Zero setting

And,

another

resistance, state that current is passing in resistance that measure cannot measure resistance. Multiply that select in measured value when read resistance value that measure.

10K 1k 10 1 Range mode S/W

Ohm Meter

Black lead wire

Resistor

Figure 7-14 Analog ohmmeter circuit

Red lead wire

7.3.2 Caution, when measure resistance using analog multi-meter.

Before connecting an ohmmeter to any electrical circuit to read an unknown value, be sure that the circuit is not energized. An energized circuit will damage the meter and can be harmful to you. The electrical energy in a circuit is not needed to operate the meter movement coil as it is when using a voltmeter or an ammeter. The batteries inside the case provide the source of power for the ohmmeter. 57 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Connecting the ohmmeter to an energized circuit will apply the circuit voltage directly to the coil and battery, which can result in damage to the meter and possible harm to you. Summary for Analog multi meter When measure voltage, connect by parallel. When measure current, connect by series connection. If does not know range of voltage that wish to measure, moving range selection from highest by low range. Specially, when measure current, select probe position according to size of measurement current. If current measuring is not been, confirm fuse in interior of multi-meter. When there is selective switch to resistance mode, voltage is output through probe. - When selected 1, 10, 1k mode, output voltage are 3volt. - When selected 10k mode, output voltage are 9volt. At this time, voltage output from read lead wire -, and from black lead wire + volt. Specially, when measure resistance between ECM in/out wire and ground that should be careful for because multi-meter's voltage must observe because is approved to ECM Before measure resistance, enforce zero setting.

7.4 Digital multi-meters

This type of meter is often referred to as a multi-meter because it can be use as a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter all rolled into one.

7.4.1 Measure current use of digital voltmeter.

Digital voltmeter are versatile meter, however, they must be setup correctly to ensure accurate 58 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
measurements and avoid damage to the meter or the circuit being tested Connected the test leads to the correct input terminals on the digital multi meter. Set the digital multi meter to the proper function and range. Be careful when attaching your meter to an operating circuit avoid electrical shock or damage to the circuit being tested.

7.4.2 Digital multi meter range and function

Digital multi meter have a switch that allows selecting the function range for an electrical measurement. Test function are usually abbreviated or represented by symbols. The symbols shown on the screen are typical, however, your meter may use slightly different symbols.

7.4.3 Digital voltmeter range and functions

Voltage available is the voltage at any point in a circuit compared to ground or the negative terminal of the battery. To measure voltage available, hook up the leads to the correct terminals, set the mode selector switch to the DC volt position, touch the tip of the black probe to ground or the negative terminal of the 59 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
battery and measure the voltage available at the point you select.

7.4.4 How to read voltage on a digital voltmeter screen

In automotive applications, we generally see voltage reading as volt and mill volts. Milli is abbreviated as a lower case m 1 volt = 1,000 millivolt = 1,000 mV 1 millivolt = 1 mV = 0.001 volt The display shown on the screen can be read in two ways. In volts it is read as 0.325 volts and in millivolts it is read as 352 millivolts.

7.4.5 Measuring voltage used with a digital voltmeter

Voltage used is the amount of voltage used by an electrical component or the section of the circuit being measured. To measure voltage used, hook up leads to the correct terminals, set the mode selector switch to the 60 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
DC volt position and probe the electrical component or section of the circuit as shown on the screen.

7.4.6 Measuring current flow with a digital multi meter

To measure current flow in circuit, the digital multi meter must be connected in series with the circuit. And we recommend starting with the highest current circuit on meter to reduce the possibility of damaging the meter. For circuit more current than the highest ampere range of meter, use a current clamp. If the reading is lowest current range, turn circuit OFF, move the red lead to the lower current range connection, turn the circuit back ON and note the reading on the digital display. For reading below lowest current range, this range will probably provide a more accurate reading.

7.4.7 How to read voltage on a digital voltmeter screen

In automotive applications, we generally see amperage reading as ampere and milli ampere.. A milli ampere is one thousandth of an lamp. 61 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Milli is usually abbreviated as a lower case m 1 amp = 1,000 milliamps = 1,000 mA 1 milliamp = 1 mA = 0.001 Amp The display shown on the screen can be read in two ways. In amps it is read as 0.280 amps and in milliamps It is read as 280 milliamps.

7.4.8 Measuring resistance with digital multi meter

Every electrical component has some resistance that opposes current flow in a circuit. To measure the resistance of a component or a portion of a circuit, isolate the portion of the circuit being tested from any other components connected in a parallel. Turn the power OFF and discharge any capacitors in the circuit. Connect one test lead to each end of the portion of a circuit being tested and note the reading on the digital display.

Digital multi meter display resistance readings in ohms kilo-ohms and mega-ohms. Kilo is abbreviated as a lower case K Mega is abbreviated as an upper case M 62 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

1 kilo-ohm = 1,000 Ohm = 1,000 1 Mega-ohm = 1,000,000 Ohms = 1,000 k The display shown on the screen can be read two way : in ohms it is read as 2.200 ohms and kilo-ohms it is read as 2.2 kilo-ohms.

Characteristics of digital multi meter in resistance measuring mode Polarity of voltage that is displayed through lead wire in resistance mode of digital multi meter is opposite Red lead wire : + Black lead wire : - At this time, output voltage is 0.25volt. - Therefore, checking of diode cannot be been in resistance mode.

7.4.9 Caution, when measure resistance using digital multi-meter.

When using a multi meter or digital multi meter, it is to connect the meter to a voltage source immediately after taking a resistance or current reading. This is the most common mistake made when using a multi meter or digital multi meter. Thus, action will result in damage to the meter.

Summary for Analog multi meter When measure voltage, connect by parallel. 63 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
When measure current, connect by series connection. Even if do not know measurement value, range establishment is no necessity. When there is selective switch to resistance mode, voltage is output through probe. - Output voltage: 0.25 volt At this time, voltage output from read lead wire , and from black lead wire - volt.

8. Magnetic Force
8.1 Occurrence of Magnetic Force
The ancient Chinese navigators discovered that a small piece of odd stone, attached to a string, would always turn in a northerly direction. These small stones were iron ore. The Greeks called them magnetite because they were found near Magnesia in Asia Minor. Since mariners used these stones in the navigation of their ships, the stones became known as leading stones. These were the first forms of nature magnets. Today, a magnet can be defined as a material or substance that has the power to attract iron, steel, and magnetic materials.

8.2 Magnetic and Magnetic Forces

The greatest attractive force appeared at the ends of a magnetic. These concentrations of magnetic force are called magnetic poles. Each magnet has a north pole and a south pole. It was also discovered that many invisible lines of magnetic force existed between poles. Each line of force was an independent line. None of the lines cross or touch a bordering line. Notice the pattern of lines existing between the poles. These lines of filings reflect the lines of force. Note 64
Figure 8-1. These figure show the magnetic field of attracting and repelling magnets.

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
the concentration of lines at each end of the magnet, or its poles. The lines of force are more concentrated at the poles. Each magnetic line of force travels form the North Pole to the South Pole through space. The line returns to the North Pole through the magnet itself. These closed loops of the magnetic field can be described magnetic as magnetic to the circuits. electrical Compare circuit. the The circuit

magnetizing force can be compared to voltage, and the magnetic lines of force can be compared to current. When the North Pole of one magnet is close to the South Pole of the other, an attractive force brings the two magnets together. If the magnets are turned so that two N poles or two S poles are close to each other there is a repulsive force between the two magnets.

Further scientific investigation showed that the earth acts as one enormous magnet. The earths magnetic poles are close to the north and south geographic poles. Refer to Figure 8-2. You can observe that magnetic north and the north geographic pole do not coincide. A compass would not necessarily point toward true north. This angle between true north and magnetic north is called the angle of declination or declination or the angle of variation. There is, however, a line around the earth where the angle of declination is zero. . When standing on this line, your compass would point to true north as well as magnetic north. At all other locations on the
Figure 8-3. Top-Molecules are not aligned. Bottom-Molecules have been aligned Figure 8-2. The earth is a large magnetic, surrounded by a magnetic field.

65

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
surface of the earth, the compass reading must be corrected to find true north. What causes a substance to become magnetized? The molecules in and iron bar act as tiny magnets. If theses tiny magnets are in a random order, Figure 8-3 (top), the bar does not act as a magnet. However, when these tiny magnets are arranged so that their north and south poles are in line, Figure 83 (bottom), the iron is magnetized. This can be demonstrated by breaking a piece of magnetized iron into several pieces. Each of the broken pieces acts as a separate magnet. Figure 8-4 shows a broken magnet. When the iron is demagnetized, these molecules are placed back in random positions. This molecular action is further demonstrated by the way a magnet is made. For example, take an unmagnified iron bar. Rub it a few times in the same direction with a permanent magnet. A test (bring the bar near some iron filings) will show that the bar is now magnetized. Rubbing the iron bar with the magnet lines up the molecules magnetized. Permanent magnets are made by placing the material to be magnetized in a very strong magnetic field Heat will destroy a magnet. Heat energy causes an increase in molecular activity and expansion. This permits the molecules to return to their random positions on the unmagnified piece of iron. 8.2.1 Magnetic Flux
Figure 8-6. Heat will destroy a magnet. Figure 8-5. The nail is now magnetized. Figure 8-4. A long magnet may be broken into several smaller magnets.

and

causes

the

iron

to

become

66

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
The many invisible lines of magnetic force surrounding a magnet are called the magnetic flux. If a magnet is strong, these lines of flux will be denser. So, the fields flux density, or the number of lines per square inch or per square centimeter can determine the strength of a magnetic field. Magnetic Flux density = magnetic flux / area B=/A where B equals flux density, (the Greek letter phi) equals the number of lines, and A equals the cross sectional area. The cross-sectional area can be measured in square centimeters. If the crosssectional area is measured in square centimeter, then the flux density is given in the unit gauss. A gauss is the number of lines per square centimeter. The flux, B, is usually given in Webers per square meter.

8.3 Electro Magnetic Induction

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a great deal of research was directed toward discovering the link between electricity and magnetism. A Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, discovered that a magnetic field existed around a conductor carrying an electric current. You can perform an experiment that shows the magnetic field around the current carrying conductor. Pass a current carrying conductor through a sheet of cardboard. Placed small compasses close to the conductor. The compasses will point in the direction of the magnetic lines of force, Figure 8-7. Reversing the current will also reverse the direction of the 67
Figure 8-7. Compasses line up to show Figure . Demonstration of the right hand circular 8-8 pattern of magnetic field around rule for conductors. current carrying conductor.

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
compasses by 180 degrees. This shows that the direction of the magnetic field depends upon the direction of the current. Magnetic field exists around a current-carrying conductor. In the conventional theory of current direction, current is said to be from positive to negative. Using the right hand as shown figure 8-8, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current, the fingers indicate the direction of the magnetic field. In Figure 8-9, the dot in the center of the conductor on the left as the point of an arrow. This shows that current is flowing toward you. Circular arrows show the direction of the magnetic field. This principle is very important when electrical wires carry alternating currents. This is because the placement of wires, or lead dress, has an influence on the workings of a circuit. Conductors are grouped in pairs whenever possible to eliminate heating effects and radio interference caused by the magnetic field created by the current flow.
Figure 8-9. These conventions are used to show the link between current flow and the magnetic field. The dot represents a current arrow heading toward you. The cross on the right represents the tail end of the current arrow heading away from you.

8.4 Solenoid
When a current-carrying conductor is would in the form of a coil, or solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will be inside the coilN and will be concentrated, making a stronger magnetic field. A solenoid will appear as a magnetic field with a North Pole at one end, and a South Pole at the opposite end. This solenoid is shown in Figure 8-10.
Current in

Current out

Figure 8-10. A wire wound into a coil is a solenoid and has polarity set by the direction of current flow.

68

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 8-11. Magnetic field around coil

Figure 8-12. Right hand rule for a coil

The polarity (direction) of these magnetic lines of force can be established by using the right hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of current in the coil winding. The thumb then points to the North Pole, Figure 8-12. The strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid depends upon the number of turns of wire in the coil and the size of the current in amperes flowing through the coil. The product of the amperes and turns is called the ampere-turns (At or NI) of a coil. This is the unit of measurement of field strength. If, for example, a coil of 500 ampere-turns will produce the field strength required for some situation, any combination of turns and amperes totaling 500 will work. Examples: 50 turns 10 amps = 500At 100 turns 5 amps = 500At

8.5 Electromagnets
In the solenoid, air is the conductor of the magnetic field. Other substances conduct magnetic lines of force better than air. These materials would be described as having greater permeability. To demonstrate this, a soft iron core can be inserted in the solenoid coil, Figure 8-13. The strength of the magnetic field is being greatly increased. There are two reasons for this increase. First, the magnetic lines have been concentrated into the smaller cross69
Figure 8-13. The coil with an iron core is described as an electromagnet.

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
sectional area of the core. Secondly, the iron provides a far better path (greater permeability) for the magnetic lines. This device (solenoid with an iron core) is known as an electromagnet. The rules used to learn the polarity of an electromagnet. The rules used to learn the polarity of an electromagnet are the same as those for the solenoid. When an electromagnet is energized it is a powerful magnet. When the electrical energy is disconnected the electromagnet loses most of its magnetism, but not all of it. If the de-powered magnet is brought near some iron filing, the filings will be attracted to the core because the iron core has retained a small amount of its magnetism. This magnetism is called residual magnetism. If very little magnetism remains, the core would be considered, as having low retentivity is the ability of a material to retain magnetism after the magnetizing field has been removed. If a core retains a good deal of magnetism, it is said to have high retentivity. A soft iron core shows low retentivity. A steel core has high retentivity.

8.6 Relay
The relay is a device used to control a large flow of current by means of a low voltage, low current circuit. A relay is a magnetic switch. When a relays coil is magnetized, its attractive force pulls the lever arm, called and armature, toward the coil. The contact points on the armature will open or close depending on their normally at rest position. The phrase normally at rest position refers to the position of the contacts before the solenoid is energized. If the normally at rest position of the contacts is touching, the large current will flow until the relay is activated. Activating the relay opens the circuit. If the normally at rest position of the contacts is open, then activating the relay will close the circuit. Current will then flow until the relay turns off. 70 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 8-14. Symbol of relay

Examine the schematic in Figure 8-15. In this circuit a motor is connected to a battery power source. This setup is an example of controlling a heavy current circuit with a low current. The two different currents are mechanically connected by the relay. They are not considered electrically connected.

12V BATT

Figure 8-15. Setup of a simple circuit with relay

The advantages of this device are clear. From a safety point of view, the operator touches only a harmless, low-voltage circuit, yet controls perhaps several hundred volts by means of the relay. Heavy current machines can be controlled from a remote location without any need to run heavy wires to the controlling switch. Switching action by means of relays can be very rapid.

71

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Some relay applications include: large lighting loads, heavy currents in automobiles (such as headlights), and the control of electric motors. Relays are used to control the starting and stopping of electrical system. When choosing a relay for a special purpose, there are several things to be considered. Three important considerations are the number of contacts and the amount of current the relay must carry, and their de-energized position. Well-designed relays have points made of silver, alloys, tungsten or other alloys. A relay even can have both normally closed (closed in the de-energized position) and normally open (open in the de-energized position) contacts. The terns normally open and normally closed are usually abbreviated as No and NC. The number of contacts and their de-energized position should be specified. The coil is the most vital specification. The coil chosen needs to produce a large enough magnetic fields at its rated voltage to ensure positive contact of switch points at all times. However, some relays are so sensitive they require only a mille ampere or less to energize, so care must be taken.

8.7 Transformers
A transformer is a device used to transfer energy from one circuit to another using electromagnetic induction. A transformer consists of two or more coils of wire wound around a common laminated iron core. Transformers are simple, rugged, and efficient devices,

Figure 8-16. Typical transformer.

72

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

The construction of a simple transformer is shown in figure 8-17, along with its schematic symbol. The first winding, which is the input winding, is called the primary. This winding receives the energy from the source. The second winding, which is output winding, is called the secondary. The output load is attached to the secondary.

Primary

Secondary

Figure 8-17. A simple transformer is constructed from soft iron laminations and two coils.

The energy in the secondary is the result of the changing magnetic field generated by the primary windings. In a trans former, the varying magnetic field of the primary cuts across the windings of the secondary. A changing magnetic field cutting across a conductor induces a voltage. Consequently, the changing primary voltage induces a voltage in the secondary. Therefore, the transformer is device that must work on an alternating current of a pulsating direct current. The primary field must be a moving magnetic field in order for the transfer of energy to take place.

8.7.1 Induction The ability to produce electrical energy in a conductor without making physical contact with the conductor is referred to as induction. A voltage can be induced on a conductor by using a magnetic field and motion. In chapter 9, Generators, you learned that when a coil is moved past a magnetic field, voltage is induced on the coil. You also learned that a magnetic field moved past a coil produce 73 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
the same result. Basically, if there is a magnetic field a coil and motion, an emf is produced. Examine figure 8-18. When coil A is energized by an ac voltage source, a current is established in the coil. The alternating current flowing through coil A produces a rising and collapsing magnetic field, the magnetic field rises and collapses at the same rate as the frequency of the ac voltage source. If the ac voltage source frequency is equal to 60 Hz, then the magnetic field rises and collapses 120 times a second.

Primary Coil A

Secondary Coil B

Primary Coil

Figure 8-18. An example of mutual induction

Figure 8-19. The magnetic field rising and collapsing around primary coil a is an example of self induction

A transformer applies the same principle as generating emf, the difference is that there is no physical motion in the transformer. Instead, the magnetic field rising and collapsing provides the needed motion. Coil A produces a rising and collapsing magnetic field that cuts across the conductors in coil B. Coil B has a voltage induced by the electrical action of coil A. This is the principle behind all transformers; this principle is called mutual induction. Another electrical phenomena occur at the same time, this phenomenon is called self-induction. Selfinduction occurs when the magnetic field surrounding one conductor cuts across the conductors left and right of it. In figure 8-19, you can see that when a coil is energized it produced a magnetic field. Each winding produces a separate magnetic field. These separate fields combine to form an overall magnetic field. This action induces an emf in the direction opposite to the force generating the magnetic field. Self-induction will occur any time a conductor is wound into a loop and passes an ac current.

8.7.2 Turns Ratio Principle One key use of transformers is to increase or decrease a voltage. Increasing or decreasing the number of turns on the secondary winding does this. The amount the voltage is raised or lowered by is based upon the ratio of the number of turns of wire used in the transformers primary versus its 74 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
secondary windings. As described earlier the primary winding is the winding closest to the source, the primary winding induces an emf into the secondary winding. The secondary winding is connected to the load. See figure 8-20.
Primary connects to the source. Secondary connects to the load

Load

Figure 8-20. It is important to remember that the primary of a transformer is the side that connects to the source and that the secondary side of the transformer is the side that connects to the load.

Lets look at the formulas for the transformer turns ratio and expected voltage, current and power. The ratio between the number of turns in the primary and secondary is called the turns ratio. The turns ratio is simply the number of turns in the primary divided by the number of turns in the secondary. Written as a formula: Turns ratio = Np / Ns Where N equals the number of turns in the primary (P) or the secondary (S). Using the transformer in figure 5-21, the turns ratio can be calculated as: Turns ratio = Np / Ns= 10/1 or 10 to 1
10 to 1 ratio 100 turns 1,000 turns 120 V 12 V A 3 amps 30 amp load 1,000 turns 100 turns

Voltage is step down.

Current is step up.

Figure 8-21. Turns ratio explains the relationship between the primary and secondary voltages and current values.

There are 1,000turns of conductor in the primary of the transformer, and secondary has 100 turns of wire. The ratio is 10 to 1.

The voltage ratio is the ratio between the voltages of the primary and secondary. It is in the same proportion as the turns ratio: Voltage ratio = Ep / Es = Np / Ns 75 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
The current ratio is the ratio between the currents in the primary and secondary. It is in inverse proportion to the turns ratio: Current ratio = Is / Ip = Np / Ns Combining the three ratios: Ep / Es = Np / Ns = Is / Ip In the figure 8-21, there are ten turns in the primary winding for every one turn is the secondary winding. In a 10 to 1 ratio, the voltage on the secondary side will be ten times lower than the primary voltage. If the primary side of the transformer is connected to a 120volt supply, there will be 12 volts present on the secondary. Examining the ratios, you can see that the current ratio is the opposite of voltage ratio. If the voltage ratio is 10 to 1, the current ratio will be 1 to 10. The current value of the primary is based on the current in the secondary. The load connected to the secondary determines the current in the secondary. The current value for the primary in figure 8-21 will be 1/10th that of the current flowing in the secondary. Transformers that are used to raise or lower a voltage are known as step up transformers and step down transformers. See figure 8-22. Step up transformers have more turns in the secondary than the primary. The voltage is increased, it steps up. Step down transformers have fewer turns in the secondary than the primary. The voltage is decreased, it steps down.

Figure 8-22. A step-up or step-down transformer is determined by the number of turns on the primary and secondary.

Example: The transformer has 200 turns in the primary and 1,000 turns in the secondary. If the applied voltage is 117 V, what is the secondary voltage? 76 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 8-23. Turns ratio helps determine output voltage

Ep / Es = Np / Ns 117V / Es = 200 / 1,000 Transposing the equation: Es =(117V X 1,000) / 200 = 170,000V / 200 = 585 V This is an example of a step up transformer. Example: What if this transformer was made with 10 turns secondary? What would the secondary voltage be? 117V /Es = 200/10 Es = (117V X 10) / 200 = 5.85 V This is a step down transformer.

8.7.3 Transformer Power 77 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Calculating the power in the secondary of a transformer should take into account transformers efficiency. However, for now we will consider the transformer an ideal piece of equipment working at 100 percent efficiency. It we make this assumption, and then the power on the primary side should be equal to the power on the secondary side. In the form of a formula: Pp = Ps The power rating for a transformer is usually expressed as VA (volt-amps) or kVA (kilovolt-amps) rather than watts. The power used in the secondary circuit must be supplied by the primary. Assuming that the transformer is 100percent efficient, the power in the secondary, Is X Es, must equal the power in the primary, Ip X Ep. Example: A step up transformer produces 300 volts in the secondary when 100volts ac is applied to the primary. A 100-ohm load is applied to the secondary. What is the power in the primary?
Es=300V 100 V Primary
9 amps

Secondary
3 amps

100 ohm

Pp = 9 X 100 = 900W Pp = 3 X 300 = 900W Figure 8-24. Relationship between voltage, amperage, and power in the primary and secondary of a transformer

Using the Ohms law: I = Es / R = 300V/100 ohm = 3A A current of the three amperes flows. The power used in the secondary can be found using: P = Is X Es P = 3A X 300V = 900VA Since the primary must supply this power: Is X Es = Ip X Ep = 900VA And Ip = Pp / Ep = 900VA / 100V = 9A The key principle of transformer action is that as voltage increases in the secondary, current decreases in the secondary.

78

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
8.7.4 Automobile Ignition Coil The ignition coil produces the high voltage spark in an automobile electrical system. It uses a high turns ratio to develop 30,000 volts or more across the spark plug gap. You may be wondering how the transformer principle is applied to a dc circuit. A car uses a 12 volts dc power supply, the battery. Look at the figure 8-25 as we trace the ignition circuit. The 12 volts battery is connected in series with an ignition switch. The circuit connects to the ignition coil and then on to the distributor. The distributor turn, producing the opening and closing of the circuit. This action produces pulses of electrical energy flow to the coil circuit, turning the coil on and off. The pulses produce a rising a falling magnetic field across the winding in the coil, and thus, produces transformer action. The 12 volts on the primary side of the autotransformer produces over 30,000 volts on the secondary side of the autotransformer. The electrical energy flows through the spark plug wire to the spark plug, at the spark plug, the circuit has an intentional open. The open in the circuit is at the spark plug gap the 30,000 volts easily arcs across the open gap, completing the circuit to chassis ground. The arc across the spark plug gap ignites the gasoline vapor causing an explosion. The explosion forces the position to move, and thus, the engine runs.

Distributor Ignition switch

Spark plug Battery 12V

Ignition coil

ECM

Figure 8-25. Ignition coil

79

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Summery 1. Every magnetic has a north pole and a south pole. 2. Temporary magnets lose their prosperities quickly. Permanent magnets keep their magnetic properties for a long period of time. 3. The invisible lines around a magnet are called magnetic flux lines. 4. Electromagnets are created when current flows through a coil of wire. 5. The relay is an electromagnetic switch. 6. The input side of a transformer is called the primary and the load side is called the secondary. 7. The operation of the transformer is an application of induction.

80

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

9. CAPACITOR
9.1 Capacitance and the Capacitor
Capacitance is a property that opposes any change in voltage. A capacitor is a device capable of storing electrical energy. A capacitor accepts or returns this charge in order to maintain a constant voltage. Schematic symbols are used to represent a capacitor are shown in figure 9-1. The capacitor is made of two plates of conductive material, separated by insulation. This insulation is called a dielectric, figure 9-2. In the figure the plates are connected to a dc voltage source. The circuit appears to be an open circuit because the plates do not contact each other. However, the meter in the circuit will show some current flow for a brief after the switch is closed. In figure 9-3, as the switch is closed, electrons from the negative terminal of the sources flow to one plate of the capacitor. These electrons repel electrons from the second plate (like charges repel), which are then drawn to the positive terminal of the source. The capacitor is now charged to the same potential as the source and is opposing the source voltage. If the capacitor is moved from the circuit, it will remain charged. The energy is stored within the electric field of the capacitor. Once the capacitor is fully charged, current ceases to flow the circuit. It is important to remember that in the circuit in figure 9-3, no electrons flowed through the capacitor. This is because a capacitor blocks direct current. However, one plate did become negatively charged and the other positively charged. A strong electric field exists between them.
+
Dielectric M Conductive plates

Figure 9-1. capacitor

Schematic

symbols

for

the

Figure 9-2. Basic form of a capacitor

Figure 9-3. The capacitor charges to the source voltage

81

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Insulating or dielectric materials vary in their ability to support the electric field. This ability is known as the dielectric constant of the material. The constants of various materials are shown in table 9-1. These numbers are based on comparison with the dielectric constant of dry air. The constant for dry air has been assigned as 1. The dielectric used for capacitors can only withstand certain voltages. If this voltage is exceeded, the dielectric will break down and arcing will result. This maximum voltage is known as the working voltage (WV).
Material air oil mica porcelain ceramic Dielectric constant 1.0 2.2 5.0~8.5 5.0~7.0 5.0~8.0 Material glass aluminium oxide electrolytic tantalum oxide eletrolytic pure water Dielectric constant 8.0 8.4 26 81

Table 9-1. Dielectric constants. Larger numbers are better able to support electric fields. Exceeding the working voltage can cause a short circuit and can ruin other parts of circuit connected to the dielectric. Increased voltage ratings require special materials and thicker dielectrics. When a capacitor is replaced, check its capacitance value and dc working voltage. When a capacitor is used in an ac circuit, the working voltage should safely exceed the peak ac voltage. For example, a 120-volt effective ac voltage has a peak voltage of 120V 1.414 = 169.7 volts. Any capacitors used must be able to handle 169.7 volts.

82

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

9.2 Calculating Capacitance

Capacitance is determined by the number of electrons that can be stored in the capacitor for each volt of applied voltage. The unit of Capacitance is the farad (F). A farad represents a charge of one coulomb that raises the potential 1-volt. This equation is written. C=Q/E Where C is the capacitance in farads, Q is the charge in coulombs, are E is the voltage in volts. The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by: Q = I X t coulombs Where I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds. The electric field strength, E = Pd across dielectric / thickness of dielectric, i.e. E = V / d (volts/m) The ratio of electric flux density, D, to electric field strength, E, is called absolute permittivity, , of a dielectric. Thus D / E = The permittivity of free space is a constant, given by 0 = 8.85 X 10-12 F/m. The Relative permittivity r = flux density of field in the dielectric / flux density of the field in vacuum. Absolute permittivity, = 0 r Thus D / E = 0 r Capacitors used in electronic work have capacities measured in microfarads (1/1,000,000F) and Pico farads (1/1,000,000 of 1/1,000,000 F). Microfarad is commonly written as or sometimes written as mfd. Pico farad is written as . Nan farad is not a common measurement of capacitance. Capacitance is determined by: The material used as a dielectric. (The larger the dielectric constant, the greater the capacitance.) The area of the plates. (The larger the plate area, the greater the capacitance.) The distance between the plates. (The smaller the distance, the greater the capacitance.) These factors are related in the mathematical formula: C = 0 r A(n-1)/d (F) Where C is the capacitance in farads, A equals the area of one side of one plate, d equal the distance between plates (or dielectric thickness), and n equals the number of plates. This formula illustrates the following facts: 83 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
1. Capacity increases as the area of the plates increase, or as the dielectric constant increases. 2. Capacity decreases as the distance between plates increases.

9.3 Types of Capacitors

Capacitors are made in hundreds of sizes and types. Fixed paper capacitors are made of layers of tinfoil. The dielectric is made of waxed paper. Wires extending from the ends connect to the foil plates. The assembly is tightly rolled into a cylinder and sealed with special compounds. Some capacitors are enclosed in plastic for rigidity. These capacitors can withstand severs heat, moisture, and shock. Rectangular oil filled capacitors are hermetically sealed in metal cans. They are oil filled and have very high insulation resistance. This type of capacitor is used in power supplies of radio transmitters and other electronic equipment. Can type electrolytic capacitors use different methods of plate construction. Figure 9.4 shows the single-ended capacitors.

Figure 9-4. Can type electrolytic capacitors

Some capacitors have aluminum plates and a wet or dry electrolyte of borax or carbonate. A dc voltage is applied during manufacturing. Electrolytic action creates a thin layer of aluminum oxide that deposits on the positive plate. This coating insulates the plate from the electrolyte. The negative plate is connected to the electrolyte. The electrolyte and positive plates form the capacitor. These capacitors are useful when a large amount of capacity is needed in a small space. Tubular electrolytic capacitors construction is similar to the can type. The main advantage of these tubular capacitors is their smaller size. They have a metal case enclosed in an insulating tube. They are also made with two, three, or four units in one cylinder. A very popular small capacitor used a great deal in radio and TV work is the ceramic capacitor. The ceramic capacitor is made of a special ceramic dielectric. The silver plates of the capacitor are fixed on dielectric. The entire component is treated with special insulation that can withstand heat and 84 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
moisture.

Mica capacitors are small capacitors. They are made by stacking tinfoil plates together with thin sheets of mica as the dielectric. The assembly is then molded into a plastic case.

Figure 9-5. Typical ceramic capacitor

Figure 9-6. Mica capacitor

85

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

9.4 Transient Response of the Capacitor

Recall that the response of current and voltage in a circuit immediately after a change in applied voltage is called the transient response. Refer to figure 9-7. A capacitor and a resistor are connected in series across a voltage source. A circuit that contains resistance and capacitance is called an RC circuit. When the switch is closed in this RC circuit, the maximum current will flow. The current gradually decreases until the capacitor has reached its full charge. The capacitor will charge to the level of the applied voltage. R

Switch Battery

Figure 9-7. This series RC circuit demonstrates the transient response of a capacitor.

Initially, however, the voltage across the capacitor is zero. When the switch is closed, the voltage across the capacitor gradually builds up to the value of the source voltage. This charging of the capacitor is shown in figure 9-8. The current in the RC circuit is also shown in this figure. Notice that when the switch is closed, the current rises to a maximum almost immediately. The current falls as the capacitor charges. When the capacitor reaches full charge, the current is zero.

I
Figure 9-8. Current and voltage in the series RC circuit

86

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

When the switch is opened, the capacitor remains charged. Theoretically, it would remain charge indefinitely, but there is always some leakage through the dielectric. After some period of time, the capacitor will discharge itself. In figure 9-9, the series combination of charged capacitor and resistor are short circuited by providing a discharge path. Because there is no opposing voltage, the discharge current will instantly rise to maximum and gradually fall off to zero. The combined graph of the charge and discharge of the capacitor is shown in figure 9-10. R I Switch 1 Switch 2 C

Battery
Figure 9-9. A short circuit occurs in the RC circuit when switch 2 is closed.

E I 0

Charge

S teady state Time

Discharge

Figure 9-10. This combination graph shows the rise and decay of current and voltage in the series RC circuit.

87

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Voltage appears across the resistor and capacitor in this circuit. The voltage across R is a result of the current, E = IR. Thus, the maximum voltage appears across R when maximum current is flowing. This condition exists immediately after the switch is closed in figure 9-7 and after the discharge switch is closed in Figure 9-9. In both cases, the voltage across R drops off or decays as the capacitor approaches full charge or discharge. The graph of the voltage across R is drawn in Figure 9-11.

9.5 RC Time Constant

During the charge and discharge of the series of network outlined above, a period of time elapsed. This time is indicated along the base, or x-axis, of the graphs in Figure 9-10 and 9-11.

ER

E R = IR

ER

Charge

S teady state Time

Discharge

Figure 9-11. This graph shows the voltage drop across R as the capacitor is charged and discharged.

The amount of time needed for the capacitor to charge or discharge 63.2 percent is known as the time constant of the circuit. The formula to determine the time constant in RC circuit is: =RC Where is the time constant in seconds, R is the resistance in ohms, and C is the capacitance in farads. For complete charge or discharge, five time constant periods are required. Assuming a source voltage equal to 100 volts, table 9-2 shows the time constant, percentage, and voltage.

88

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Time constant 1 2 3 4 5 Percentage of voltage 63.2% 86.5% 95.0% 98.0% 99% E charging 63.2V 86.5V 95.0V 98.0V 99V E discharging 36.8V 13.5V 5V 2V 1V

Table 9-2. A source voltage of 100 volts will create the time constant, percentage, and voltage shown .

9.6. Capacitors in Series and Parallel

When two capacitors are connected in series, Figure 9-12, the total capacitance is: CT = (C1 C2 ) / (C1 + C2)
C1 C2

Figure 9-12. Two capacitors in series

When two or more capacitors are connected in series, Figure 9-13, the total capacitance is: 1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3+1/CN C1 C2 C3

Figure 9-13. Two or more capacitors in series

When capacitors are connected in parallel, Figure 9-14, the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances. CT = C1 + C2 + C3+CN

C1

C2

C3

Figure 9-14. Capacitors in parallel

89

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Summary 1. Capacitance is that property of a circuit that opposes any change in voltage. 2. A capacitor is a device that temporarily stores an electric charge. It is made up of two plates of conductive material separated by insulation, called the dielectric. 3. Capacitance is measured in farads. 4. Factors affecting capacitance are: a. Distance between plates b. Plate area. c. Dielectric material. 5. The RC time constant can be found using the equation : = R C 6. The formulas for capacitors in series and parallel are: Capacitors in series: 1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3+1/CN Or a shortcut when only two capacitors are in series: CT = C1 C2/C1 + C2 Capacitors in parallel: CT = C1 + C2 + C3+CN

90

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

10. GENERATORS
10.1 Magnetic Induction
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, and electromotive force (emf) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of a closed circuit then the emf produced causes an electric current to flow round the circuit. Hence an emf (and thus current) is induced in the conductor as a result of its movement across the magnetic field. This effect is known as electromagnetic induction. An alternative method to Lentzs law of determining relative directions is given by Flemings RightHand rule (often called generator rule), which states: Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such that they are all at right angles to each other, as shown in figure 10-1. If the first finger point in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second finger will point in the direction of the induced emf.
Magnetic field

First finger - Field ThuMb - Motion SEcond - Emf

Figure 10-1. Right-hand rule Induced E.M.F Motion

Three things are required to induce a voltage. There must be: A magnetic field. A conductor. Relative motion between the field and conductor.

Figure 10-2. Magnetic induction. Passing a conductor through a magnetic field displaces electrons in the conductor. The electrons move through the conductor.

91

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 10-3 shows the action of a coil turning in a magnetic field. In position A, the coil top moves parallel to field of magnetism. No voltage is produced. In position B, both sides of the coil are cutting the field at right angles. The highest voltage is produced at this right angle. Position C is like position A, the voltage drops to zero. In position D, the coil is again cutting the field at right angles, where the highest voltage is produced. However, in position D the voltage is in the opposite direction of that produced at position B. The curve in Figure 10-3 shows the voltage is produced in the one turn of the coil.

Lines of magnetic force Angle of rotation Figure 10-3. Step-by-step development of induced voltage during one revolution of a coil. EMF

Figure 10-4 shows single conductors passing through a magnetic field. At the top, the conductor is pushed downward through the magnetic field. On the bottom, the conductor forms a magnetic field around the conductor. The field around the conductor opposes, and is repelled by, the fixed field. This phenomenon is stated in Lenzs law. The polarity of an induced electromagnetic force is such that it produces a current. This magnetic field of this current always opposes the change in the existing magnetic field. More simply, Lenzs law says that: the existing field opposes the field induced around the conductor. Therefore, in order to produce electricity, some form of mechanical force must be applied to overcome this opposition and turn the coils.

Figure 10-4. The direction of the current through a conductor is determined by the direction the conductor cuts across a magnetic field.

92

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

The strength of the induced voltage in a rotating coil depends on: The number of magnetic lines of force cut by the coil. The speed at which the conductor moves through the field. When a single conductor cuts across 100,000,000 (108) magnetic lines in one second, one volt of electrical pressure is produced. This voltage can be increased by winding the armature with many turns of wire, by increasing its speed of rotation, or both. This link can be expressed by the mathematical equation: E = ( N) / 108 Induced voltage = magnetic flux lines revolutions per second / number of flux lines per volt Where E equals the induced voltage, equals the lines of magnetic flux, and N equals revolutions per second. For example, if a fixed magnetic field consists of 106 lines of magnetic flux and a single conductor cuts across the field 50 times per second, the induced voltage would equal: E = 106 50/108 = 50 10-2 = 0.5V One half volt is produced by this generator.

93

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

10.2 Construction of a Generator

A generator is a device that changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. You saw this change in figure 10-3. The revolution of the coil (mechanical energy) was changed to induced current (electrical energy). This action is an example of a very simple generator. A stronger magnetic field can be created for this improved generator by replacing the permanent magnets with electromagnets. Field coils can be placed over pole pieces or shows that are fastened to the steel frame or generator case. The revolving coil, or armature, is suspended in the case resting on the proper bearings. The single coil is replaced by wire coils of many turns on the armature. The rotating armature is connected to the outside circuit. Generator brushes are constructed mainly of simple, soft carbon. The major difference between an ac generator and dc generator is the use of slip rings in the ac generator and the use of a commutator (split ring) in the dc generator. Both slip rings and slit rings provide the electrical current connections from the armature to the generator load circuit. Two slip rings are used on ac generators. The slip rings provide a mechanical means of maintaining the connection between the armature circuit and the outside circuit. See Figure 10-5. In the ac generator, the slip rings are in constant contact with the brushes. Since an alternating current is produced in the armature circuit, the outside circuit is also ac. Both the dc generator and ac generator produce an ac current in the armature windings.

Figure 10-5. Simple ac generator. A wire loop carries the induced current. Electrons flow out one brush, through the circuit, and back in through the other brush.

When dc is desired in the outside circuit, a set of commutator segments and a set of brushes are 94 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
used. A commutator, or slit ring, is a device that reverses electrical connections and is used on dc generators. See Figure 10-6. The mechanical connection between the outside circuit and the armature constantly changes because of the brush and commutator connections. The action of the commutator and brushes maintains a constant flow in one direction toward the outside circuit.

Study Figure 10-7 closely to see how the direction of the current is maintained in the outside or load circuit. The drawings show the action of the commutator and brushes. The polarity of the brushes is constant. The polarity of the slip rings in the ac generator, Figure 10-5, changed as the direction of the current changed with each half revolution. In the dc generator, the alternating current in the armature is changed to a pulsating direct current.

Figure 10-6. Simple dc generator. Figure 10-7. The commutor changes the alternating current in the armature to a pulsating direct current in the outside circuit.

Note that the current in the outside circuit of the dc generator always flows in one direction. The output of the generator is shown in figure 10-8. The voltage rises and falls from zero to a maximum to zero, but always in the same direction.

Figure 10-8. Generator output in volts.

95

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Follow the action in Figure 10-7. Brush A is in contact with commutator section A, and brush B is in contact with commutator section B. The first induced wave of current flows through the armature out of brush B, around the external circuit and into brush A, competing the circuit. When the armature revolves one-half turn, the induced current will reverse its direction. However, the commutator sections have also turned with the armature. The induced current flowing out of commutator section A is now in contact with brush B. This current flows through the external circuit to brush A into commutator section B, completing the circuit. The current flows through the external circuit in the same direction both times. The commutator has acted as a switch. It reversed the connections to the rotating coil when the direction of the induced current was reversed.

Figure 10-9. A simple generator with two coils rotated at right angles in magnetic field to each other.

The current in the outside circuit is pulsating direct is pulsating direct current. The output of this generator is not a smooth direct current. The weakness of pulsating dc can be improved two ways. The number of rotating coils on the armature can be increased and commutator sections can be supplied for each set of coils. To help you understand how the coils are added to the armature, examine Figure 10-9. Each coil has its own induced current. As the current starts to fall off in one coil, it is replaced by an induced current in the next coil.

Figure 10-10. Output from the generator of figure 7-8 is shown.

96

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
The current is created as the coils cut across the magnetic field. A graph of the output from the generator of figure 10-9 is shown in figure 10-10. It is still a pulsating current. However, the pulses come twice as often and are not as large. The output of the two-coil generator is much smoother. By increasing the number of coils, the output will closely duplicate a pure direct current with only a slight ripple variation.

10.3 Types of Generations

There are a number of different types of generators. Several of these generator types will be discussed briefly. Study their similarities as well as their differences. Generators can be distinguished by their method of excitation. Self-excited generators can be separated further into the categories of shunt, series, and compound. One feature that separates generators is the excitation method, the method that is used to start the generator running. Some generators require a separate power source during the staring of the generator. These are called separately excited field generators. Other generators use the generators own leftover magnetism in place of that power source. These are self-excited generators. 10.3.1 Separately Excited Field Generator Generator output is determined by the strength of the magnetic field and the speed of rotation. Field strength is measured in ampere-turns. So, an increase in current in the field windings will increase the times the speed of rotation. Therefore, most output regulating devices depend on varying the current in the field. The field windings can be connected to a separate, or independent, source of dc voltage, Figure 1011. This is the separately excited field generator. With the speed constant, the output may be varied by controlling the exciting voltage of the dc source. This is done by inserting resistance in series with the source and field windings.

Figure 10-11. A separately excited field generator

97

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

10.3.2 Self Excited Generator A self-exited generator uses no separate source of voltage to excite the generator field winding. The self-excited generator produces a small voltage when the armature windings cut across a weak magnetic field. This weak magnetic field is caused by magnetism left over in the pole shoes or field coil cores after the voltage and current have ceased to flow. The magnetism left in a magnet after the magnetizing force has been removed is called residual magnetism. Look ahead to the diagram of the shunt generator shown in figure 10-12. A residual magnetic field will cause a small voltage to be produced as the armature conductors rotate past the field poles. The small voltage produced will, in turn, cause the current to increase through the field poles. An increase in field pole magnetism will cause a further increase in output voltage. The relationship of the current produced by the armature directly increasing the amount of magnetism in the field poles is how the self-excited generator works. The magnetism produced by the armature voltage will increase until the field poles reach saturation, the point where the poles cannot contain any more magnetic lines of force.

Figure 10-12. A shunt generator

98

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Shunt generator The shunt generator derives its name from the way the field pole coils are connected in parallel to the armature, Figure 10-12. Another way of saying parallel is the term shunt. The field windings consist of many turns of small wire. They use only a small part of the generated current produce the magnetic field in the poles windings, The total current generated must, of course, be the sum of the field excitation current and the current delivered to the load. Thus, the output current can be thought of as varying according to the applied load. The field flux does not vary to a great extent. Therefore, the terminal voltage remains constant under varying load conditions. This type of generator is considered a constant voltage machine.

All machines are designed to do a certain amount of work. If overloaded their lives are shortened. As with any machine, the life of a generator can be shortened by an overload condition. When overloaded, the shunt generator terminal voltage drops rapidly. Excessive current causes the armature windings to heat up. The heat can cause the generator to fail by destroying the thin coat of insulation covering the armature wires. Series generator The series generator is so named because its field windings are wired in series with the armature and the load. Such a generator is sketched in Figure 10-13. A series winding by itself will provide a fluctuating voltage to the generator load. As the current increases or decreases through the load, the voltage at the generator output terminals will greatly increase or decrease. Because of the wide difference in output voltage, it is not a very practical generator to use if the load varies.

Figure 10-12. A series wound generator

Compound generator The compound generator uses both series and shunt windings in the field. The series windings are 99 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
often a few turns of large wire. The wire size of the series windings is usually the same size as the armature conductors. These windings must carry the same amount of current as the armature since they are in series with each other. The series windings are mounted on the same poles with the shunt windings. Both windings add to the field strength of the generator field poles. If both act in the same direction or polarity, an increase in load causes an increase of current in the series coils. This increase in current would increase the magnetic field and the terminal voltage of the output. The field are said to be additive. The resulting field would be the sum of both coils. However, the current through the series winding can produce magnetic saturation of the core. This saturation results in a decrease of voltage as the load increases.

The way terminal voltage behaves depends on the degree of compounding. A compound generator, which maintains the same voltage either at no-load or full-load conditions, is said to be a flatcompounded generator. An over compounded generator, then, will increase the output voltage at fullload. An under compounded generator will have a decreased voltage at full-load current.
Shunt wound A variable load may be placed in parallel with the series winding to adjust the degree of compounding. Shunt Figure 10-14 shows schematic diagrams of the shunt, the series, and the compound generator. field Output

Series field

Series wound Output

Figure 10-14. Compare these wiring diagrams of the shunt, series, and compound generator. Compound wound Output

Shunt field Series field

100

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

10.4 Voltage and Current Regulation

The regulation of a power source, whether a generator or a power supply, can be defined as the percentage of voltage drop between no-load and full-load. Mathematically, it can be expressed: E(no-load) E(full-load) / E(full-load) 100 = % regulation To explain this formula, assume that the voltage of a generator with no-load applied is 100 volts. Under full-load the voltage drops to 97 volts. Filling in the equation: 100V 97V/97V = 3V/97V 100 = 3.1 % (approximately) In most uses, the output of the generator should be maintained at a fixed voltage value under varying load conditions. The output voltage of the generator depends upon the field strength. The field strength depends upon the field current. Current, according to Ohms law, varies inversely with resistance. Therefore, a device that would vary the resistance in the field circuit would also vary the voltage output of the generator. This regulator is shown in figure 10-15. It was often used in automobiles.

Figure 10-15. Circuit for generator voltage regulator

101

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

The generator output at terminal G is joined to the battery and the winding of a magnetic relay. The voltage produced by the generator causes a current to flow in the relay coil. If the voltage exceeds a preset value, the increased current provides enough magnetism to open the relay contacts. Notice that the generator field is grounded through these contacts. When they open, the field current must pass through resistance R to ground. This resistance reduces the current, which reduces the field strength and reduces the terminal voltage. When the terminal voltage is reduces, the relay contact closes permitting maximum field current. The terminal voltage rises. In operation, these contact points vibrate. They alternately cut resistance in and out of the field circuit and maintain a constant voltage output of the generator. Mechanical-magnetic relays have served this purpose for many years. Now, however, electronic devices are being used on cars.

10.5 Alternating Current

Direct current flows in only one direction. Alternating current changes its direction of flow at times in the circuit. In dc, the source voltage does not change its polarity. In ac, the source voltage changes its polarity between positive and negative. Figure 10-16 shows the magnitude and polarity of an ac voltage. Starting at zero, the voltage rises to maximum in the positive direction. It then falls back to zero. Then it rises to maximum with the opposite polarity and returns to zero.

Figure 10-16. Current and voltage of alternating current

The current wave is also plotted on the graph. It shows the flow of current and the direction of the flow. Above the zero line, current is flowing in one direction. Slow the zero line, the current is flowing in the opposite section. The graph in Figure 10-16 represents instantaneous current and voltage at any point in the cycle. But 102 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
what is a cycle? A cycle is a sequence or chain of events occurring in a period of time. An ac cycle can be described as a complete set of positive and negative values for ac. The alternating current in your home changes direction 120 times per second. It has a frequency of 60 cycles per second (60 cps). Frequency, measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz), is the number of complete cycles occurring per second. If 60 cycles occur in one second, then the time period for one cycle is 1/60 of a second, or 0.0166 seconds. This is the period of the cycle, Refer again to figure 10-16. The maximum rise of the waveform shows the amplitude of the wave, including the peak (highest point) voltage and current. We learned that induced current in a rotating wire in a magnetic field lowed first in one direction and then in the other direction. This was defined as an alternating current. Two points to remember are : The frequency of this cycle of events increases as rotation speed increases. The amplitude of the induced voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field.

10.5.1 Vectors When solving problems involving alternating currents, vectors are used to depict the magnitude and direction of a force. A vector is a straight line drawn to a scale that represents units of force. An arrowhead on the line shows the direction of the force. The length of the vector shows the magnitude. The development of an ac wave is shown in figure 10-17. This wave is from a single coil armature, represented by the rotating vector, making one revolution through a magnetic field. Assume that the peak-induced voltage is 10 volts. Using a scale in which one inch equals five volts, the vector is two inches, or 10 volts, long. Vectors of this nature are assumed to rotate in a counterclockwise direction.

Figure 10-17. On the left is the rotating phase. On the right is one cycle of the sine wave.

103

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

The time base in figure 10-17 is a line using any convenient scale. It shows the period of one cycle or revolution of the vector. The time base is grouped into segments that represent the time for certain degrees of rotation during the cycle. For example, at 90 degrees rotation, one quarter of the time period is used. At 270 degrees rotation, three quarters of the time period is used. The wave is developed by plotting voltage amplitude at any instant of revolution against the time segment. The developed wave is called a sine wave. The instantaneous induced voltages are proportioned to the sine of the angle (theta) that the vector makes with the horizontal. The instantaneous voltage may then be found at any point of the cycle by making use of the following equation: e = Emax sin To apply this equation, assume that an ac generator is producing a peak voltage of 100 volts. What is the instantaneous voltage at 45 degrees of rotation? e = 100 V sin 45 e = 100 V 0.707 = 70.7V

10.6 The Alternator

The alternator is used in the charging system of all vehicles. Figure 10-18 shows the inside of the unit, including a built-in voltage regulator to control output. The output is rectified from alternating current to direct current for charging the battery and other electrical devices in the vehicle. The alternator has some advantages over the dc generator. These advantages include higher output at lower speeds.

Figure 10-18. A typical ac generator (alternator) is shown in external and cutaway views. 104 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

10.6.1 Components The alternator is a brush type in which a current flows from the brushes through the slip ring to the field coil in the rotor. Rotor (field coil): generates magnetic field When the rotor is driven by the pulley rotation, a current flows from the bushes, through the slip ring, to the field coil. The rotor core tabs then become magnetic pole.
Figure 10-19. A typical rotor

Stator: generates electromotive force Together with the rotor core, the stator core forms the magnetic flux path. The magnetic flux lines in the stator core are affected by the passage of the rotor core field and generate electricity.

Figure 10-20. A typical stator

Rectifier: rectifiers electromotive force so generated The rectifier mainly consists of 3 diode trios, 6 diodes and 2 heat sinks. It rectifies the AC stator output to DC power. Each heat sink has the plus (+) or minus (-) leads from 3 diodes attached to it, performing full wave rectification for 3-phase AC.

105

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Summary 1. To produce an induced current with magnetism, three factors must exist: a. There must be a magnetic field. b. There must be a conductor (or coil) in a closed circuit. c. There must be a relative movement between the field and the conductor. 2. A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. 3. Lenzs law states that the polarity of an induced emf is such that it sets up a current, the magnetic field of which always opposes the change in the existing field. 4. Direct current (dc) is current flowing in a single direction through a conductor. Alternating current (dc) is current flowing in more than one direction through a conductor. 5. Direct current generators have commutators while ac alternators have slip rings. 6. Generator types include the shunt, series, and compound. They can be independently excited or self excited. 7. Regulation of a power source, whether it is a generator or a power supply, can be defined as the percentage of voltage drop between no-load and full-load. 8. A cycle is a complete set of positive and negative values for alternating current. 9. Frequency is the number of cycles that occur each second. It is measured in hertz. 10. The three-phase generator consists of a rotating magnetic field inside three sets of windings. 11. Generators generally fail because of excessive brush wear, excessive bearing wear, or electrical overload. 106 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

11. DC MOTOR
One of the most important developments in the field of electricity is the electric motor. The electric motor convents electrical power into rotating mechanical power. Motors are used for such items as refrigeration and air conditioning, food mixers, vacuum cleaners, grinders, pumps, power bench saws, lathes, various wood and metal machines, as well as hundreds of other useful machines.

11.1 Motor Operation Principles

The dc motor is simply an application of magnetic principles. Motor rotation depends on the interaction of magnetic fields. The construction of a simple dc motor is very similar to a dc generator. In fact, a dc generator and motor are often interchangeable in use. In these cases, they are referred to as dc machines. As with the generators, to make the motor more powerful, permanent field magnets can be replaced by electromagnets called field windings. The field winding is placed over a soft iron pole piece. It consists of many turns of enamel covered copper wire. Like the generator, the field windings can have an independent source of voltage connected to them. Or, the fields windings can be connected in series or parallel with the armature windings to a single voltage source, examine figure 11-1.

Figure 11-1. Sketches and schematic diagrams of field winding connections. A-Shunt wound motor is connected in parallel. B-Series wound motor. excited field motor. 107 C-Separately Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Rotational force comes from the interaction between the magnetic field found around a current carrying conductor and a fixed magnetic field. A conductor carrying a current has a magnetic field around it. The direction of the field depends on the direction of the current. When this conductor is placed in a fixed magnetic field, the interaction between the two fields causes motion. Study figures 11-2 through 11-6.

Figure 11-2. A Magnetic field exists between the poles of a permanent magnet. The arrows indicate the direction of the field.

Figure 11-3. A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field; its direction depends on the direction of the current.

Figure 11-4. The field around the conductor flows with the permanent field above the conductor but opposes the permanent field below the conductor. The conductor will move toward the weakened field.

Figure 11-5. The current has been reversed in the conductor, causing the conductor field to reverse. Now the field is reinforced below the conductor and weakened above the conductor. The conductor will move up.

108

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 11-6. The single conductor is replaced by a coil of conductors wound in the slots of an armature core. Notice how the interaction of the two fields will produce rotation. Coil A moves up and coil B moves down. The rotation is clockwise.

Armature coils on motors are connected to commutator sections, as in the trial motor. The theory of operation is similar. A practical motor has several armature coils wound in separate slots around the core. Each coil has a commutator section. Increasing the number of field poles gives the motor greater power.

The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can be predetermined by using Flemings left-hand rule (often called the motor rule), which sates: Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the lefthand rule be extended such that they are all at right angles to each other, as shown in Figure 11-7. If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the motion of the conductor.
Magnetic field

First finger - Field seCond Current thuMb Motion

Motion Current

Figure 11-7. Left-hand rule

A four-pole motor is sketched in figure 11-8. The current divides into four parts. The current flowing in windings under each field pole produces rotation. This then increases the turning power, or torque, of the motor.

109

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

Figure 11-8. Adding armature coils and field coils increases the torque of the motor.

11.2 Counter Electromotive Force

When a conductor cuts through a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the moving conductor. And while a motor is meant to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, when the armature begins to rotate, the motor also becomes a generator. The generated electrical force that opposes the applied emf is called counter electromotive force. Counter electromotive force is often written as counter emf or cemf. It is a result of the generator action of the motor. If the motor were connected to a prime mover and rotated in the same direction as the dc motor, it would produce a voltage with the opposite polarity. See figure 11-9.

Take note of the polarity of the generator output with a clockwise rotation.

Figure 11-9. The generator and the motor are rotating clockwise. The dc generator develops a polarity opposite of the motor polarity for the same clockwise rotation. This is the basis of counter emf.

The motor requires the opposite polarity for a clockwise rotation

110

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

The counter emf magnitude increases as the rotational speed and field strength increase. Therefore: Counter emf = Speed Field strength K Where K equals some constant. This constant will vary in different motors. It is affected by things such as the number of windings. The actual effective voltage when applied to the windings in the armature must equal: E source E counter = E armature The current flowing in the armature windings at any given instant can be found using Ohms law when the ohmic resistance of windings is known: I armature = E armature / R armature It is important to note that, as rotation of the motor armature slows down, less counter emf is generated. As a result of less counter emf being produced, there will be an increase in the current through the armature circuit. The current will continue to increase until the motor stops rotating as it does when physically overloaded. When the motor stalls, only the resistance of the armature limits maximum current through the armature circuit. This condition results in extremely high current values. A dc motor must be properly protected against overload conditions.

11.3. DC Motors
The different types of dc motors share the common names of dc generators such as shunt, series, and compound. The construction of the motors is similar to the generator counter parts. 11.3.1 Shunt DC Motor In the shunt motor, the field windings shunt across, or in parallel to, the armature, Figure 11-10. The shunt motor is commonly called a constant speed motor. It is used in driving machine tools and other machines that require relatively constant speed under variable loads. In the shunt motor, both the field and the armature are connected across the power line. Under no-load conditions, the counter emf is almost equal to the line voltage. Very little armature current flows, and very little torque are developed. 111 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Figure 11-10. Schematic of shunt motor

Basic Electricity
When a load is applied and the armature decreases its speed, the counter emf also decreases. The decreased counter emf increases the armature current and the torque. When the torque matches the load, the motor remains at constant speed, Table 111. The total current used by this motor is the sum of the field and armature currents. The input power may be computed using Watts law: Power = Applied voltage Total current Note, however, that the output power will be somewhat different because the motor is not one hundred percent efficient.
Full-load No-load High counter emf Low armature current Low torque Decreased counter emf Increased armature current Increased torque

ble 11-1. Shunt motor load conditions.

Ta

11.3.2 Series DC Motor In the series wound motor, the field windings are connected in series with the armature windings, Figure 11-11. All the line current must flow through both the field and armature windings. Under loaded conditions, the counter emf opposes the line voltage and keeps the current at a safe level. If the load were suddenly removed, the armature would speed up and develop a higher counter emf. This higher counter emf would reduce the current flowing through the field and reduce the field strength. In turn, the motor would increase it speed because: Speed = Counter emf / Field strength K 112 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
gure 11-11. Schematic of series motor Fi

Basic Electricity

This action builds upon itself and, eventually, the motor would reach a speed where the armature would fly apart because of centrifugal force. Thus, a series motor is never operated without a load. Furthermore, the series motor should be connected directly to a machine or through gears. It is not safe to use a belt drive from a series motor to a machine. If the belt should break or slip off, the motor would run wild and likely destroy itself. A key advantage of the series motor is its ability to develop a high torque under load. Under load conditions, the armature speed is low, and the cemf is low. This condition results in a high armature current and increased torque. Series motors have heavy armature windings to carry these high currents. As the motor increases in speed, the cemf builds up, the line current decreases, and the torque decreases. Series motors are used on electric trains, cranes and hoists, as well as other traction-type equipment. 11.3.3 Compound DC Motors The compound motor has both the series winding and a shunt field winding. This motor combines the advantages of each of the other types of motors. The series windings also carry the armature current. The winding consists of a number of heavy turns of wire. The shunt field winding consists of many turns of finer wire. Both windings are wound on the same field poles. There are two methods used to connect these windings. If the magnetic field on the series winding reinforces the magnetic field of the shunt winding, the motor is said to be a cumulative compound motor. If the two windings are connected to oppose each other magnetically, the motor is a differential compound motor. A detailed study of compound motors beyond the scope of this text. However, the characteristics of the different types should be noted. The cumulative compound motor develops high starting torque. It is used where heavy loads are applied and some variance in speeds can be tolerated. The load can be safety removed from this motor. Most compound dc motors encountered will be of the cumulative type. The differential compound motor behaves mush like the shunt motor. The starting torque is low, and it has good speed regulation if loads do not vary greatly. Consequently, this motor is not widely accepted.
Figure 11-12. Schematic of compound motor

11.4 Types of Motors

113 Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
The Universal Motor The laws of magnetism were used to explain the operation of the dc motor. But, will a dc motor operate on alternating current? The answer is yes, to a limited extent. Motors that operate on either ac or dc power are called universal motors. With an alternating current, the poles of both the field and armature windings will periodically reverse. However, since two north poles repel each other, as do two south poles, motor action continues in the dc motor when ac is applied. For best results, a series motor should be used. When the shunt motor is connected to ac, the inductance of the field windings causes a phase displacement. This impairs motor action. When a universal type motor is used in industry, the series would type is preferred. These motors are not used for heavy-duty purposes because of the large amount of sparking at the brushes. Commercial motors of these types are used for small fans, drills, and grinders. Permanent Magnet Motor Permanent magnet, dc motors are used widely in industry today. They range in output from 1-50th horsepower to 5 horsepower. These motors are of simple design and require voltage to the armature circuit only. The permanent magnet, dc motor uses permanent magnets for field poles in place of electrical coils.

11.5 Start Motor

The starter is a reduction start motor with a built-in reduction gear. Its motor has been downsized with even higher speed capability. Magnetic switch Magnetic switch section puts the pinion in mesh with the ring gear and feeds load current into the motor, the reduction gear and transmitting torque to the pinion.
Figure 11-13. A typical start motor

114

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity
Overrunning clutch The overrunning clutch is of roller type. Each roller is set in the wedge-shaped groove provided by the outer and inner races (pinion) and is pressed by a spring. The roller is pressed against the narrower side of the pinion by its wedge action. On the other hand, no torque is transmitted from the pinion as the roller moves to the wider side releasing the wedge action.
Figure 11-14. Reduction gear Section

Summary 1. A motor is a device for changing electrical energy to mechanical energy. 2. Like poles repel each other; unlike poles attract each other. 3. The rotation of the motor produces turning or twisting power called torque. 4. Percent of speed regulation can be calculated by: Percent of speed regulation = Speed no-load-Speed full-load/Speed full-load 100% 5. Shunt motors have their field windings connected in parallel with the armature. They are stable motors under varying loads. 6. The series motor has the field windings connected in series with the armature. They develop a high torque under load. 7. Compound motors have their field windings connected in series and parallel with the armature. There are two types of compound motor: the cumulative compound motor and the differential compound motor.

115

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Basic Electricity

REFERENCE Electricity and Electronics Richard M. Roberts, Howard H. Gerrish, Willian E. Dugger, Jr. Publisher: The Goodheart-Willcox Company,Inc. Tinley Park, Illinois.

116

Chonan Technical Service Training Center