D1
Compensation Techniques
• Performance specifications for the closed-loop system
• Stability
• Transient response Æ T , M (settling time, overshoot)
s s
or phase and gain margins
• Steady-state response Æ e (steady state error)
ss
• Trial and error approach to design
Performance specifications
Root-locus or
Frequency Synthesis
response
techniques
Analysis of closed-loop system
No
Are specifications
met?
Yes
D2
Basic Controls
1. Proportional Control
+ E(s) M(s)
K G(s)
M (s)
= K m (t ) = K ⋅ e (t )
E (s)
2. Integral Control
+ E(s) K M(s)
G(s)
s
-
M ( s) K
= m ( t ) = K ∫ e ( t ) dt
E (s) s
Integral control adds a pole at the origin for the open-loop:
• Type of system increased, better steady-state performance.
• Root-locus is “pulled” to the left tending to lower the
system’s relative stability.
D3
3. Proportional + Integral Control
+ E(s) K M(s)
Kp + i G(s)
s
-
K K p s + Ki
M ( s)
= Kp + i = m (t ) = K p e (t ) + ∫ K i e (t )dt
E ( s) s s
Ki
A pole at the origin and a zero at − are added.
K p
4. Proportional + Derivative Control
+ E(s) K p + K d s M(s) G(s)
de (t )
M ( s)
= K p + Kd s m ( t ) = K p e (t ) + K d
E ( s) dt
• Root-locus is “pulled” to the left, system becomes more
stable and response is sped up.
• Differentiation makes the system sensitive to noise.
D4
5. Proportional + Derivative + Integral (PID) Control
M(s)
+ E(s) Ki
K p + Kd s + G(s)
s
-
M ( s) K
= K p + Kd d + i
E ( s) s
de (t )
m ( t ) = K p e (t ) + K d + K i ∫ e (t )dt
dt
• More than 50% of industrial controls are PID.
• More than 80% in process control industry.
• When G(s) of the system is not known, then initial values
for Kp, Kd, Ki can be obtained experimentally and than
fine-tuned to give the desired response (Ziegler-Nichols).
6. Feed-forward compensator
D5
+ E(s) Gc (s ) M(s)
G(s)
Design Gc(s) using Root-Locus or Frequency Response
techniques.
D6
Frequency response approach to
compensator design
Information about the performance of the closed-loop system,
obtained from the open-loop frequency response:
• Low frequency region indicates the steady-state behavior.
• Medium frequency (around -1 in polar plot, around gain
and phase crossover frequencies in Bode plots) indicates
relative stability.
• High frequency region indicates complexity.
Requirements on open-loop frequency response
• The gain at low frequency should be large enough to give
a high value for error constants.
• At medium frequencies the phase and gain margins should
be large enough.
• At high frequencies, the gain should be attenuated as
rapidly as possible to minimize noise effects.
Compensators
• lead:improves the transient response.
• lag: improves the steady-state performance at the expense
of slower settling time.
• lead-lag: combines both
D7
Lead compensators
1
s+
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a = Kc T
aTs + 1 1 T > 0 and 0 < α < 1
s+
aT
• Poles and zeros of the lead compensator:
1 1
− −
aT T
• Frequency response of Gc(jω):
The maximum phase-lead angle φm occurs at ωm , where:
1−α
sin φm = and
1+α
1 1
logωm = logT + log
2 aT Æ ωm =
1
a T
D8
Since
1 + jω T 1
=
1 + jω aT ω =ω m
a
the magnitude of Gc(jω) at ωm is given by:
Gc ( jωm) = Kc a
Polar plot of a lead network
a ( jω T + 1)
( jωaT + 1) where 0 < a < 1
is given by
D9
Lead compensation based on the
frequency response
Procedure:
1. Determine the compensator gain Kcα satisfying the given
error constant.
2. Determined the additional phase lead φm required (+
10%~15%) for the gain adjusted (KcαG(s)) open-loop
system.
1− a
3. Obtain α from sin φ m =
1+ a
4. Find the new gain cross over frequency c from
Kc a G( jωc ) = 10 log a
5. Find T from c and transfer function of Gc(s)
1
T = and
a ωc
Ts + 1
Gc (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1
General effect of lead compensator:
• Addition of phase lead near gain crossover frequency.
• Increase of gain at higher frequencies.
• Increase of system bandwidth.
D10
Example:
Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)
4
where G (s) =
s (s + 2 )
Performance requirements for the system:
Steady-state: Kv = 20
Transient response: phase margin >50°
gain margin >10 dB
Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K
For Kv = 20 Æ K = 10
This leads to: phase margin § 17°
gain margin § G%
Design of a lead compensator:
Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c a
aTs + 1
s →0
4K a
1. K v = lim sGc (s )G(s ) = 2 = 2K c a = 20
c
Æ K α=10
c
D11
2. From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω), we obtain that the
additional phase-lead required is: 50° - 17° = 33°.
We choose 38° (~33° + 15%)
3. sin φ m = sin 38 , =
1− a
1+ a
Æ α = 0.24
4. Since for m, the frequency with the maximum phase-lead
angle, we have:
1 + jωmT 1
=
1 + jωmaT a
We choose c , the new gain crossover frequency so that
ωm = ωc and G c (s )G (s ) s = jω = 1
c
This gives that:
40
K c aG( jωc ) =
jωc ( jωc + 2)
has to be equal:
−1
1
= −6.2dB
a
From the Bode plot of KcαG(jω) we obtain that
c = 9 rad/sec
40
= − 6 .2 dB at
jω c ( jω c + 2 )
D12
5. This implies for T
Æ
1 1 1
ωc = = = 9rad/ sec = 4.41
aT 0.24T T
and
20
Kc = = 41 .7
2a
s + 4 . 41
G c (s ) = 41 . 7
s + 18 . 4
The compensated system is given by:
+ 41.7(s + 4.41) 4
s + 18.4 s(s + 2)
-
The effect of the lead compensator is:
• Phase margin: from 17° to 50° Æ
better transient response
with less overshoot.
• Æ
c : from 6.3rad/sec to 9 rad/sec the system response is
faster.
• Gain margin remains \ .
• Kv is 20, as required Æ
acceptable steady-state response.
D13
40
Bode diagram for K c ⋅ a ⋅ G ( jω ) =
jω (jω + 2)
Bode diagram for the compensated system
j ω + 4 . 41 4
G c ( j ω )G ( j ω ) = 41 . 7 ⋅
j ω + 18 . 4 j ω (j ω + 2)
D14
Lag compensators
1
s+
Ts + 1
G c (s ) = K c β = Kc T
T>0, >1
β Ts + 1 s+
1
βT
Poles and zeros:
1 1
T βT
Frequency response:
Polar plot of a lag compensator K.(jT+1)/(jT+1)
D15
Bode diagram of a lag compensator with Kc
1 1
βT T
-20log
Magnitude of (jT+1)/(jT+1)
D16
Lag compensation based on the
frequency response
Procedure:
1. Determine the compensator gain Kcβ to satisfy the
requirement for the given error constant.
2. Find the frequency point where the phase of the gain
adjusted open-loop system (KcβG(s)) is equal to -180° +
the required phase margin + 5°~ 12°.
This will be the new gain crossover frequency c.
3. Choose the zero of the .425038,947 % ,9 ,-4:9
octave to 1 decade below c .
4. Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the
magnitude curve down to 0dB at the new gain crossover
frequency
− K c β G ( j ω c ) = − 20 log β Æ
5. Find the transfer function Gc(s).
General effect of lag compensation:
• Decrease gain at high frequencies.
• Move the gain crossover frequency lower to obtain
the desired phase margin.
D17
Example:
Consider
+
Gc(s) G(s)
where
1
G (s ) =
s (s + 1 )(0 . 5 s + 1 )
Performance requirements for the system:
Steady state: Kv =5
Transient response: Phase margin > 40°
Gain margin > 10 dB
Analysis of the system with Gc(s) = K
K v = lim KG (s ) = K = 5
s →0
for K = 5, the closed-loop system is unstable
Design of a lag compensator:
1
s+
G c (s) = K c T = K β Ts + 1
β Ts + 1
c
1
s+
βT
D18
1. K v = lim Gc (s )G(s ) = K c β = 5
s→0
Æ
2. Phase margin of the system 5G(s) is -13°
the closed-loop system is unstable.
From the Bode diagram of 5G(jω) we obtain that the
additional required phase margin of 40° + 12° = 52° is
REWDLQHG DW
rad/sec.
The new gain crossover frequency will be:
c = 0.5 rad/sec
3.
%
rad/sec( at about 1/5 of c).
4. The magnitude of 5G(jω) at the new gain crossover
frequency c =0.5 rad/sec is 20 dB. In order to have c as
the new gain crossover frequency, the lag compensator
must give an attenuation of -20db at ωc.
Æ
Therefore
- 20log = - 20 dB = 10
5 1
5. Kc = = 0 .5 , pole : = 0 . 01
β βT
and
s + 0 .1
G c (s ) = 0 . 5
s + 0 . 01
D19
Bode diagrams for:
• G1(jω) = 5G(jω) (gain-adjusted KcβG(jω) open-loop
transfer function),
• Gc(jω)/K = Gc(jω)/5 (compensator divided by gain Kcβ =
5),
• Gc(jω)G(jω) (compensated open-loop transfer function)
The effect of the lag compensator is:
• The original unstable closed-loop system is now stable.
• The phase margin § Æ acceptable transient response.
• The gain margin § G% Æ acceptable transient response.
• Kv is 5 as requiredÆ acceptable steady-state response.
• The gain at high frequencies has been decreased.
D20
Lead-lag compensators
1 1
s+ s+
T1 T2 β sT1 + 1 sT2 + 1
Gc (s) = Kc ⋅ = Kc ⋅
γ γ s + 1 sβT2 + 1
1 T1
s+ s+
aT1 βT2 γ
T1, T2 > 0 , > 1 and γ > 1
Frequency response:
Bode diagram of a lag-lead compensator given by
1 1
s+ s +
T1 T2
Gc (s ) = K c
γ 1
s+ s +
T1 βT2
with Kc = 1, = = 10 and T2 = 10 T1
D21
Polar plot of a lag-lead compensator given by
1 1
s+ s +
Gc (s ) = K c
T1 T2
γ 1
s+ s +
T1 βT2
with Kc = 1 and =
Comparison between lead and lag compensators
Lead compensator Lag compensator
o High pass o Low pass
o Approximates o Approximates integral plus
derivative plus proportional control
proportional control
o Contributes phase lead o Attenuation at high
frequencies
o Increases the gain o Moves the gain-crossover
crossover frequency frequency lower
o Increases bandwidth o Reduces bandwidth
