STAT

05tcentennial
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Bicentennial
publications
With the
approval of
the President and Fellows
of
Yale
University,
a series
of
volumes has been
prepared by
a number
of
the
Professors
and In
structors,
to be issued in connection with the
Bicentennial
Anniversary,
as a
partial
indica
tion
of
the character
of
the studies in which the
University
teachers are
engaged.
This series
of
volumes is
respectfully
dedicated to
raDuate$ of
tfc
/
VECTOR ANALYSIS^
A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS
FOUNDED UPON THE LECTURES OF
J.
WILLARD
GIBBS, PH.D.,
LL.D.
Formerly Professor of
Mathematical
Physics
in Yale
University
BY
EDWIN BIDWELL
WILSON,
PH.D.
Professor of
Vital Statistics in
Harvard School
of
Public Health
NEW HAVEN
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Copyright, 1901
and
1929
BY YALE UNIVERSITY
Published, December, 1901
Second
Printing, January, 19/3
Third
Printing, July, 1916
fourth
Printing^ April, 1922
Fifth
Printing, October, 1925
Sixth
Printing, April,
1020
Seventh
Printing, October, 1951
Eighth Printing, April,
1943
Ninth
Printing, April, 1947
All
rights
reserved. This book
may
not be re
produced,
in whole or in
part,
in
any form,
ex
cept by
written
permission
from the
publishers.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PKEFACB BY PROFESSOR GIBBS
SINCE the
printing
of a short
pamphlet
on the Elements
of
Vector
Analysis
in the
years
1881-84,
never
published,
but
somewhat
widely
circulated
among
those who were known to
be interested in the
subject,
the desire has been
expressed
in more than one
quarter,
that the substance of that trea
tise,
perhaps
in fuller
form,
should be made accessible to
the
public.
As, however,
the
years passed
without
my finding
the
leisure to meet this
want,
which seemed a real
one,
I was
very glad
to have one of the hearers of
my
course on Vector
Analysis
in the
year
1899-1900 undertake the
preparation
of
a text-book on the
subject.
I have not desired that Dr. Wilson should aim
simply
at the
reproduction
of
my
lectures,
but rather that he should
use his own
judgment
in all
respects
for the
production
of a
text-book in which the
subject
should be so illustrated
by
an
adequate
number of
examples
as to meet the wants of stu
dents of
geometry
and
physics.
J. WILLARD GIBBS.
YALE
UNIVERSITY,
September,
1901.
GENERAL PREFACE
WHEN I undertook to
adapt
the lectures of Professor Gibbs
on VECTOR ANALYSIS for
publication
in the Yale Bicenten
nial
Series,
Professor Gibbs himself was
already
so
fully
engaged upon
his work to
appear
in the same
series,
Elementary
Principles
in Statistical
Mechanics,
that it was understood no
material assistance in the
composition
of this book could be
expected
from him. For this reason he wished me to feel
entirely
free to use
my
own discretion alike in the selection
of the
topics
to be treated and in the mode of treatment.
It has been
my
endeavor to use the freedom thus
granted
only
in so far as was
necessary
for
presenting
his method in
text-book form.
By
far the
greater part
of the material used in the follow
ing pages
has been taken from the course of lectures on
Vector
Analysis
delivered
annually
at the
University by
Professor Gibbs. Some
use,
however,
has been made of the
chapters
on Vector
Analysis
in Mr. Oliver Heaviside s Elec
tromagnetic Theory (Electrician
Series,
1893)
and in Professor
Foppl
s lectures on Die Maxwell sche Theorie der Electricitdt
(Teubner, 1894). My previous study
of
Quaternions
has
also been of
great
assistance.
The material thus obtained has been
arranged
in the
way
which seems best suited to
easy mastery
of the
subject.
Those Arts, which it seemed best to
incorporate
in the
text but which for various reasons
may
well be omitted at
the first
reading
have been marked with an asterisk
(*).
Nu
merous illustrative
examples
have been drawn from
geometry,
mechanics,
and
physics.
Indeed,
a
large part
of the text has
to do with
applications
of the method. These
applications
have not been set
apart
in
chapters by
themselves,
but have
x
GENERAL
PREFACE
been distributed
throughout
the
body
of the book as fast as
the
analysis
has been
developed sufficiently
for their
adequate
treatment.
It is
hoped
that
by
this means the reader
may
be
better enabled to make
practical
use of the book. Great care
has been taken in
avoiding
the introduction of
unnecessary
ideas,
and in so
illustrating
each idea that is introduced as
to make its
necessity
evident and its
meaning easy
to
grasp.
Thus the book is not intended as a
complete exposition
of
the
theory
of Vector
Analysis,
but as a text-book from which
so much of the
subject
as
may
be
required
for
practical appli
cations
may
be learned. Hence a
summary, including
a list
of the more
important
formulae,
and a number of
exercises,
have been
placed
at the end of each
chapter,
and
many
less
essential
points
in the text have been indicated rather than
fully
worked
out,
in the
hope
that the reader will
supply
the
details. The
summary may
be found useful in reviews and
for reference.
The
subject
of Vector
Analysis naturally
divides itself into
three distinct
parts.
First,
that which concerns addition and
the scalar and vector
products
of vectors.
Second,
that which
concerns the differential and
integral
calculus in its relations
to scalar and vector functions.
Third,
that which contains
the
theory
of the linear vector function. The first
part
is
a
necessary
introduction to both other
parts.
The second
and third are
mutually independent.
Either
may
be taken
up
first. For
practical purposes
in mathematical
physics
the
second must be
regarded
as more
elementary
than the third.
But a
student not
primarily
interested in
physics
would nat
urally pass
from the first
part
to the
third,
which he would
probably
find more attractive and
easy
than the second.
Following
this division of the
subject,
the main
body
of
the book is divided into six
chapters
of which two deal with
each of the three
parts
in the order named.
Chapters
I. and
II. treat of
addition, subtraction,
scalar
multiplication,
and
the scalar and vector
products
of vectors. The
exposition
has been made
quite
elementary.
It can
readily
be under
stood
by
and is
especially
suited for such
readers as have a
knowledge
of
only
the elements of
Trigonometry
and Ana-
GENERAL PREFACE
xi
lytic Geometry.
Those who are well versed in
Quaternions
or allied
subjects may perhaps
need to read
only
the sum
maries.
Chapters
III. and IV. contain the treatment of
those
topics
in Vector
Analysis
which,
though
of less value
to the students of
pure
mathematics,
are of the utmost
impor
tance to students of
physics. Chapters
V. and VI. deal with
the linear vector function. To students of
physics
the linear
vector function is of
particular importance
in the mathemati
cal treatment of
phenomena
connected with
non-isotropic
media
;
and to the student of
pure
mathematics this
part
of
the book will
probably
be the most
interesting
of
all,
owing
to the fact that it leads to
Multiple Algebra
or the
Theory
of Matrices. A
concluding chapter,
VII.,
which contains the
development
of certain
higher parts
of the
theory,
a number
of
applications,
and a short sketch of
imaginary
or
complex
vectors,
has been added.
In the treatment of the
integral
calculus,
Chapter
IV.,
questions
of mathematical
rigor
arise.
Although
modern
theorists are
devoting
much time and
thought
to
rigor,
and
although they
will doubtless criticise this
portion
of the book
adversely,
it has been deemed best to
give
but little attention
to the discussion of this
subject.
And the more so for the
reason that whatever
system
of notation be
employed ques
tions of
rigor
are
indissolubly
associated with the calculus
and occasion no new
difficulty
to the student of Vector
Analysis,
who must first learn what the facts are and
may
postpone
until later the detailed consideration of the restric
tions that are
put upon
those facts.
Notwithstanding
the efforts which have been made
during
more than half a
century
to introduce
Quaternions
into
physics
the fact remains that
they
have not found wide favor.
On the other hand there has been a
growing tendency espe
cially
in the last decade toward the
adoption
of some form of
Vector
Analysis.
The works of Heaviside and
Foppl
re
ferred to before
may
be cited in evidence. As
yet
however
no
system
of Vector
Analysis
which makes
any
claim to
completeness
has been
published.
In fact Heaviside
says
:
"I am in
hopes
that the
chapter
which I now finish
may
xii
GENERAL
PREFACE
serve as a
stopgap
till
regular
vectorial treatises come to be
written suitable
for
physicists,
based
upon
the vectorial treat
ment of vectors"
(Electromagnetic Theory,
Vol.
I.,
p. 305).
Elsewhere
in the same
chapter
Heaviside has set forth the
claims of vector
analysis
as
against
Quaternions,
and others
have
expressed
similar views.
The
keynote,
then,
to
any system
of vector
analysis
must
be its
practical utility.
This,
I feel
confident,
was Professor
Gibbs s
point
of view in
building up
his
system.
He uses it
entirely
in his courses on
Electricity
and
Magnetism
and on
Electromagnetic Theory
of
Light.
In
writing
this book I
have tried to
present
the
subject
from this
practical
stand
point,
and
keep clearly
before the reader s mind the
ques
tions: What combinations or functions of vectors occur in
physics
and
geometry
? And how
may
these be
represented
symbolically
in the
way
best suited to facile
analytic manip
ulation ? The treatment of these
questions
in modern books
on
physics
has been too much confined to the addition and
subtraction of vectors. This is
scarcely enough.
It has
been the aim here to
give
also an
exposition
of scalar and
vector
products,
of the
operator y,
of
divergence
and curl
which have
gained
such universal
recognition
since the
ap
pearance
of Maxwell s Treatise on
Electricity
and
Magnetism,
of
slope, potential,
linear vector
function, etc.,
such as shall
be
adequate
for the needs of students of
physics
at the
present
day
and
adapted
to them.
It has been asserted
by
some that
Quaternions,
Vector
Analysis,
and all such
algebras
are of little value for investi
gating questions
in
mathematical
physics.
Whether this
assertion shall
prove
true or
not,
one
may
still maintain that
vectors are to
mathematical
physics
what invariants are to
geometry.
As
every geometer
must be
thoroughly
conver
sant with the ideas of
invariants,
so
every
student of
physics
should be able to think in terms of vectors. And there is
no
way
in
which
he,
especially
at the
beginning
of his sci
entific
studies,
can
come to so true an
appreciation
of the
importance
of
vectors and of the ideas
connected with them
as
by
working
in
Vector
Analysis
and
dealing directly
with
GENERAL PREFACE
xiii
the vectors themselves. To those that hold these views the
success of Professor
Foppl
s
Vorlesungen
uber Technische
Mechanik
(four
volumes, Teubner, 1897-1900,
already
in a
second
edition),
in which the
theory
of mechanics is devel
oped by
means of a vector
analysis,
can be but an encour
aging sign.
I take
pleasure
in
thanking my colleagues,
Dr. M. B. Porter
and Prof. H. A.
Bumstead,
for
assisting
me with the manu
script.
The
good
services of the latter have been
particularly
valuable in
arranging Chapters
III. and IV* in their
present
form and in
suggesting many
of the illustrations used in the
work. I am also under
obligations
to
my
father,
Mr. Edwin
H.
Wilson,
for
help
in connection both with the
proofs
and
the
manuscript. Finally,
I wish to
express my deep
indebt
edness to Professor Gibbs. For
although
he has been so
preoccupied
as to be unable to read either
manuscript
or
proof,
he has
always
been
ready
to talk matters over with
me,
and it is he who has furnished me with
inspiration
suf
ficient to
carry through
the work.
EDWIN BIDWELL WILSON.
YALE
UNIVERSITY, October,
1901.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
THE
only changes
which have been made in this edition are
a few corrections which
my
readers have been kind
enough
to
point
out to me.
E. B. W.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE BY PROFESSOR GIBBS
vii
GENERAL PREFACE
ix
CHAPTER I
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
ARTS.
1-3 SCALARS AND VECTORS 1
4
EQUAL
AND NULL VECTORS 4
5 THE POINT OF VIEW OF THIS CHAPTER 6
6-7 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION. THE NEGATIVE SIGN .... 7
8-10 ADDITION. THE PARALLELOGRAM LAW 8
11 SUBTRACTION 11
12 LAWS GOVERNING THE FOREGOING OPERATIONS .... 12
13-16 COMPONENTS OF VECTORS. VECTOR
EQUATIONS
.... 14
17 THE THREE UNIT VECTORS
1,
j,
k
18
18-19 APPLICATIONS TO SUNDRY PROBLEMS IN GEOMETRY. . . 21
20-22 VECTOR RELATIONS INDEPENDENT OF THE ORIGIN ... 27
23-24 CENTERS OF GRAVITY. BARYCENTRIC COORDINATES . . 39
25 THE USE OF VECTORS TO DENOTE AREAS 46
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER i 51
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER i . . 52
CHAPTER II
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
27-28 THE
DIRECT, SCALAR,
OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 55
29-30 THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW AND APPLICATIONS
58
31-33 THE
SKEW, VECTOR,
OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 60
34-35 THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW AND APPLICATIONS
63
36 THE TRIPLE PRODUCT
A* B C
67
XVI
CONTENTS
ARTS.
PAGE
37-38 THE SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
A* B
X C
OR
[ABC]
. . 68
39-40 THE VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT A
X
(B
X
C)
71
41-42 PRODUCTS OF MORE THAN THREE VECTORS WITH APPLI
CATIONS TO TRIGONOMETRY 75
43-45 RECIPROCAL SYSTEMS OF THREE VECTORS 81
46-47 SOLUTION OF SCALAR AND VECTOR
EQUATIONS
LINEAR IN
AN UNKNOWN VECTOR 87
48-50 SYSTEMS OF FORCES ACTING ON A RIGID BODY .... 92
51 KINEMATICS OF A RIGID BODY 97
52 CONDITIONS
FOR
EQUILIBRIUM
OF A RIGID BODY ... 101
53 RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO RIGHT-HANDED SYSTEMS OF
THREE PERPENDICULAR UNIT VECTORS 104
54 PROBLEMS IN GEOMETRY. PLANAR COORDINATES . . . 106
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER n 109
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER n 113
CHAPTER III
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
55-56 DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS
WITH RESPECT TO A SCALAR
VARIABLE 115
57 CURVATURE AND TORSION OF GAUCHE CURVES .... 120
58-59
KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE. THE HODOGRAPH . . . 125
60 THE
INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF ROTATION 131
61
INTEGFATION WITH APPLICATIONS TO KINEMATICS . . . 133
62 SCALAR
FUNCTIONS OF POSITION IN SPACE
136
63-67 THE
VECTOR
DIFFERENTIATING OPERATOR
V
138
68 THE
SCALAR OPERATOR
A
V
147
69 VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF POSITION IN SPACE 149
70 THE
DIVERGENCE
V*
AND THE CURL
VX
150
71
INTERPRETATION OF THE DIVERGENCE
V
152
72
INTERPRETATION OF THE CURL
V
X 155
73
LAWS OF
OPERATION OF
V> V
*
>
V
X
157
74-76
THE PARTIAL
APPLICATION OF
V-
EXPANSION OF A VEC
TOR
FUNCTION
ANALOGOUS TO TAYLOR S THEOREM.
APPLICATION TO
HYDROMECHANICS 159
77 THE
DIFFERENTIATING
OPERATORS OF THE SECOND ORDER 166
78
GEOMETRIC
INTERPRETATION OF LAPLACE S OPERATOR
V* V
AS THE
DISPERSION
170
SUMMARY OF
CHAPTER in
172
EXERCISES ON
CHAPTER in
177
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER IV
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
ARTS. PAGE
79-80 LINE INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS WITH APPLICA
TIONS 179
81 GAUSS S THEOREM 184
82 STOKES S THEOREM 187
83 CONVERSE OF STOKES S THEOREM WITH APPLICATIONS . 193
84 TRANSFORMATIONS OF
LINE, SURFACE,
AND VOLUME IN
TEGRALS. GREEN S THEOREM 197
85 REMARKS ON MULTIPLE-VALUED FUNCTIONS 200
86-87 POTENTIAL. THE INTEGRATING OPERATOR
"
POT
"
. . 205
88 COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY OF POT AND
V
211
89 REMARKS UPON THE FOREGOING 215
90 THE INTEGRATING OPERATORS
"NEW," "LAP,"
"
MAX
"
222
91 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE INTEGRATING AND DIFFER
ENTIATING OPERATORS 228
92 THE POTENTIAL
"
POT
"
is A SOLUTION OF POISSON S
EQUATION
230
93-94 SOLENOIDAL AND IRROTATIONAL PARTS OF A VECTOR
FUNCTION. CERTAIN OPERATORS AND THEIR INVERSE . 234
95 MUTUAL
POTENTIALS,
NEWTONIANS, LAPLACIANS,
AND
MAXWELLIANS 240
96 CERTAIN BOUNDARY VALUE THEOREMS 243
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER iv 249
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER iv 255
CHAFIER V
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
97-98 LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS DEFINED 260
99 DYADICS DEFINED
264
100 ANY LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION MAY BE REPRESENTED
BY A
DYADIC. PROPERTIES OF DYADICS .... 266
101 THE NONION FORM OF A DYADIC 269
102 THE DYAD OR INDETERMINATE PRODUCT OF TWO VEC
TORS IS THE MOST GENERAL. FUNCTIONAL PROPERTY
OF THE SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS 271
108-104 PRODUCTS OF DYADICS 276
105-107 DEGREES OF NULLITY OF DYADICS 282
108 THE IDEMFACTOR 288
XV111
CONTENTS
ARTS.
PAGE
109-110 RECIPROCAL DYADICS. POWERS AND ROOTS OF DYADICS 290
111 CONJUGATE DYADICS. SELF-CONJUGATE AND ANTI-
SELF-CONJUGATE PARTS OF A DYADIC 294
112-114 ANTI-SELF-CONJUGATE DYADICS. THE VECTOR PROD
UCT.
QUADRANTAL
VER8ORS 297
115-116 REDUCTION OF DYADICS TO NORMAL FORM .... 302
117 DOUBLE MULTIPLICATION OF DYADICS 306
118-119 THE SECOND AND THIRD OF A DYADIC . . ... 310
120 CONDITIONS FOR DIFFERENT DEGREES OF NULLITY . 313
121 NONION FORM. DETERMINANTS 315
122 INVARIANTS OF A DYADIC. THE
HAMILTON-CAYLEY
EQUATION .319
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER v
321
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER v 329
CHAPTER VI
ROTATIONS AND
STRAINS
123-124 HOMOGENEOUS STRAIN REPRESENTED BY A
DYADIC . 332
125-126 ROTATIONS ABOUT A FIXED POINT. VERSORS . . . 334
127 THE VECTOR SEMI-TANGENT OF VERSION
339
128
BlQUADRANTAL VERSORS AND THEIR PRODUCTS . . . 343
129
CYCLIC DYADICS
347
130 RIGHT
TENSORS
351
131 TONICS AND
CYCLOTONICS
353
132
REDUCTION OF DYADICS TO CANONICAL
FORMS, TONICS,
CYCLOTONICS,
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX SHEARERS . . 356
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER vi
368
CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS
APPLICATIONS
136-142
QUADRIC SURFACES
372
143-146 THE
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS
....
392
147-148
VARIABLE
DYADICS
403
149-157
CURVATURE OF
SURFACES
411
158-162
HARMONIC
VIBRATIONS AND
BIVECTORS
....
426
VECTOR ANALYSIS
VECTOR ANALYSIS
CHAPTER I
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
1.]
IN mathematics and
especially
in
physics
two
very
different kinds of
quantity present
themselves.
Consider,
for
example,
mass, time,
density, temperature,
force,
displacement
of a
point, velocity,
and acceleration. Of these
quantities
some can be
represented adequately by
a
single
number
temperature, by degrees
on a thermometric scale
; time,
by
years, days,
or seconds
;
mass and
density, by
numerical val-
.
ues which are
wholly
determined when the unit of the scale
is fixed. On the other hand the
remaining quantities
are not
capable
of such
representation.
Force to be sure is said to be
of so
many pounds
or
grams weight; velocity,
of so
many
feet or centimeters
per
second. But in addition to this each
of them must be considered as
having
direction as well as
magnitude.
A force
points
North, South, East, West,
up,
down,
or in some intermediate direction. The same is true
of
displacement, velocity,
and acceleration. No scale of num
bers can
represent
them
adequately.
It can
represent only
their
magnitude,
not their direction.
2.]
Definition
: A vector is a
quantity
which is considered
as
possessing
direction as well as
magnitude.
Definition
: A scalar is a
quantity
which is considered as
pos
sessing magnitude
but no direction.
2 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
The
positive
and
negative
numbers
of ordinary algebra
are the
typical
scalars.
For this reason the
ordinary algebra
is called
scalar
algebra
when
necessary
to
distinguish
it from the vector
algebra
or
analysis
which is the
subject
of this book.
The
typical
vector is the
displacement of
translation in
space.
Consider first a
point
P
(Fig.
1).
Let P be
displaced
in a
straight
line and take a new
position
P
f
.
This
change
of
position
is
represented by
the
line PP. The
magnitude
of the
displace
ment is the
length
of PP
1
;
the direction of
it is the direction of the line PP
1
from
P to
P
1
. Next consider a
displacement
not of
one,
but of all the
points
in
space.
Let all the
points
move in
straight
lines in the same direction and for the
same distance D. This is
equivalent
to
shifting space
as a
rigid body
in that direction
through
the distance D without
rotation. Such a
displacement
is called a translation. It
possesses
direction and
magnitude.
When
space undergoes
a
translation
T,
each
point
of
space undergoes
a
displacement
equal
to T in
magnitude
and
direction;
and
conversely
if
the
displacement
PP which
any
one
particular point
P suf
fers in the translation T is
known,
then that of
any
other
point Q
is also known : for
Q Q
must be
equal
and
parallel
to PP.
The
translation T is
represented geometrically
or
graphically
by
an
arrow T
(Fig. 1)
of which the
magnitude
and direction
are
equal
to
those of the translation. The absolute
position
of this arrow in
space
is
entirely
immaterial.
Technically
the
arrow is called a
stroke. Its tail or initial
point
is its
origin;
and its
head or
final
point,
its
terminus. In the
figure
the
origin
is
designated
by
and the terminus
by
T. This
geo
metric
quantity,
a
stroke,
is used as the mathematical
symbol
for all
vectors,
just
as the
ordinary positive
and
negative
num
bers are used as
the
symbols
for all scalars.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 3
*
3.]
As
examples
of scalar
quantities
mass, time,
den
sity,
and
temperature
have been mentioned. Others are dis
tance,
volume,
moment of
inertia, work,
etc.
Magnitude,
however,
is
by
no means the sole
property
of these
quantities.
Each
implies something
besides
magnitude.
Each has its
own
distinguishing
characteristics,
as an
example
of which
its dimensions in the sense well known to
physicists may
be cited. A distance
3,
a time
3,
a work
3, etc.,
are
very
different. The
magnitude
3
is, however,
a
property
common
to them all
perhaps
the
only
one. Of all scalar
quanti-
tities
pure
number is the
simplest.
It
implies nothing
but
magnitude.
It is the scalar
par
excellence and
consequently
it is used as the mathematical
symbol
for all scalars.
As
examples
of vector
quantities force, displacement,
velo
city,
and acceleration have been
given.
Each of these has
other characteristics than those which
belong
to a vector
pure
and
simple.
The
concept
of vector involves two ideas and
two alone
magnitude
of the vector and direction of the
vector. But force is more
complicated.
When it is
applied
to a
rigid body
the line in which it acts must be taken into
consideration;
magnitude
and direction alone do not suf
fice. And in case it is
applied
to a
non-rigid body
the
point
of
application
of the force is as
important
as the
magnitude
or
direction. Such is
frequently
true for vector
quantities
other
than force. Moreover the
question
of dimensions is
present
as in the case of scalar
quantities.
The mathematical
vector,
the
stroke,
which is the
primary object
of consideration in
this
book,
abstracts from all directed
quantities
their
magni
tude and direction and
nothing
but these
;
just
as the mathe
matical
scalar,
pure
number,
abstracts the
magnitude
and
that alone. Hence one must be on his
guard
lest from
analogy
he attribute some
properties
to the mathematical
vector which do not
belong
to it
;
and he must be even more
careful lest he obtain erroneous results
by considering
the
4 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
vector
quantities
of
physics
as
possessing
no
properties
other
than those of the mathematical vector. For
example
it would
never do to consider force and its effects as unaltered
by
shifting
it
parallel
to itself. This
warning may
not be
necessary, yet
it
may possibly
save some confusion.
4.]
Inasmuch
as,
taken in its
entirety,
a vector or stroke
is but a
single
concept,
it
may appropriately
be
designated by
one letter.
Owing
however to the fundamental difference
between scalars and
vectors,
it is
necessary
to
distinguish
carefully
the one from the other.
Sometimes,
as in mathe
matical
physics,
the distinction is furnished
by
the
physical
interpretation.
Thus if n be the index of refraction it
must be scalar
; m,
the
mass,
and
,
the
time,
are also
scalars
;
but
/,
the
force,
and
a,
the
acceleration,
are
vectors.
When, however,
the letters are
regarded merely
as
symbols
with no
particular physical significance
some
typographical
difference must be relied
upon
to
distinguish
vectors from scalars. Hence in this book Clarendon
type
is
used for
setting up
vectors and
ordinary type
for scalars.
This
permits
the use of the same letter
differently printed
to
represent
the vector and its scalar
magnitude.
1
Thus if
C be the electric current in
magnitude
and
direction,
C
may
be used to
represent
the
magnitude
of that current
;
if
g
be
the vector acceleration due to
gravity, g may
be the scalar
value of that acceleration
;
if v be the
velocity
of a
moving
mass,
v
may
be the
magnitude
of that
velocity.
The use of
Clarendons to denote vectors makes it
possible
to
pass
from
directed
quantities
to their scalar
magnitudes
by
a
mere
change
in the
appearance
of a letter
without
any
confusing
change
in the letter itself.
Definition
: Two vectors are said to be
equal
when
they
have
the same
magnitude
and the same
direction.
1
This
convention, however,
is
by
no means
invariably
followed. In some
instances it would
prove just
as undesirable as it is convenient in others. It is
chiefly
valuable in the
application
of vectors to
physics.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
5
The
equality
of two vectors A and B is denoted
by
the
usual
sign
=. Thus
A
=
B
Evidently
a vector or stroke is not altered
by shifting
it
about
parallel
to itself in
space.
Hence
any
vector A
=
PP
r
(Fig.
1) may
be drawn from
any assigned point
as
origin
;
for the
segment
PP
f
may
be moved
parallel
to itself until
the
point
P falls
upon
the
point
and P
upon
some
point
T.
In this
way
all vectors in
space may
be
replaced by
directed
segments radiating
from one fixed
point
0.
Equal
vectors
in
space
will of course
coincide,
when
placed
with their ter
mini at the same
point
0. Thus
(Fig. 1)
A
=
PP\
and B
=
Q~Q
f
,
both fall
upon
T
=
~OT.
For the numerical determination of a vector three scalars
are
necessary.
These
may
be chosen in a
variety
of
ways.
If
r, </>,
be
polar
coordinates in
space any
vector r drawn
with its
origin
at the
origin
of coordinates
may
be
represented
by
the three scalars
r,
</>,
6 which determine the terminus of
the vector.
r~(r,*,0).
Or if
#,
y
9
z be Cartesian coordinates in
space
a vector r
may
be considered as
given by
the differences of the coordinates
a/,
y
i
z
f
of its terminus and those
#,
y,
z of its
origin.
r~
(x
r
x,y
r
y,z
r
z).
If in
particular
the
origin
of the vector coincide with the
origin
of
coordinates,
the vector will be
represented by
the
three coordinates of its terminus
r
-(*
,*, ,
*
)
When two vectors are
equal
the three scalars which
repre
sent them must be
equal respectively
each to each. Hence
one vector
equality implies
three scalar
equalities.
6
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Definition
: A vector A is said to be
equal
to zero when its
magnitude
A is zero.
Such a vector A is called a null or zero vector and is written
equal
to
naught
in the usual manner. Thus
A
=
if A
=
0.
All null vectors are
regarded
as
equal
to each other without
any
considerations of direction.
In fact a null vector from a
geometrical standpoint
would
be
represented by
a linear
segment
of
length
zero that is to
say, by
a
point.
It
consequently
would have a
wholly
inde
terminate direction
or,
what amounts to the same
thing,
none at
all.
If,
however,
it be
regarded
as the limit
approached by
a
vector of finite
length,
it
might
be considered to have that
direction which is the limit
approached by
the direction of the
finite
vector,
when the
length
decreases
indefinitely
and
ap
proaches
zero as a limit. The
justification
for
disregarding
this direction and
looking upon
all null vectors as
equal
is
that when
they
are added
(Art. 8)
to other vectors no
change
occurs and when
multiplied (Arts. 27,
31) by
other vectors
the
product
is zero.
5.]
In
extending
to vectors the fundamental
operations
of
algebra
and
arithmetic,
namely,
addition,
subtraction, and
multiplication,
care must be exercised riot
only
to avoid self-
contradictory
definitions but also to
lay
down useful ones.
Both these ends
may
be
accomplished
most
naturally
and
easily by looking
to
physics (for
in that science vectors con
tinually present themselves)
and
by observing
how such
quantities
are treated there. If then A be a
given displace
ment, force,
or
velocity,
what is
two, three,
or in
general
x
times A?
What,
the
negative
of A? And if B be
another,
what is the sum of A and B ? That is to
say,
what is the
equivalent
of A and B taken
together
? The obvious answers
to these
questions
suggest
immediately
the desired definitions.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
1
Scalar
Multiplication
6.]
Definition:
A vector is said to be
multiplied by
a
positive
scalar when its
magnitude
is
multiplied by
that scalar
and its direction is left unaltered
Thus if v be a
velocity
of nine knots East
by
North,
2 times
v is a
velocity
of
twenty-one
knots with the direction still
East
by
North. Or if f be the force exerted
upon
the scale-
pan by
a
gram weight,
1000 times f is the force exerted
by
a
kilogram.
The direction in both cases is
vertically
down
ward.
If A be the vector and x the scalar the
product
of x and A is
denoted as usual
by
x A or A x.
It
is, however,
more
customary
to
place
the scalar
multiplier
before the
multiplicand
A. This
multiplication by
a scalar
is called scalar
multiplication,
and it follows the associative law
x
(y A)
=
(x y)
A
=
y
(x
A)
as in
ordinary algebra
and arithmetic. This statement is im
mediately
obvious when the fact is taken into consideration
that scalar
multiplication
does not alter direction but
merely
multiplies
the
length.
Definition
: A unit vector is one whose
magnitude
is
unity.
Any
vector A
may
be looked
upon
as the
product
of a unit
vector a in its direction
by
the
positive
scalar
A,
its
magni
tude.
A
=
A a
=
a A.
The unit vector a
may similarly
be written as the
product
of
A
by I/A
or as the
quotient
of A and A.
1 A
a
=
^
A
=
-I
A A
8
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
7.]
Definition
: The
negative sign, prefixed
to a vector
reverses its direction but leaves its
magnitude unchanged.
For
example
if A be a
displacement
for two feet to the
right,
A
is a
displacement
for two feet to the left.
Again
if the
stroke A~B be
A,
the stroke B
A,
which is of the same
length
as A but which is in the direction from B to A instead of
from A to
5,
will be A. Another illustration of the use
of the
negative sign may
be taken from Newton s third law
of motion. If A denote an
"action,"
A will denote the
"
reaction." The
positive sign,
+ ,
may
be
prefixed
to a vec
tor to call
particular
attention to the fact that the direction
has not been reversed. The two
signs
+
and when used
in connection with scalar
multiplication
of vectors follow the
same laws of
operation
as in
ordinary algebra.
These are
symbolically
+ +
=
+ ; +-
=
-;
-
+
=
-;
=
+;
(ra A)
=
m
( A).
The
interpretation
is obvious.
Addition and Subtraction
8.]
The addition of two vectors or strokes
may
be treated
most
simply by regarding
them as
defining
translations in
space (Art. 2),
Let S be one vector and T the other. Let P
be a
point
of
space (Fig. 2).
The trans
lation S carries P into P
1
such that the
line PP
1
is
equal
to S in
magnitude
and
direction. The transformation T will then
carry
P
1
into P
11
the line P P"
being
parallel
to T and
equal
to it in
magnitude.
FIG. 2.
Consequently
the result of S followed
by
T is to
carry
the
point
P into the
point
P". If now
Q
be
any
other
point
in
space,
S will
carry
Q
into
Q
such that
Q~Q
r
=
S and T will then
carry Q
f
into
Q"
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
such that
Q Q"
=
T. Thus S followed
by
T carries
Q
into
Q".
Moreover,
the
triangle
Q Q
f
Q"
is
equal
to PP P". For
the two sides
Q Q
f
and
Q Q",
being equal
and
parallel
to S
and T
respectively,
must be likewise
parallel
to P P
1
and
P P"
respectively
which are also
parallel
to S and T. Hence
the third sides of the
triangles
must be
equal
and
parallel
That is
Q Q"
is
equal
and
parallel
to PP".
As
Q
is
any point
in
space
this is
equivalent
to
saying
that
by
means of S followed
by
T all
points
of
space
are
displaced
the same amount and in the same direction. This
displace
ment is therefore a translation.
Consequently
the two
translations S and T are
equivalent
to a
single
translation R.
Moreover
if S
=
PP and T
=
P
P",
then R
=
PP".
The stroke R is called the resultant or sum of the two
strokes S and T to which it is
equivalent.
This sum is de
noted in the usual manner
by
R
=
S
+
T.
From
analogy
with the sum or resultant of two translations
the
following
definition for the addition of
any
two vectors is
laid down.
Definition
: The sum or resultant of two vectors is found
by placing
the
origin
of the second
upon
the terminus of the
first and
drawing
the vector from the
origin
of the first to the
terminus of the second.
9.]
Theorem. The order in which two vectors S and T are
added does not affect the sum.
S followed
by
T
gives precisely
the same result as T followed
by
S. For let S
carry
P into P
(Fig. 3)
;
and
T,
P into P".
S
+
T then carries P into P".
Suppose
now that T carries P
into P ". The line PP
"
is
equal
and
parallel
to PP". Con-
10
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
sequently
the
points
P,
P
9
P
ff
,
and P
m
lie at the vertices of
a
parallelogram.
Hence
pm pn js e
q
ual an(J
par-
allel to PP. Hence S
carries
P"
f
into P". T fol
lowed
by
S therefore car
ries P into P"
through
P\
whereas S followed
by
T
carries
P into P"
through
P
m
. The final result is in
either case the same. This
may
be
designated symbolically
by writing
R
=
S
+
T
=
T
+
S.
It is to be noticed that S
=
PP
1
and T
=
PP
m
are the two sides
of the
parallelogram
pprpp" which
1
have the
point
P as
common
origin
;
and that JL=PP" is the
diagonal
drawn
through
P. This leads to another
very
common
way
of
stating
the definition of the sum of two vectors.
If two vectors be drawn from the same
origin
and a
parallelo
gram
be constructed
upon
them as
sides,
their sum will be that
diagonal
which
passes through
their common
origin.
This is the well-known
"
parallelogram
law
"
according
to
which the
physical
vector
quantities
force, acceleration,
veloc
ity,
and
angular velocity
are
compounded.
It is
important
to
note that in case the vectors lie
along
the same line vector
addition becomes
equivalent
to
algebraic
scalar addition. The
lengths
of the two vectors to be added are added if the vectors
have the same direction
;
but subtracted if
they
have
oppo
site directions. In either case the sum has the same direction
as that of the
greater
vector.
10.]
After the definition of the sum of two vectors has
been laid
down,
the sum of several
may
be found
by adding
together
the first
two,
to this sum the
third,
to this the
fourth,
and so on until all the vectors have been combined into a sin-
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 11
gle
one. The final result is the same as that obtained
by placing
the
origin
of each
succeeding
vector
upon
the terminus of the
preceding
one and then
drawing
at once the vector from
the
origin
of the first to the terminus of the last. In case
these two
points
coincide the vectors form a closed
polygon
and their sum is zero.
Interpreted geometrically
this states
that if a number of
displacements
R, S,
T are such that
the
strokes
R, S,
T form the sides of a closed
polygon
taken in
order,
then the effect of
carrying
out the
displacements
is nil.
Each
point
of
space
is
brought
back to its
starting point.
In
terpreted
in mechanics it states that if
any
number of forces
act at a
point
and if
they
form the sides of a closed
polygon
taken in
order,
then the resultant force is zero and the
point
is in
equilibrium
under the action of the forces.
The order of
sequence
of the vectors in a sum is of no con
sequence.
This
may
be shown
by proving
that
any
two
adja
cent vectors
may
be
interchanged
without
affecting
the result.
To show
Let A
=
A,
B
=
A
B,
C
=
B
C,
D
=
D,
E
=
D E.
Then
_
Let now B C
1
=
D. Then C
!
B C D is a
parallelogram
and
consequently
C
f
D
=
C. Hence
OJ
=
A
+
B
+
D
+
C
+
E,
which
proves
the statement. Since
any
two
adjacent
vectors
may
be
interchanged,
and since the sum
may
be
arranged
in
any
order
by
successive
interchanges
of
adjacent
vectors,
the
order in which the vectors occur in the sum is immaterial.
11.] Definition
: A vector is said to be subtracted when it
is added after reversal of direction.
Symbolically,
A
-
B
=
A
+
(-
B).
By
this means subtraction is reduced to addition and needs
12
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
no
special
consideration.
There is however an
interesting
and
important
way
of
representing
the difference of two vectors
geometrically.
Let A
=
OA,
B
=
0IT(Fig. 4). Complete
the
parallelogram
of which A and B
are the sides. Then the
diagonal
~OG
=
C is the sum A
+
B of the
two vectors. Next
complete
the
parallelogram
of which A and B
=
OB are the sides. Then the di
agonal
02)
=
!) will be the sum of
A and the
negative
of B. But the
segment
OD is
parallel
and
equal
to BA. Hence BA
may
be taken as the difference to the two
vectors A
and B. This leads to the
following
rule : The differ
ence of two vectors which are drawn from the same
origin
is
the vector drawn
from
the terminus of the vector to be sub
tracted to the terminus of the vector from which it is sub
tracted. Thus the two
diagonals
of the
parallelogram,
which
is constructed
upon
A and B as
sides,
give
the sum and dif
ference of A and B.
12.]
In the
foregoing paragraphs
addition, subtraction,
and
scalar
multiplication
of vectors have been defined and inter
preted.
To make the
development
of vector
algebra
mathe
matically
exact and
systematic
it would now become
necessary
to demonstrate that these three fundamental
operations
follow
the same formal laws as in the
ordinary
scalar
algebra,
al
though
from the
standpoint
of the
physical
and
geometrical
interpretation
_of vectors this
may
seem
superfluous.
These
laws are
m
(n A)
=
n
(m A)
=
(m n}
A,
(A
+
B)
+
C
=
A+
(B
+
C),
II
A
+
B
r,
B
+
A,
III
a (m
+
n)
A
=
m A
+
n
A,
m
(A
+
B)
=
m A
+
m
B,
III,
-
(A
+
B)
=
-
A
-
B.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
13
1 is the so-called law of association and commutation of
the scalar factors in scalar
multiplication.
I
6
is the law of association for vectors in vector addition. It
states that in
adding
vectors
parentheses may
be inserted at
any points
without
altering
the result.
11 is the commutative law of vector addition.
III
a
is the distributive law for scalars in scalar
multipli
cation.
III
6
is the distributive law for vectors in scalar
multipli
cation.
Ill,
is the distributive law for the
negative sign.
The
proofs
of these laws of
operation depend upon
those
propositions
in
elementary geometry
which have to deal with
the first
properties
of the
parallelogram
and similar
triangles.
They
will not be
given
here;
but it is
suggested
that the
reader work them out for the sake of
fixing
the fundamental
ideas of
addition, subtraction,
and scalar
multiplication
more
clearly
in mind. The result of the laws
may
be summed
up
in the statement :
The laws which
govern
addition, subtraction,
and scalar
multiplication of
vectors are identical with those
governing
these
operations
in
ordinary
scalar
algebra.
It is
precisely
this
identity
of formal laws which
justifies
the extension of the use of the familiar
signs
=, +,
and
of arithmetic to the
algebra
of vectors and it is also this
which ensures the correctness of results obtained
by operat
ing
with those
signs
in the usual manner. One caution
only
need be mentioned. Scalars and vectors are
entirely
different
sorts of
quantity.
For this reason
they
can never be
equated
to each other
except perhaps
in the trivial case where each is
zero. For the same reason
they
are not to be added
together.
So
long
as this is borne in mind no
difficulty
need be antici
pated
from
dealing
with vectors much as if
they
were scalars.
Thus from
equations
in which the vectors enter
linearly
with
14
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
scalar
coefficients
unknown
vectors
may
be eliminated or
found
by
solution
in the same
way
and with the same limita
tions
as in
ordinary algebra;
for the eliminations
and solu
tions
depend
solely
on the scalar coefficients
of the
equations
and
not at all on what
the variables
represent.
If for
instance
aA +
&B
+
cC
+
dD
=
0,
then
A, B, C,
or D
may
be
expressed
in terms of the other
three
as
D
=
--:OA
+
&B
+
cC).
a
And two vector
equations
such as
3
A+
4B=E
and
2 A +
3 B
=
F
yield by
the usual
processes
the solutions
A=3E-4F
and
B
=
3 F
-
2 E.
Components of
Vectors
13.]
Definition
: Vectors are said to be collinear when
they
are
parallel
to the same
line;
coplanar,
when
parallel
to the same
plane.
Two or more vectors to which no line
can be drawn
parallel
are said to be non-collinear. Three or
more vectors to which no
plane
can be drawn
parallel
are
said to be
non-coplanar. Obviously any
two vectors are
coplanar.
Any
vector b collinear with a
may
be
expressed
as the
product
of a and a
positive
or
negative
scalar which is the
ratio of the
magnitude
of b to that of a. The
sign
is
positive
when b and a have the same direction
;
negative,
when
they
have
opposite
directions. If then OA
=
a,
the vector r drawn
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 15
from the
origin
to
any point
of the line A
produced
in
either direction is
r
=
x a.
(1)
If x be a variable scalar
parameter
this
equation may
there
fore be
regarded
as the
(vector) equation
of all
points
in the
line OA. Let now B be
any point
not
upon
the line OA or that line
produced
in either direction
(Fig. 5).
Let OB
=
b. The vector b is
surely
not of the form x a. Draw
through
B
Flo 5
"
a line
parallel
to OA and Let
R be
any
point upon
it. The vector BE is collinear with a and is
consequently expressible
as #a. Hence the vector drawn
from to R is
0~E=0~B
+
ITR
or r
=
b
+
#a.
(2)
This
equation may
be
regarded
as the
(vector) equation
of
all the
points
in the line which is
parallel
to a and of which
B is one
point.
14.] Any
vector r
coplanar
with two non-collinear vectors
a and b
may
be resolved into two
components parallel
to a
and b
respectively.
This resolution
may
be
accomplished by constructing
the
par
allelogram (Fig. 6)
of which the sides are
parallel
to a and b and of which the di
agonal
is r. Of these
components
one is
x a
;
the
other,
y
b. x and
y
are
respec
tively
the scalar ratios
(taken
with the
proper sign)
of the
lengths
of these
components
to the
lengths
of a and b, Hence
r
=
x a
+
y
b
(2)
is a
typical
form for
any
vector
coplanar
with a and b. If
several vectors r
x
,
r
2
,
r
3 may
be
expressed
in this form as
16
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
their sum r is then
r
l
=
x
l
a
+
yl
b,
r
2
=
#
2
a
+
2/2
b,
r
3
=
x
z
a
+
2/3
b.
+
(ft
+
ft
+
ft
+
)
This is the well-known theorem that the
components
of a
sum of vectors are the sums of the
components
of those
vectors. If the vector r is zero each of its
components
must
be zero.
Consequently
the one vector
equation
r
=
is
equivalent
to the two scalar
equations
y\
+
ft
+
ft
+
=
(3)
15.] Any
vector r in
space may
be resolved into three
components parallel
to
any
three
given non-coplanar
vectors.
Let the vectors be
a, b,
and c. The resolution
may
then be accom
plished by constructing
the
parallelepiped (Fig.
7)
of which the
edges
are
parallel
to
a, b,
and
c and of which the di
agonal
is r. This
par-
allelopiped may
be
drawn
easily by passing
three
planes parallel
re
spectively
to a and
b,
b and
c,
c and a
through
the
origin
of the vector r
;
and a similar set of three
planes
through
its
terminus It. These six
planes
will then be
parallel
in
pairs
FIG. 7.
ADDITION
AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
17
and hence form a
parallelepiped.
That the intersections of
the
planes
are lines which are
parallel
to
a,
or
b,
or c is
obvious. The three
components
of r are x
a, y
b,
and
zc;
where
x,
y,
and z are
respectively
the scalar ratios
(taken
with
the
proper sign)
of the
lengths
of these
components
to the
length
of
a, b,
and c. Hence
r
=
# a
+ 7/b +
zc
(4)
is a
typical
form for
any
vector whatsoever in
space.
Several
vectors r
lf
r
2
,
r
3
. . .
may
be
expressed
in this form as
r
x
=
x
l
a
+
yl
b
+
z
l c,
r
2
=
#
2
a
+
y2
b
+
*2
c
1*3
=
X
Z
a
+
2/3
b
Their sum r is then
1
=
r
l
+
r
2
+
F
3
+
*
=
0*1
+
*2
+
X
Z
+
a
+
(2/i
+
2/2+ 3/3
+
)!>
+
Ol +^2
+
^3+ "O
-
If the vector r is zero each of its three
components
is zero.
Consequently
the one vector
equation
r
=
is
equivalent
to
the three scalar
equations
x
l
+
#
2
+
#
3
+
-
= v
2/i
+
2/2
+
2/3
+
=
y
r
=
0.
(5)
*i
+
*
2
+
%
+
=
/
Should the vectors all be
coplanar
with a and
b,
all the com
ponents parallel
to c vanish. In this case therefore the above
equations
reduce to those
given
before.
16.]
If two
equal
vectors are
expressed
in terms of the
same three
non-coplanar vectors,
the
corresponding
scalar co
efficients are
equal.
18
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Let
r
=
r
,
r
=
x
9
a
+
y
1
b
+
z
c,
Then
x
=
x
,
y
=
y
For r
-
r
= =
(x
-
x
f
)
a
+
(y
-
y )
b
+
(*
-
z
1
)
c.
Hence
x
-
*
=
0,
y
-
y
=
0,
z
-
*
=
0.
But this would not be true if
a, b,
and c were
coplanar.
In
that case one of the three vectors could be
expressed
in terms
of the other two as
c
=
m a
+
n b.
Then r
=
#a
+
y
b
+
s c
=
(a
+
m
z)
a
+
(y
+
TI
z)
b,
r
=
x
!
a
+
y
1
b
+
z
;
c
=
(x
1
+
m z
)
a
+
(y
+
n z
)
b,
r r
=
[(x
+
m z
) (x
+
mz
)]
a,
Hence the individual
components
of r r in the directions
a and b
(supposed
different)
are zero.
Hence
x
+
mz
=
x
r
+
mz
r
y
-f
n z
=
y
f
+
n z
1
.
But this
by
no means necessitates
x,
y,
z to be
equal respec
tively
to
x\
y\
z
1
. In a similar manner if a and b were col-
linear it is
impossible
to infer that their coefficients vanish
individually.
The theorem
may perhaps
be stated as follows :
. In case two
equal
vectors are
expressed
in terms
of
one
vector,
or two non-collinear
vectors,
or three
non-coplanar
vectors,
the
corresponding
scalar
coefficients
are
equal.
But this is not ne
cessarily
true
if
the two vectors be collinear
;
or the three
vectors,
coplanar.
This
principle
will be used in the
applications
(Arts.
18 et
seq.).
The Three Unit Vectors
i, j,
k.
17.]
In the
foregoing paragraphs
the method of
express
ing
vectors in terms of three
given non-coplanar
ones has been
explained.
The
simplest
set of three such vectors is the rect-
ADDITION
AND SCALAR
MULTIPLICATION
19
angular
system
familiar in Solid Cartesian
Geometry.
This
rectangular
system
may
however
be either of two
very
distinct
types.
In one case
(Fig.
8,
first
part)
the Z-axis
l
lies
upon
that side of the X Y-
plane
on which rotation
through
a
right
angle
from the X-axis to the F-axis
appears
counterclockwise
or
positive
according
to the convention
adopted
in
Trigonome
try.
This relation
may
be stated in another form.
If the X
axis be directed to the
right
and the F-axis
vertically,
the
^-axis
will be directed
toward the observer.
Or if the X-
axis
point
toward the observer
and the F-axis to the
right,
the ^-axis will
point upward.
Still another method of state-
Z
,,k
Right-handed
FIG. 8.
Left-handed
ment is common in mathematical
physics
and
engineering.
If
a
right-handed
screw be turned from the Xaxis to the F-
axis it will advance
along
the
(positive)
Z-axis. Such a
sys
tem of axes is called
right-handed, positive,
or counterclock
wise.
2
It is
easy
to see that the F-axis lies
upon
that side of
the
^X-plane
on which rotation from the ^-axis to the X-
axis is counterclockwise
;
and the
X-axis,
upon
that side of
1
By
the
X-, Y-,
or Z-axis the
positive
half of that axis is meant. The X Y-
plane
means the
plane
which contains the X- and
Y-axis,
i.
e.,
the
plane
z =
0.
2
A convenient
right-handed system
and one which is
always
available consists
of the
thumb,
first
finger,
and second
finger
of the
right
hand. If the thumb and
first
finger
be stretched out from the
palm perpendicular
to each
other,
and if the
second
finger
be bent over toward the
palm
at
right angles
to first
finger,
a
right-
handed
system
is formed
by
the
fingers
taken in the order
thumb,
first
finger,
second
finger.
20 VECTOR
ANALYSTS
the
F^-plane
on which rotation from the F-axis to the Z-
axis is counterclockwise. Thus it
appears
that the relation
between the three axes is
perfectly symmetrical
so
long
as the
same
cyclic
order XYZXY is observed. If a
right-handed
screw is turned from one axis toward the next it
advances
along
the third.
In the other case
(Fig.
8,
second
part)
the ^-axis lies
upon
that side of the X
F-plane
on which rotation
through
a
right
angle
from the JT-axis to the F-axis
appears
clockwise or
neg
ative. The F-axis then lies
upon
that side of the
^X-plane
on which rotation from the ^-axis to the X-axis
appears
clockwise and a similar statement
may
be made
concerning
the X-axis in its relation to the
F^-plane.
In this
case, too,
the relation between the three axes is
S3
r
mmetrical so
long
as the same
cyclic
order XYZXY is
preserved
but it is
just
the
opposite
of that in the former case. If a
fe/Mianded
screw
is turned from one axis toward the next it advances
along
the third. Hence this
system
is called
left-handed,
negative,
or
clockwise.
1
The two
systems
are not
superposable.
They
are
sym
metric. One is the
image
of the other as seen in a
mirror. If the JT- and F-axes of the two different
systems
be
superimposed,
the ^-axes will
point
in
opposite
directions.
Thus one
system
may
be obtained from the other
by
reversing
the
direction of one of the axes. A
little
thought
will show
that if two of the axes be
reversed in
direction the
system
will
not be
altered,
but if all three be so
reversed it will be.
Which of the two
systems
be
used,
matters little. But in
asmuch as the
formulae of
geometry
and
mechanics differ
slightly
in
the
matter of
sign,
it is
advisable to settle once for
all
which shall
be
adopted.
In
this book the
right-handed
or
counterclockwise
system
will be
invariably employed.
1
A
left-handed
system
may
be formed
by
the left hand
just
as a
right-handed
one was formed
by
the
right.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
21
Definition
: The three letters
i, j,
k will be reserved to de
note three vectors of unit
length
drawn
respectively
in the
directions of the
JT-, T-,
and Z- axes of a
right-handed
rectan
gular system.
In terms of these
vectors,
any
vector
may
be
expressed
as
r
=
xi
+
y]
+
zk.
(6)
The coefficients x
y y,
z are the
ordinary
Cartesian coordinates
of the terminus of r if its
origin
be situated at the
origin
of
coordinates. The
components
of r
parallel
to the
X-, F-,
and
^f-axes are
respectively
x
i,
y j,
z k.
The rotations about i from
j
to
k,
about
j
from k to
i,
and
about k from i to
j
are all
positive.
By
means of these vectors
i,
j,
k such a
correspondence
is
established between vector
analysis
and the
analysis
in Car
tesian coordinates that it becomes
possible
to
pass
at will
from either one to the other. There is
nothing
contradic
tory
between them. On the
contrary
it is often desirable
or even
necessary
to translate the formulae obtained
by
vector methods into Cartesian coordinates for the sake of
comparing
them with results
already
known and it is
still more
frequently
convenient to
pass
from Cartesian
analysis
to vectors both on account of the
brevity thereby
obtained and because the vector
expressions
show forth the
intrinsic
meaning
of the formulae.
Applications
*18.J
Problems in
plane geometry may frequently
be solved
easily by
vector methods.
Any
two non-collinear vectors in
the
plane may
be taken as the fundamental ones in terms of
which all others in that
plane may
be
expressed.
The
origin
may
also be selected at
pleasure.
Often it is
possible
to
22 VECTOR ANALYSIS
make such an
advantageous
choice of the
origin
and funda
mental vectors that the
analytic
work of solution is
materially
simplified.
The
adaptability
of the vector method is about
the same as that of
oblique
Cartesian coordinates with differ
ent scales
upon
the two axes.
Example
1 : The line which
joins
one vertex of a
parallelo
gram
to the middle
point
of an
opposite
side trisects the
diag
onal
(Fig. 9).
Let ABCD be the
parallelogram,
BE the line
joining
the
vertex B to the middle
point
E of the side
AD,
R the
point
in which this line cuts the
diagonal
A C. To show A R is one third of
FlG 9
AC. Choose A as
origin,
AB and AD as the
two fundamental vectors S
and T. Then
A C is the sum of S and
T. Let AR
=
R. To show
R
=
1
(S
+
T).
-
where x is the ratio of ER to EB an
unknown scalar.
And
R
=
y (
S
+
T),
where
y
is the scalar
ratio of A
R to A C to be shown
equal
to.
Hence
\
T
+
x
(S
-i
T)
=
y (S
+
T)
or
* S
+
1
(1
-
X
)
T
=
y
S
+
y
T.
Hence,
equating
corresponding
coefficients
(Art. 16),
2
(1
-
x)
=
y.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
23
From which
y
=
.
Inasmuch as x is also
-
the line j&2? must be trisected as
o
well as the
diagonal
A C.
Example
2 : If
through any point
within a
triangle
lines
be drawn
parallel
to the sides the sum of the ratios of these
lines to their
corresponding
sides is 2.
Let ABC be the
triangle,
R the
point
within it. Choose
A as
origin,
A B and A C as the two fundamental vectors S
and T. Let
AR
=
R
=
w S
+
7i T.
(a)
m S is the fraction of AB which is cut off
by
the line
through
R
parallel
to A C. The remainder of A B must be the frac
tion
(1 m)
S.
Consequently by
similar
triangles
the ratio of
the line
parallel
to A C to the line A C itself is
(1 ra).
Similarly
the ratio of the line
parallel
to AB to the line A B
itself is
(1
n
).
Next
express
R in terms of S and T S the
third side of the
triangle. Evidently
from
(a)
R
=
(m
+
ri)
S
+
n
(T
-
S).
Hence
(m
+
ri)
S
is the fraction of A B which is cut off
by
the
line
through
R
parallel
to B C.
Consequently by
similar tri
angles
the ratio of this line to BC itself is
(m +
n). Adding
the three ratios
(1
-
m)
+
(1
-
n)
+
(m
+
ri)
=
2,
and the theorem is
proved.
Example
3 : If from
any point
within a
parallelogram
lines
be drawn
parallel
to the
sides,
the
diagonals
of the
parallelo
grams
thus formed intersect
upon
the
diagonal
of the
given
parallelogram.
Let AB CD be a
parallelogram,
R a
point
within
it,
KM
and LN two lines
through
R
parallel respectively
to AB and
24 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
AD,
the
points
K, Z, M,
N
lying upon
the sides
DA, AS,
B
C,
CD
respectively.
To show that the
diagonals
KN and
LM of the two
parallelograms
KRND and LBME meet
on A C. Choose A as
origin,
A B and A D as the two funda
mental vectors S and T. Let
R
=
AB
=
m S
4-
ft
T,
and let P be the
point
of intersection of KNwith LM.
Then KN=KR
+
BN
=
m S
+
(1
-
rc) T,
=(1 -m)
S
+
7i
T,
Hence P
=
n T
+
x
[m
S
+
(1
n)
T],
and P
=
m S
+
y [(1
-
m)
S
+
n
T].
Equating
coefficients,
x m
=
m
+
y (1 m)
By
solution,
;
m
+
n 1
m
~
m
+
n 1
Substituting
either of these solutions in the
expression
for
P,
the result is
P^-^-^S
+
T),
which shows that P is collinear with A C.
*
19.]
Problems in three
dimensional
geometry may
be
solved in
essentially
the same
manner as
those in two
dimen
sions. In this case there are
three
fundamental
vectors in
terms of which all
others can be
expressed.
The
method of
solution is
analogous
to that in
the
simpler
case.
Two
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
25
expressions
for the same vector are
usually
found. The co
efficients of the
corresponding
terms are
equated.
In this
way
the
equations
between three unknown scalars are obtained
from which those scalars
may
be determined
by
solution and
then substituted in either of the
expressions
for the
required
vector. The vector method has the same
degree
of
adapta
bility
as the Cartesian method in which
oblique
axes with
different scales are
employed.
The
following examples
like
those in the
foregoing
section are worked out not so much for
their intrinsic value as for
gaining
a
familiarity
with vectors.
Example
1 : Let AB CD be a tetrahedron and P
any
point
within it. Join the vertices to P and
produce
the lines
until
they
intersect the
opposite
faces in
A\
B
,
C
1
,
D
f
. To
show
PA PB PC
1
PD
A~A
f
TTB ~C~O
f
"
Choose A as
origin,
and the
edges
A
J?,
A
C,
AD as the
three fundamental vectors
B, C,
D. Let the vector AP be
P
=
A P=IE
+
raC
+
7i
D,
Also A
=
A A
=
A B
+
BA .
The vector BA
1
is
coplanar
with WC
=
C B and BD
D B. Hence it
may
be
expressed
in terms of them.
A
=
B
+
^
1 (C-B)+y1 (D~B).
Equating
coefficients Jc
l
m
=
x
v
Hence
&.,
=
PA
_
V
ZZ
7
~~&
1
I
+
m
+
n
PA* JL-1
and
"
^7
26
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
In like manner
A B
=
#
2
C
+
y2
D
and
A B
=
^t
+
B B
=
B
+
&
2 (P
-
B).
Hence
o;
2
C
+
y2
D
=
B
+
A:
2 (ZB
+
mC
+
^D-B
and
=
1
+
*, (J
-
1),
Hence
2 -i
__
-
and
In the same
way
it
may
be shown that
PC .PL
1
CC* 3D
Adding
the four ratios the result is
i
d JL vn -4- <w ^ _L 7 J_ w -I- 77 1
Example
% : To find a line which
passes through
a
given
point
and cuts two
given
lines in
space.
Let the two lines be fixed
respectively by
two
points
A
and
B,
C and D on each. Let be the
given point.
Choose
it as
origin
and let
C
=
~OC,
D=d~D.
Any point
P of AB
may
be
expressed
as
P= OP= 0~A
+
xA
=
A
+
x
(B- A).
Any point
Q
of CD
may
likewise be written
If the
points
P and
Q
lie in the same line
through
0,
P and
are collinear That is
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 27
Before it is
possible
to
equate
coefficients one of the four
vectors must be
expressed
in terms of the other three.
Then P
=
A
+
x
(B
-
A)
& Tf _1_ ( 1 A _J_ m Tl _1_ >w P I^^T
Hence 1 x
=
z
y
/,
x
=
zy
m,
=
z
[1
+
y
(n
-
1)J.
Hence
m
x
=
y
=
2
=
i
i-
_________
I
+
m
Substituting
in P and ft
I
A+
m B
+
m
ft
=
Either of these
may
be taken as
defining
a line drawn from
and
cutting
A B and CD.
Vector Relations
independent of
the
Origin
20.]
Example
1 : To divide a line AB in a
given
ratio
m : n
(Fig.
10).
Choose
any arbitrary point
as
origin.
Let OA
=
A and OB
=
B.
To find the vector P
=
~OP of which
the terminus P divides AB in the
ratio m : n.
m
B
FIG. 10.
That
is,
P
=
B
=
A
-f-
7i
n A
+
m B
n
(B
-
A).
(7)
28 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The
components
of P
parallel
to A and B are in inverse ratio
to the
segments
A P and PB into which the line A B is
divided
by
the
point
P. If it should so
happen
that P divided
the line AB
externally,
the ratio A P
/
PE would be
nega
tive,
and the
signs
of m and n would be
opposite,
but the
formula would hold without
change
if this difference of
sign
in m and n be taken into account.
Example
2 : To find the
point
of intersection of the medians
of a
triangle.
Choose the
origin
at random. Let A BC be the
given
triangle.
Let 0~A
=
A,
()B
=
B,
and "00
=
C. Let A
f
, ,C
be
respectively
the middle
points
of the sides
opposite
the
vertices
A, B,
(7. Let M be the
point
of
intersection of the
medians and M
=
M the vector drawn to it. Then
and
~<
=
B
Assuming
that has been chosen outside of the
plane
of
the
triangle
so that
A, B,
C are
non-coplanar,
corresponding
coeffi
cients
may
be
equated.
Hence
x
=
y
-
9
3
Hence
M
=4
(A
+
B
+
C).
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 29
The vector drawn to the median
point
of a
triangle
is
equal
to one third of the sum of the vectors drawn to the vertices.
In the
problems
of which the solution has
just
been
given
the
origin
could be chosen
arbitrarily
and the result is in
dependent
of that choice. Hence it is even
possible
to disre
gard
the
origin entirely
and
replace
the vectors
A, B, C, etc.,
by
their termini
A, B, C,
etc. Thus the
points
themselves
become the
subjects
of
analysis
and the formulae read
n A
+
m B
m
+
n
and
M=~(A
+
B
+
C).
This is
typical
of a whole class of
problems
soluble
by
vector
methods. In fact
any purely geometric
relation between the
different
parts
of a
figure
must
necessarily
be
independent
of the
origin
assumed for the
analytic
demonstration. In
some
cases,
such as those in Arts.
18, 19,
the
position
of the
origin may
be
specialized
with
regard
to some crucial
point
of the
figure
so as to facilitate the
computation
;
but in
many
other cases the
generality
obtained
by leaving
the
origin
un-
specialized
and undetermined leads to a
symmetry
which
renders the results
just
as
easy
to
compute
and more
easy
to remember.
Theorem : The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
vector
equation represent
a relation
independent
of the
origin
is that the sum of the scalar coefficients of the vectors on
one side of the
sign
of
equality
is
equal
to the sum of the
coefficients of the vectors
upon
the other
side.
Or if all the
terms of a vector
equation
be
transposed
to one side
leaving
zero on the
other,
the sum of the scalar coefficients must
be zero.
Let the
equation
written in the latter form be
30
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Change
the
origin
from
to
by adding
a constant vector
B
=
OO
1
to each of the vectors
A, B, C,
D
----
The
equation
then becomes
a
(A
4-
B)
+
6
(B
+
B)
+
c
(C
+
B)
+
d
(D
+
R)
+
-
=
If this is to be
independent
of the
origin
the coefficient of B
must vanish. Hence
That this condition is fulfilled in the two
examples
cited
is obvious.
if
m
+
n
If M
=
\
(A
f
B
+
C),
m
+
n m
+
n
l
3
*
21.]
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that two
vectors
satisfy
an
equation,
in which the sum of the scalar
coefficients is
zero,
is that the vectors be
equal
in
magnitude
and in direction.
First let a A
+
6 B
=
and a
+
6
=
0.
It is of course assumed that not both the coefficients a and b
vanish. If
they
did the
equation
would mean
nothing.
Sub
stitute the value of a obtained from the second
equation
into
the first.
-&A
+
6B
=
0.
Hence
A
=
B.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 31
Secondly
if A and B are
equal
in
magnitude
and direction
the
equation
A-B
=
subsists between them. The sum of the coefficients is zero.
The
necessaiy
and sufficient condition that three vectors
satisfy
an
equation,
in which the sum of the scalar coefficients
is
zero,
is that when drawn from a common
origin they
termi
nate in the same
straight
line.
1
First let aA
+
6B
+
cC
=
and a
+
b
+
c
=
0.
Not all the coefficients
a, J, c,
vanish or the
equations
would be
meaningless.
Let c be a
non-vanishing
coefficient.
Substitute the value of a obtained from the second
equation
into the first.
or
Hence the vector which
joins
the extremities of C and
A is
collinear with that which
joins
the extremities of A and B.
Hence those three
points
-4, -B,
C lie on a line.
Secondly
suppose
three vectors A=
OA,
B
=
OB,G=
00 drawn from
the same
origin
terminate in a
straight
line. Then the
vectors
AB
=
B
-
A and A~C
=
C
-
A
are collinear. Hence the
equation
subsists. The sum of the coefficients on the two sides is
the same.
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that an
equation,
in which the sum of the scalar
coefficients is
zero,
subsist
1
Vectors which have a common
origin
and terminate in one line are called
by
Hamilton
"
termino-collinear:
82 VECTOR ANALYSIS
between four
vectors,
is that if drawn from a common
origin
they
terminate in one
plane.
1
First let a A
+
6B
+
cC
+
dV
=
and a
+
b
+
c
+
d
=
Q.
Let d be a
non-vanishing
coefficient. Substitute the value
of a obtained from the last
equation
into the first.
or d
(D
-
A)
=
6
(A
-
B)
+
c
(A
-
C).
The line AD is
coplanar
with AB and A C. Hence all four
termini
A, B, (7,
D of
A, B, C,
D lie in one
plane. Secondly
suppose
that the termini of
A, B, C,
D do lie in one
plane.
Then AZ)
=
D
-
A,
~AC
=
C
-
A,
and ~AB
=
B
-
A are co
planar
vectors. One of them
may
be
expressed
in terms of
the other two. This leads to the
equation
/
(B
-
A)
+
m
(C
-
A)
+
n
(D
-
A)
=
0,
where
/, m,
and n are certain scalars. The sum of the coeffi
cients in this
equation
is zero.
Between
any
five vectors there exists one
equation
the sum
of whose
coefficients is zero.
Let
A, B, C,D,E
be the five
given
vectors. Form the
differences
E-A,
E--B, E-C,
E-D.
One of
these
may
be
expressed
in terms of the other three
-
or what
amounts to
the same
thing
there must exist an
equation
between
them.
ft
(E
-
A)
+
/
(E
-
B)
+
m
(E
-
C)
+
n
(E
-
D)
=
0.
The sum of the
coefficients of this
equation
is zero.
1
Vectors which have a
common
origin
and terminate in one
plane
are called
by
Hamilton
"
termino-complanar."
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 33
*22.]
The results of the
foregoing
section afford
simple
solutions of
many problems
connected
solely
with the
geo
metric
properties
of
figures. Special theorems,
the vector
equations
of lines and
planes,
and
geometric
nets in two and
three dimensions are taken
up
in order.
Example
1: If a line be drawn
parallel
to the base of a
triangle,
the line which
joins
the
opposite
vertex to the inter
section of the
diagonals
of the
trapezoid
thus formed bisects the
base
(Fig. 11).
Let ABC be the
triangle,
ED
the line
parallel
to the base
CB,
G the
point
of intersection of the
diagonals
EB and DC of the tra
pezoid
CBDE,
and Fthe intersec
tion of A G with CB. To show
FI(J n
that F bisects CB. Choose the
origin
at random. Let the vectors drawn from it to the
various
points
of the
figure
be denoted
by
the
corresponding
Clarendons as usual. Then since ED is
by hypothesis paral
lel to
CB,
the
equation
E
-
D
=
n
(C
-
B)
holds true. The sum of the coefficients is
evidently
zero as
it should be.
Rearrange
the terms so that the
equation
takes on the form
E nC
=
"D 7i B.
The vector E n C is
coplanar
with E and C. It must cut
the line EC. The
equal
vector D 7&B is
coplanar
with D
and B. It must cut the line DB.
Consequently
the vector
represented
by
either side of this
equation
must
pass through
the
point
A. Hence
E 7iC
=
D ?iB
=
#A.
34
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
However
the
points
E, 0,
and A lie
upon
the same
straight
line.
Hence
the
equation
which connects
the vectors
E,C,
and A
must
be such
that the sum of its coefficients
is zero.
This
determines
x as 1 n.
Hence
B
-
C
=
D
-
B
=
(1
-
w)
A.
By
another
rearrangement
and similar
reasoning
E
+
7i B
=D
+
7iC=
(1
+
n)Qt.
Subtract
the first
equation
from the second
:
n
(B
+
C)
=
(1
+
n)
G
-
(1
-
n)
A.
This vector
cuts EC and AQ. It must therefore be a
multiple
of F and such
a
multiple
that the sum of the coeffi
cients of the
equations
which connect
B, C,
and F or
0, A,
and F shall be zero.
Hence n
(B
+
C)
=
(1
+
)G
-
(1
-
)
A
=
2 nf.
Hence
F
=
and the theorem has been
proved.
The
proof
has covered
considerable
space
because each detail of the
reasoning
has
been
given.
In
reality,
however,
the actual
analysis
has con
sisted of
just
four
equations
obtained
simply
from the first.
Example
% : To determine the
equations
of the line and
plane.
Let the line be fixed
by
two
points
A and B
upon
it. Let
P be
any point
of the line. Choose an
arbitrary origin.
The vectors
A, B,
and P terminate in the same line. Hence
aA
+
6B
and a
+
I
+
p
=
0.
,
Therefore P
=
a
+
b
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
35
For different
points
P the scalars a and b have different
values.
They may
be
replaced by
x and
y,
which are used
more
generally
to
represent
variables. Then
x
+
y
Let a
plane
be determined
by
three
points
-4, B,
and C.
Let P be
any point
of the
plane.
Choose an
arbitrary origin.
The vectors
A, B, C,
and P terminate in one
plane.
Hence
6B
+
cC
and a
+
b
+
c+p
=
Q.
aA
+
6B +
cC
Therefore P
=
-f
c
As
a, 6, c,
vary
for different
points
of the
plane,
it is more
customary
to write in their stead
x,
y
t
z.
+
y
+
z
Example
3 ; The line which
joins
one vertex of a com
plete quadrilateral
to the intersection of two
diagonals
divides the
opposite
sides har
monically (Fig. 12).
Let
A,
B, C,
D be four vertices
of a
quadrilateral.
Let A B meet
CD in a fifth vertex
E,
and AD
meet BC in the sixth vertex F.
Let the two
diagonals
AC and
p 12
BD intersect in G. To show
that FG intersects A B in a
point
i" and CD in a
point
E
1
such that the lines AB and (7I> are divided
internally
at
E
1
and 2?" in the same ratio as
they
are divided
externally
by
E. That is to show that the cross ratios
86
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Choose
the
origin
at random.
The four vectors
A, B, C,
D
drawn
from it to the
points
A, B, C,
D terminate
in one
plane.
Hence
and
a
+
b
+
e
+
d
=
0.
Separate
the
equations by transposing
two terms :
Divide :
=
a
+
c
=
(b
+
d).
cC 6B
+
a
+
c b
+
d
aA +
d D
__
6B
+
cC
a
+
d b
+
c
(a +
C
)G (a
+
d)F
cC
di
In like manner F
=
Form:
(a
+
c)
-
(a
+
d)
"
(a
+
c) (a
+
d)
(a +
c)Q (a
+
rf)F
cC
or
c a c a
Separate
the
equations again
and divide :
aA
+
EB
_
cC
+
a
-f
b c
+
d
(6)
Hence 2? divides A B in the ratio a : b and CD in the ratio
c / d. But
equation (a)
shows that JE
ff
divides CD in the
ratio c:d. Hence E and E" divide CD
internally
and
externally
in the same ratio. Which of the two divisions is
internal and which external
depends upon
the relative
signs
of c and d. If
they
have the same
sign
the internal
point
of division is
E;
if
opposite signs,
it is E
1
. In a similar
way
E
1
and E
may
be shown to divide AB
harmonically.
Example 4
- To discuss
geometric
nets.
By
a
geometric
net in a
plane
is meant a
figure composed
of
points
and
straight
lines obtained in the
following
manner.
Start with a certain number of
points
all of which lie in one
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 37
plane.
Draw all the lines
joining
these
points
in
pairs.
These lines will intersect each other in a number of
points.
Next draw all the lines which connect these
points
in
pairs.
This second set of lines will determine a still
greater
number
of
points
which
may
in turn be
joined
in
pairs
and so on.
The construction
may
be
kept up indefinitely.
At each
step
the number of
points
and lines in the
figure
increases.
Probably
the most
interesting
case of a
plane geometric
net is
that in which
four points
are
given
to commence with.
Joining
these there are six lines which intersect in three
points
different from the
given
four. Three new lines
may
now be drawn in the
figure.
These cut out six new
points.
From these more lines
may
be obtained and so on.
To treat this net
analytically
write down the
equations
=
(c)
and a
+
b
+
c
+
d
=
Q
which subsist between the four vectors drawn from an unde
termined
origin
to the four
given points.
From these it is
possible
to obtain
a
A
+
6B cC +
dD
Tjl
a
+
b c
+
d
A
+
cC
Z>B
+
dD
a
+
c b
+
d
A
+
dJ) &B
+
cC
a
+
d b
+
c
by splitting
the
equations
into two
parts
and
dividing.
Next
four vectors such as
A, D, E,
F
may
be chosen and the
equa
tion the sum of whose coefficients is zero
may
be determined.
This would be
aA
+
dV
+
(a
+
b)
E-f
(a
+
c)
P
=
0.
By treating
this
equation
as
(c)
was treated new
points may
be obtained*
38
VECTOR ANALYSIS
a A
+
dD
(a
+
6)E
+
(a
+
c)F
H
=
1
=
a
+
d 2a
+
b
+
c
aA
+
(a
+
ft)E
__
<?D+
(a
+
c)F
a
4-
c
+
d
(a
+
6)
E
c a
+
b
+
d
Equations
between other sets of four vectors selected from
A, B, C, D,
E, F,
may
be found
;
and from these more
points
obtained. The
process
of
finding
more
points goes
forward
indefinitely.
A fuller account of
geometric
nets
may
be
found in Hamilton s
"
Elements
of Quaternions,"
Book I.
As
regards geometric
nets in
space just
a word
may
be
said. Five
points
are
given.
From these new
points may
be
obtained
by finding
the intersections of
planes passed through
sets of three of the
given points
with lines
connecting
the
remaining pairs.
The construction
may
then be carried for
ward with the
points
thus
obtained. The
analytic
treatment
is similar to that in the case of
plane
nets. There are
five vectors drawn from an undetermined
origin
to the
given
five
points.
Between these vectors there exists an
equation
the sum of
whose coefficients is zero. This
equation may
be
separated
into
parts
as before and the new
points may
thus
be
obtained.
+ 6B cC
+
dD
+
then
F
=
a
+
b c
+
d
+
e
A
+
cC 6B
+
dV
+
e
a
+
b
b
+
d
+
c
are two of the
points
and others
may
be found in the same
way.
Nets in
space
are also discussed
by
Hamilton,
loc. cit.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
39
Centers
of Gravity
*
23.]
The center
of gravity
of a
system
of
particles may
be found
very easily by
vector methods. The two laws of
physics
which will be assumed are the
following:
1. The center of
gravity
of two masses
(considered
as
situated at
points)
lies on the line
connecting
the two masses
and divides it into two
segments
which are
inversely pro
portional
to the masses at the extremities.
2. In
finding
the center of
gravity
of two
systems
of
masses each
system may
be
replaced by
a
single
mass
equal
in
magnitude
to the sum of the masses in the
system
and
situated at the center of
gravity
of the
system.
Given two masses a and b situated at two
points
A and B.
Their center of
gravity
G is
given by
where the vectors are referred to
any origin
whatsoever.
This follows
immediately
from law 1 and the formula
(7)
for division of a line in a
given
ratio.
The center of
gravity
of three masses
a, J,
c situated at the
three
points
-4, B,
C
may
be found
by
means of law 2. The
masses a and b
may
be considered as
equivalent
to a
single
mass a
+
b situated at the
point
a A
+
&B
a
+
b
Then
G
=
(a
+
6)
"
A
+
6B
+
c C
a
-f-
b
TT
aA-h&B-f-cC
Hence G
=
a
-f
b
+
c
40
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Evidently
the center of
gravity
of
any
number of masses
a, &, c, d,
... situated
at the
points
A, B, C, D,
...
may
be found
in a similar manner. The result is
aA
+
ftB
+
cO
+
rfD
+
...
^
a
+
b
+
c
+
d
+
...
Theorem 1 : The lines which
join
the center of
gravity
of a
triangle
to the vertices
divide it into three
triangles
which
are
proportional
to the masses at the
op
posite
vertices
(Fig. 13).
Let
A, B,
C
be the vertices of a
triangle weighted
with masses
a, &,
c. Let G be the cen
ter of
gravity.
Join
A, B,
C to G and
produce
the lines until
they
intersect
the
opposite
sides in A
f
, B\
C
1
respectively.
To show that
the areas
G B C : G CA : G A B : A B C
=
a : b : c : a
+
b
+
c.
The last
proportion
between ABC and a
+
b
+
c comes
from
compounding
the first three. It
is, however,
useful in
the
demonstration.
ABC AA A G
.
GA b
+
c
+
1.
Hence
GBC~ GA! CTA G~A
f
ABC a
+
b
+
c
In a similar manner
and
GBC a
BCA a
+
I
+
c
GCA~ b
CAB
_
a
+
b
+
c
GAB
~
~~c
Hence the
proportion
is
proved.
Theorem 2 : The lines which
join
the center of
gravity
of
a
tetrahedron to the vertices divide the tetrahedron into four
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
41
tetrahedra which are
proportional
to the masses at the
oppo
site vertices.
Let
-4, B, C,
D be the vertices of the tetrahedron
weighted
respectively
with
weights
a, &, c,
d. Let be the center of
gravity.
Join
A, B, C,
D to G and
produce
the lines until
they
meet the
opposite
faces in A
, B\ G\
D . To show that
the volumes
BCDG:CDAG:DABG:ABCG:ABCD
BCDA
BCDG
In like manner
and
and
ABCD d
which
proves
the
proportion.
*
24.] By
a suitable choice of the three
masses, a, J,
c lo
cated at the vertices
A, B, (7,
the center of
gravity
G
may
be made to coincide with
any given point
P of the
triangle.
If this be not obvious from
physical
considerations it cer
tainly
becomes so in the
light
of the
foregoing
theorems.
For in order that the center of
gravity
fall at
P,
it is
only
necessary
to choose the masses
a, 6,
c
proportional
to the
areas of the
triangles
PEG, PCA^
and PAB
respectively.
Thus not
merely
one set of masses
a, &,
c
may
be
found,
but
an
infinite number of sets which differ from each other
only
by
a
common factor of
proportionality.
These
quantities
42
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
a, 6,
c
may
therefore
be looked
upon
as coordinates of the
points
P inside of the
triangle
ABC. To each set there
corresponds
a definite
point
P,
and to each
point
P there
corresponds
an infinite number of sets of
quantities,
which
however do not differ from one another
except
for a factor
of
proportionality.
To obtain the
points
P of the
plane
ABC which lie outside
of the
triangle
ABC one
may
resort to the
conception
of
negative weights
or masses. The center of
gravity
of the
masses 2 and 1 situated at the
points
A and B
respectively
would be a
point
G
dividing
the line AB
externally
in the
ratio 1 : 2. That is
Any point
of the line AB
produced may
be
represented by
a suitable set of masses
a,
b which differ in
sign. Similarly
any point
P of the
plane
ABC
may
be
represented by
a
suitable set of masses
a, 6,
c of which one will differ in
sign
from the other two if the
point
P lies outside of the
triangle
ABC. Inasmuch as
only
the ratios of
a, 6,
and c are im
portant
two of the
quantities may always
be taken
positive.
The idea of
employing
the masses situated at the vertices
as coordinates of the center of
gravity
is due to Mobius and
was
published by
him in his book entitled
"
Der
barycentrische
Calcul" in
1827. This
may
be
fairly regarded
as the
starting
point
of modern
analytic geometry.
The
conception
of
negative
masses which have no existence
in nature
may
be avoided
by replacing
the masses at the
vertices
by
the areas of the
triangles
GBC,
GO
A,
and
GAB to which
they
are
proportional.
The coordinates of
a
point
P would then be three numbers
proportional
to the
areas of the three
triangles
of which P is the common vertex
;
and the sides of a
given triangle ABC,
the bases. The
sign
of these areas is determined
by
the
following
definition.
ADDITION
AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
43
Definition:
The
area ABC of a
triangle
is said to be
positive
when the vertices
A, B,
C follow each other in the
positive
or counterclockwise
direction
upon
the circle de
scribed
through
them. The area is said to be
negative
when
the
points
follow in the
negative
or clockwise direction.
Cyclic permutation
of the letters therefore does not alter
the
sign
of the area.
Interchange
of two letters which amounts to a reversal of
the
cyclic
order
changes
the
sign.
A CB
=
BA
=
CBA
=
-A B C.
If Pbe
any point
within the
triangle
the
equation
PAB+PBC+PCA=ABC
must hold. The same will also hold if P be outside of the
triangle provided
the
signs
of the areas be taken into con
sideration. The areas or three
quantities proportional
to
them
may
be
regarded
as coordinates of the
point
P.
The extension of the idea of
"
barycentric
"
coordinates to
space
is immediate. The four
points
A, B, C,
D situated at
the vertices of a tetrahedron are
weighted
with mass
a, J, c,
d
respectively.
The center of
gravity
G is
represented by
these
quantities
or four others
proportional
to them. To
obtain
points
outside of the tetrahedron
negative
masses
may
be
employed.
Or in the
light
of theorem
2,
page
40,
the masses
may
be
replaced by
the four tetrahedra which
are
proportional
to them. Then the idea of
negative
vol
umes takes the
place
of that of
negative weights.
As this
idea is of considerable
importance
later,
a brief treatment of
it here
may
not be out of
place.
Definition
:
The volume AB CD of a tetrahedron is said
to be
positive
when the
triangle
ABC
appears positive
to
44
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
the
eye
situated
at the
point
D. The volume is
negative
if the area of the
triangle
appear negative.
To make the discussion
of the
signs
of the various
tetrahedra
perfectly
clear it is almost
necessary
to have a
solid modeL
A
plane
drawing
is
scarcely
sufficient. It is
difficult to see from it which
triangles appear positive
and
which
negative.
The
following
relations will be seen to
hold if a model be examined.
The
interchange
of two letters in the tetrahedron ABCD
changes
the
sign.
ACBD
=
CBAD=BACD=DBCA
The
sign
of the tetrahedron for
any given
one of the
pos
sible
twenty-four arrangements
of the letters
may
be obtained
by reducing
that
arrangement
to the order A B C D
by
means of a number of successive
interchanges
of two letters.
If the number of
interchanges
is even the
sign
is the same
as that of ABCD
;
if
odd,
opposite.
Thus
If P is
any point
inside of the tetrahedron AB CD the
equation
ABCP-BCDP+
CDAP-DABP=ABCD
holds
good.
It still is true if P be without the tetrahedron
provided
the
signs
of the volumes be taken into considera
tion. The
equation may
be
put
into a form more
symmetri
cal and more
easily
remembered
by transposing
all the terms
to one number. Then
The
proportion
in theorem
2,
page
40,
does not hold true
if the
signs
of the tetrahedra be
regarded.
It should read
BCDG:CDGA:DGAB:GABC:ABCD
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
45
If the
point
G- lies inside the tetrahedron
a, J, c,
d
repre
sent
quantities proportional
to the masses which must be
located at the vertices
A,B,C,D
respectively
if G is to be the
center of
gravity.
If G lies outside of the tetrahedron
they may
still be
regarded
as masses some of which are
negative
or
perhaps
better
merely
as four numbers whose ratios determine
the
position
of the
point
Gr. In this manner a set of
"bary-
centric
"
coordinates is established for
space.
The vector P drawn from an indeterminate
origin
to
any
point
of the
plane
AB C is
(page 35)
aA
+
yB
+
zC
x
+
y
+
z
Comparing
this with the
expression
aA
+
&B
+
cC
a
+
b
+
c
it will be seen that the
quantities
x,
y,
z are in
reality nothing
more nor less than the
barycentric
coordinates of the
point
P
with
respect
to the
triangle
ABO. In like manner from
equation
__#A
+
yB
+
2C
+
wD
x
+
y
+
z
+
w
which
expresses any
vector P drawn from an indeterminate
origin
in terms of four
given
vectors
A, B, C,
D drawn from
the same
origin,
it
may
be seen
by comparison
with
+
&B
+
c C +
rfD
=
a
+
b
+
c
+
d
that the four
quantities
x,
y,
2,
w are
precisely
the
bary
centric coordinates of
P,
the terminus of
P,
with
respect
to
the tetrahedron A B CD. Thus the vector methods in which
the
origin
is undetermined and the methods of the
"
Bary
centric Calculus
"
are
practically
co-extensive.
It was mentioned before and it
may
be well to
repeat
here
46
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
that the
origin
may
be left
wholly
out of consideration and
the vectors
replaced by
their termini.
The vector
equations
then become
point equations
x A
+
y
B
4-
z
and
x
+
y
+
z
xA
+
yB
+
zC
+
wD
w.
At
x
+
y
+
z
This
step brings
in the
points
themselves as the
objects
of
analysis
and leads still nearer to the
"
Barycentrische
Calcul
"
of Mobius and the
"Ausdehnungslehre
"
of Grassmann.
The Use
of
Vectors to denote Areas
25.]
Definition:
An area
lying
in one
plane
MN and
bounded
by
a continuous curve
PQR
which nowhere cuts
itself is said to
appear positive
from the
point
when the
letters
PQR
follow each
other in the counterclockwise
or
positive
order;
negative,
when
they
follow in the
negative
or clockwise order
(Fig. 14).
It is evident that an area
can have no determined
sign
per
se,
but
only
in reference
to that direction in which its
boundary
is
supposed
to be traced and to some
point
out
side of its
plane.
For the area P R
Q
is
negative
relative to
PQR;
and an area viewed from is
negative
relative to the
same area viewed from a
point
O
f
upon
the side of the
plane
opposite
to 0. A circle
lying
in the X
F-plane
and described
in the
positive trigonometric
order
appears positive
from
every
point
on that side of the
plane
on which the
positive
axis
lies,
but
negative
from all
points
on the side
upon
which
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 47
the
negative
^-axis lies. For this reason the
point
of view
and the direction of
description
of the
boundary
must be
kept
clearly
in mind.
Another method of
stating
the definition is as follows : If
a
person walking upon
a
plane
traces out a closed
curve,
the
area enclosed is said to be
positive
if it lies
upon
his left-
hand
side,
negative
if
upon
his
right.
It is clear that if two
persons
be considered to trace out
together
the same curve
by
walking upon opposite
sides of the
plane
the area enclosed
will lie
upon
the
right
hand of one and the left hand of the
other. To one it will
consequently appear positive
;
to the
other,
negative.
That side of the
plane upon
which the area
seems
positive
is called the
positive
side
;
the side
upon
which it
appears negative,
the
negative
side. This idea is
familiar to students of
electricity
and
magnetism.
If an
electric current flow around a closed
plane
curve the lines of
magnetic
force
through
the circuit
pass
from the
negative
to
the
positive
side of the
plane.
A
positive magnetic pole
placed upon
the
positive
side of the
plane
will be
repelled by
the circuit.
A
plane
area
may
be looked
upon
as
possessing
more than
positive
or
negative magnitude.
It
may
be considered to
possess
direction,
namely,
the direction of the normal to the
positive
side of the
plane
in which it lies. Hence a
plane
area is a vector
quantity.
The
following
theorems
concerning
areas when looked
upon
as vectors are
important.
Theorem 1 : If a
plane
area be denoted
by
a vector whose
magnitude
is the numerical value of that area and whose
direction is the normal
upon
the
positive
side of the
plane,
then the
orthogonal projection
of that area
upon
a
plane
will be
represented by
the
component
of that vector in the
direction normal to the
plane
of
projection (Fig. 15).
Let the area A lie in the
plane
MN. Let it be
projected
orthogonally upon
the
plane
M N. Let MN&nd M*N
r
inter-
48 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
sect in the line I and let the diedral
angle
between these
two
planes
be x. Consider
first a
rectangle
PQJRS
in MN
whose
sides, PQ,
RS and
QR,
SP are
respectively parallel
and
perpendicular
to the line /. This will
project
into a
rectangle
P
Q
R S
1
in M N . The sides P
Q
f
and JR S
will be
equal
to
PQ
and
US;
but the sides
Q
1
R and S P
will be
equal
to
QR
and SP
multiplied by
the cosine of
#,
the
angle
between the
planes. Consequently
the
rectangle
At
FIG. 15.
Hence
rectangles,
of which the sides are
respectively
parallel
and
perpendicular
to
I,
the line of intersection of the
two
planes, project
into
rectangles
whose sides are likewise
respectively parallel
and
perpendicular
to I and whose area is
equal
to the area
of
the
original rectangles multiplied by
the
cosine
of
the
angle
between the
planes.
From this it follows that
any
area A is
projected
into an
area which is
equal
to the
given
area
multiplied by
the cosine
of the
angle
between the
planes.
For
any
area A
may
be di
vided
up
into a
large
number of small
rectangles by
drawing
a
series of lines in MN
parallel
and
perpendicular
to the line I.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
49
Each of these
rectangles
when
projected
is
multiplied by
the
cosine of the
angle
between the
planes
and hence the total
area is also
multiplied by
the cosine of that
angle.
On the
other hand the
component
A of the vector
A,
which
repre
sents the
given
area,
in the direction normal to the
plane
M
f
N
f
of
projection
is
equal
to the total vector A
multiplied
by
the cosine of the
angle
between its direction which is
the normal to the
plane
M^and the normal to M N
r
. This
angle
is x
;
for the
angle
between the normals to two
planes
is the same as the
angle
between the
planes.
The relation
between the
magnitudes
of A and A is therefore
A
1
=
A cos
x,
which
proves
the theorem.
26.] Definition
: Two
plane
areas
regarded
as vectors are
said to be added when the vectors which
represent
them are
added.
A vector area is
consequently
the sum of its three com
ponents
obtainable
by orthogonal projection upon
three
mutually perpendicular planes.
Moreover in
adding
two
areas each
may
be resolved into its three
components,
the
corresponding components
added as scalar
quantities,
and
these sums
compounded
as vectors into the resultant area.
A
generalization
of this statement to the case where the three
planes
are not
mutually orthogonal
and where the
projection
is
oblique
exists.
A surface made
up
of several
plane
areas
may
be
repre
sented
by
the vector which is the sum of all the vectors
representing
those areas. In case the surface be looked
upon
as
forming
the
boundary
or a
portion
of the
boundary
of a
solid,
those sides of the
bounding planes
which lie outside of
the
body
are
conventionally
taken to be
positive.
The vec
tors
which
represent
the faces of solids are
always
directed
out from the
solid,
not into it
4
50 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Theorem 2 : The vector which
represents
a closed
polyhedral
surface is zero.
This
may
be
proved by
means of certain considerations of
hydrostatics. Suppose
the
polyhedron
drawn in a
body
of
fluid assumed to be free from all external
forces,
gravity
in
cluded.
1
The fluid is in
equilibrium
under its own internal
pressures.
The
portion
of the fluid bounded
by
the closed
surface moves neither one
way
nor the other.
Upon
each face
of the surface the fluid exerts a definite force
proportional
to the area of the face and normal to it. The resultant of all
these forces must be
zero,
as the fluid is in
equilibrium.
Hence
the sum of all the vector areas in the closed surface is zero.
The
proof may
be
given
in a
purely geometric
manner.
Consider the
orthogonal projection
of the closed surface
upon
any plane.
This consists of a double area. The
part
of the
surface farthest from the
plane projects
into
positive
area
;
the
part
nearest the
plane,
into
negative
area. Thus the
surface
projects
into a certain
portion
of the
plane
which is
covered
twice,
once with
positive
area and once with
negative.
These cancel each other. Hence the total
projection
of a
closed surface
upon
a
plane (if
taken with
regard
to
sign)
is
zero. But
by
theorem 1 the
projection
of an area
upon
a
plane
is
equal
to the
component
of the vector
representing
that area in the direction
perpendicular
to that
plane.
Hence
the vector which
represents
a closed surface has no
component
along
the line
perpendicular
to the
plane
of
projection.
This,
however,
was
any plane
whatsoever. Hence the vector is
zero.
The theorem has been
proved
for the case in which the
closed surface consists of
planes.
In case that surface be
1
Such a state of affairs is realized to all
practical purposes
in the case of a
polyhedron suspended
in the
atmosphere
and
consequently subjected
to atmos
pheric pressure.
The force of
gravity
acts but is counterbalanced
by
the tension
in the
suspending string.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 51
curved it
may
be
regarded
as the limit of a
polyhedral
surface
whose number of faces increases without limit. Hence the
vector which
represents any
closed surface
polyhedral
or
curved is zero. If the surface be not closed but be curved it
may
be
represented by
a vector
just
as if it were
polyhedral.
That vector is the limit
l
approached
by
the vector which
represents
that
polyhedral
surface of which the curved surface
is the limit when the number of faces becomes
indefinitely
great.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I
A vector is a
quantity
considered as
possessing magnitude
and direction.
Equal
vectors
possess
the same
magnitude
and the same direction. A vector is not altered
by shifting
it
parallel
to itself. A null or zero vector is one whose
mag
nitude is zero. To
multiply
a vector
by
a
positive
scalar
multiply
its
length by
that scalar and leave its direction
unchanged.
To
multiply
a vector
by
a
negative
scalar mul
tiply
its
length by
that scalar and reverse its direction.
Vectors add
according
to the
parallelogram
law. To subtract
a vector reverse its direction and add.
Addition,
subtrac
tion,
and
multiplication
of vectors
by
a scalar follow the same
laws as
addition, subtraction,
and
multiplication
in
ordinary
algebra.
A vector
may
be resolved into three
components
parallel
to
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors. This resolution
can be
accomplished
in
only
one
way.
r
=
x*
+
yb
+
zc.
(4)
The
components
of
equal
vectors,
parallel
to three
given
non-coplanar
vectors,
are
equal,
and
conversely
if the com
ponents
are
equal
the vectors are
equal.
The three unit
vectors
i, j,
k form a
right-handed rectangular system.
In
1
This limit exists and is
unique.
It is
independent
of the method in which
the
polyhedral
surface
approaches
the curved surface.
52
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
terms of them
any
vector
may
be
expressed by
means of the
Cartesian
coordinates
#, y,
z.
r
=
xi
+
yj+zk. (6)
Applications.
The
point
which divides a line in a
given
ratio m : n is
given by
the formula
(7)
m
+
n
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a vector
equation
represent
a relation
independent
of the
origin
is that the sum
of the scalar coefficients in the
equation
be zero. Between
any
four vectors there exists an
equation
with scalar coeffi
cients. If the sum of the coefficients is zero the vectors are
termino-coplanar.
If an
equation
the sum of whose scalar
coefficients is zero exists between three vectors
they
are
termino-collinear. The center of
gravity
of a number of
masses
a, &,
c situated at the termini of the vectors
A,
B,
C
supposed
to be drawn from a common
origin
is
given by
the formula
A vector
may
be used to denote an area. If the area is
plane
the
magnitude
of the vector is
equal
to the
magnitude
of the
area,
and the direction of the vector is the direction of
the normal
upon
the
positive
side of the
plane.
The vector
representing
a closed surface is zero.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER I
1.
Demonstrate the laws stated in Art. 12.
2. A
triangle may
be constructed whose sides are
parallel
and
equal
to the medians of
any given triangle.
ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 53
3. The six
points
in which the three
diagonals
of a com*
plete quadrangle
l
meet the
pairs
of
opposite
sides lie three
by
three
upon
four
straight
lines.
4. If two
triangles
are so situated in
space
that the three
points
of intersection of
corresponding
sides lie on a
line,
then
the lines
joining
the
corresponding
vertices
pass through
a
common
point
and
conversely.
5. Given a
quadrilateral
in
space.
Find the middle
point
of the line which
joins
the middle
points
of the
diagonals.
Find the middle
point
of the line which
joins
the middle
points
of two
opposite
sides. Show that these two
points
are
the same and coincide with the center of
gravity
of a
system
of
equal
masses
placed
at the vertices of the
quadrilateral.
6. If two
opposite
sides of a
quadrilateral
in
space
be
divided
proportionally
and if two
quadrilaterals
be formed
by
joining
the two
points
of
division,
then the centers of
gravity
of these two
quadrilaterals
lie on a line with the center of
gravity
of the
original quadrilateral. By
the center of
gravity
is meant the center of
gravity
of four
equal
masses
placed
at
the vertices. Can this theorem be
generalized
to the case
where the masses are not
equal
?
7. The bisectors of the
angles
of a
triangle
meet in a
point.
8. If the
edges
of a hexahedron meet four
by
four in three
points,
the four
diagonals
of the hexahedron meet in a
point.
In the
special
case in which the hexahedron is a
parallelepiped
the three
points
are at an infinite distance
9. Prove that the three
straight
lines
through
the middle
points
of the sides of
any
face of a tetrahedron, each
parallel
to the
straight
line
connecting
a fixed
point
P with the mid
dle
point
of the
opposite edge
of the
tetrahedron,
meet in a
1
A
complete quadrangle
consists of the six
straight
lines which
may
he
passed
through
four
points
no three of which are collinear. The
diagonals
are the lines
which
join
the
points
of intersection of
pairs
of sides
54 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
point
E and that this
point
is such that PE
passes
through
and is bisected
by
the center of
gravity
of the tetrahedron.
10.
Show that without
exception
there exists one vector
equation
with scalar coefficients between
any
four
given
vectors
A, B, C,
D.
11. Discuss the conditions
imposed upon three, four,
or
five vectors if
they satisfy
two
equations
the sum of the co
efficients in each of which is zero.
CHAPTER II
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
Products
of
Two Vectors
27.]
THE
operations
of
addition, subtraction,
and scalar
multiplication
have been defined for vectors in the
way
suggested by physics
and have been
employed
in a few
applications.
It now becomes
necessary
to introduce two
new combinations of vectors. These will be called
products
because
they obey
the fundamental law of
products
;
i.
e.,
the
distributive law which states that the
product
of A into the
sum of B and C is
equal
to the sum of the
products
of A into
B and A into C.
Definition
: The direct
product
of two vectors A and B is
the scalar
quantity
obtained
by multiplying
the
product
of
the
magnitudes
of the vectors
by
the cosine of the
angle
be
tween them.
The direct
product
is denoted
by writing
the two vectors
with a dot between them as
A-B.
This is read A dot B and therefore
may
often be called the
dot
product
instead of the direct
product.
It is also called
the scalar
product owing
to the fact that its value is sca
lar. If A be the
magnitude
of A and B that of
B,
then
by
definition
A-B
=
^cos
(A,B). (1)
Obviously
the direct
product
follows the commutative law
A-B
=
B A.
(2)
56 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
If either vector be
multiplied by
a scalar the
product
is
multiplied by
that scalar.
That is
(x
A)
B
=
A
(x B)
=
x
(A B).
In case the two vectors A and B are collinear the
angle
be
tween them becomes zero or one hundred and
eighty degrees
and its cosine is therefore
equal
to
unity
with the
positive
or
negative sign.
Hence the scalar
product
of two
parallel
vectors is
numerically equal
to the
product
of their
lengths.
The
sign
of the
product
is
positive
when the directions of the
vectors are the
same,
negative
when
they
are
opposite.
The
product
of a vector
by
itself is therefore
equal
to the
square
of its
length
A.A=^4
2
.
(3)
Consequently
if the
product
of a vector
by
itself vanish the
vector is a null vector.
In case the two vectors A and B are
perpendicular
the
angle
between them becomes
plus
or minus
ninety degrees
and the cosine vanishes. Hence the
product
A B vanishes.
Conversely
if the scalar
product
A B
vanishes,
then
A B cos
(A, B)
=
0.
Hence either A or B or cos
(A, B)
is
zero,
and either the
vectors are
perpendicular
or one of them is null. Thus the
condition
for
the
perpendicularity of
two
vectors,
neither
of
which
vanishes,
is A B
=
0.
28.]
The scalar
products
of the three fundamental unit
vectors
i,
j,
k are
evidently
ii
=
jj
=
kk
=
l,
(4)
i
.
j
=
j
.
k
=
k
.
i
=
0.
If more
generally
a and b are
any
two unit vectors the
product
a b
=
cos
(a, b).
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 57
Thus the scalar
product
determines the cosine of the
angle
between two vectors and is in a certain sense
equivalent
to
it. For this reason it
might
be better to
give
a
purely
geometric
definition of the
product
rather than one which
depends upon trigonometry.
This is
easily accomplished
as
follows : If a and b are two unit
vectors,
a b is the
length
of the
projection
of either
upon
the other. If more
generally
A and B are
any
two vectors A B is the
product
of the
length
of either
by
the
length
of
projection
of the other
upon
it.
From these definitions the facts that the
product
of a vector
by
itself is the
square
of its
length
and the
product
of two
perpendicular
vectors is zero follow
immediately.
The
trigo
nometric definition can also
readily
be deduced.
The scalar
product
of two vectors will
appear
whenever the
cosine of the included
angle
is of
importance.
The
following
examples may
be cited. The
projection
of a vector B
upon
a
vector A is
AB AB
A
=
A a cos
(A, B)
=
B cos
(A, B)
a,
(5)
A A
where a is a unit vector in the direction of A. If A is itself a
unit vector the formula reduces to
(A-B)
A
=
cos
(A,B)
A.
If A be a constant force and B a
displacement
the work done
by
the force A
during
the
displacement
is A B. If A
repre
sent a
plane
area
(Art. 25),
and if B be a
vector inclined to that
plane,
the scalar
prod
uct A B will be the volume of the
cylinder
of which the area A is the base and of
which B is the directed slant
height.
For
the volume
(Fig. 16)
is
equal
to the base
FlG
A
multiplied by
the altitude h. This is
the
projection
of B
upon
A or B cos
(A, B).
Hence
v
=
A h
=
A B cos
(A, B)
=
A B.
58
VECTOR ANALYSIS
29.]
The scalar or direct
product
follows the distributive
law of
multiplication.
That is
(A
+
B)
.C
=
A-C +
B.C.
(6)
This
may
be
proved by
means of
projections.
Let C be
equal
to its
magnitude
C
multiplied by
a unit vector c in its direc
tion. To show
(A
+
B) (<7c)
=
A
(0o)
+
B.
(0o)
or
(A
+
B)
c
=
A c
+
B c.
A c is the
projection
of A
upon
c
;
B
c,
that of B
upon
c
;
(A
+
B)
c,
that of A
+
B
upon
c. But the
projection
of the
sum A
+
B is
equal
to the sum of the
projections.
Hence
the relation
(6)
is
proved. By
an immediate
generalization
(A
+
B
+
...) (P
+
a+-")
=
A-P
+ A.Q+...
+
B.P
+ B.Q +
...
<ey
The scalar
product may
be used
just
as the
product
in ordi
nary algebra.
It has no
peculiar
difficulties.
If two vectors A and B are
expressed
in terms of the
three unit vectors
i, j,
k as
A
=
^[
1
i
+
^
2
j
+
^
8
k,
and B
=
^
i
+
JB
2 j
+
B
k,
then A- B =
(Al
i
+
A
z
j
+
A
B k)
.
(^i
+
2
j
+
^k)
=
A
l
B
l
i
.
i
+
A
l 2
i
j
+
A
l B%
i k
By
means of
(4)
this reduces to
A-*
=
A
1 l
+
A
2 E,
+
A
B JB,. (7)
If in
particular
A
and B are unit
vectors,
their
components
A
l ,A^,A3
and B
19
S
29
S
B
are the direction cosines of the
lines A and
B referred to
X, Y,
Z.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
59
A
l
=
cos
(A, JT), A<i
=
cos
(A, F),
A
z
=
cos
(A, ^f),
^!
=
cos
(B, JT),
.#
2
=
cos
(B, T), 3
=
cos
(B, ).
Moreover A B is the cosine of the included
angle.
Hence
the
equation
becomes
cos
(A, B)
=
cos
(A,
X)
cos
(B, X)
+
cos
(A, T)
cos
(B,
T)
+
cos
(A,)
cos
(B,Z).
In case A and B are
perpendicular
this reduces to the well-
known relation
=
cos
(A, JT)
cos
(B, X)
+
cos
(A, Y)
cos
(B, F)
+
cos
(A,^)
cos
(B,)
between the direction cosines of the
line A and the line B.
30.]
If A and B are two sides A
and OB of a
triangle
OAB,
the third
o
side AisG
=
-B-JL
(Fig. 17).
PlG 17*
C*C
=
(B-A). (B-A)=B-B
or (7
2
=
A
2
+
J5
2
-2
A^cos(AB).
That
is,
the
square
of one side of a
triangle
is
equal
to the
sum of the
squares
of the other two sides diminished
by
twice
their
product
times the cosine of the
angle
between them.
Or,
the
square
of one side of a
triangle
is
equal
to the sum of
the
squares
of the other two sides diminished
by
twice the
product
of either of those sides
by
the
projection
of the other
upon
it the
generalized Pythagorean
theorem.
If A and B are two sides of a
parallelogram,
C
=
A
+
B
and D
=
A B are the
diagonals.
Then
C.C
=
(A
+
B).(A
+
B)=A.A
+
2A.B
+ B.B,
D.D=(A-B).(A-B)=A-A-2A.B
+
B.B,
C-C
+
D.D
=
2(A-A
+
BB),
or a
2
+
7)
2
=
2
(A*
60 VECTOR ANALYSIS
That
is,
the sum of the
squares
of the
diagonals
of a
parallelo
gram
is
equal
to twice the sum of the
squares
of two sides.
In like manner also
or
C*-D
2
=
4A cos
(A, B).
That
is,
the difference of the
squares
of the
diagonals
of a
parallelogram
is
equal
to four times the
product
of one of the
sides
by
the
projection
of the other
upon
it.
If A is
any
vector
expressed
in terms of
i, j,
k as
A
=
A
l
i
+
A
2
j
+
A
B
k,
then A A
=
A*
=
A*
+
A*
+
A*.
(8)
But if A be
expressed
in terms of
any
three
non-coplanar
unit
vectors
a, b,
c as
+
2 J c bc
+
2 c a e a
A
2
=
a?
+
6
2
+
c
2
+
2 a b cos
(a, b)
+
2 b c cos
(b, c)
+
2 ca cos
(c,
a).
This formula is
analogous
to the one in Cartesian
geometry
which
gives
the distance between two
points
referred to
oblique
axes. If the
points
be x
v
y
v
z
v
and #
2
,
yv z%
the
distance
squared
is
D
2
=
(*
2
-
x^
+
(y a
-
yi)
2
+
(z
2
-
zj*
+
2
(a,
-
xj (ya
-
2/0
cos
(X, Y)
+
2
(yt
-
ft) (,-*!>
cos
(F.S)
+
2
(z
2 -24) (x 2
-
xj
cos
(^,-T).
31.] Definition:
The skew
product
of the vector A into
the vector B is the vector
quantity
C whose direction is the
normal
upon
that side of the
plane
of A and B on which
DIRECT
AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
61
rotation
from A to B
through
an
angle
of less than one
hundred and
eighty degrees appears positive
or counter
clockwise
;
and whose
magnitude
is obtained
by multiplying
the
product
of the
magnitudes
of A and B
by
the sine of the
angle
from A to B.
The direction of A x B
may
also be defined as that in
which an
ordinary right-handed
screw advances as it turns so as
c= AXB
to
carry
A toward B
(Fig. 18).
The skew
product
is denoted
by
a cross as the direct
product
was ^
by
a dot. It is written
FIG. 18.
C
= A
x
B
and read A cross B. For this reason it is often called the cross
product.
More
frequently,
however,
it is called the vector
prod
uct,
owing
to the fact that it is a vector
quantity
and in con
trast with the direct or scalar
product
whose value is scalar.
The vector
product
is
by
definition
C
=
A x B
=
^J5sin
(A,B)c, (9)
when A and B are the
magnitudes
of A and B
respectively
and
where c is a unit vector in the direction of C.
In case A and
B are unit vectors the skew
product
A X B reduces to the
unit vector c
multiplied by
the sine of the
angle
from A to B.
Obviously
also if either vector A or B is
multiplied by
a scalar
x their
product
is
multiplied by
that scalar.
A)
X B
=
A X
(zB)
=
xC.
If A and B are
parallel
the
angle
between them is either zero
or one hundred and
eighty degrees.
In either case the sine
vanishes and
consequently
the vector
product
A X B is a null
vector. And
conyersely
if A X B is zero
A B sin
(A, B)
=
0.
62 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence A or B or sin
(A, B)
is zero. Thus the condition
for
parallelism
of
two vectors neither
of
which vanishes is A X B
=
0. As a
corollary
the vector
product
of
any
vector into
itself vanishes.
32.]
The vector
product
of two vectors will
appear
wher
ever the sine of the included
angle
is of
importance, just
as
the scalar
product
did in the case of the cosine. The two
prod
ucts are in a certain sense
complementary. They
have been
denoted
by
the two common
signs
of
multiplication,
the dot
and the cross. In vector
analysis they occupy
the
place
held
by
the
trigonometric
functions of scalar
analysis. They
are
at the same time amenable to
algebraic
treatment,
as will be
seen later. At
present
a few uses of the vector
product may
be cited.
If A and B
(Fig. 18)
are the two
adjacent
sides of a
parallel
ogram
the vector
product
C
=
A x B
=
A B sin
(A, B)
c
represents
the area of that
parallelogram
in
magnitude
and
direction
(Art. 25).
This
geometric representation
of A X B
is of such common occurrence and
importance
that it
might
well be taken as the definition of the
product.
From it the
trigonometric
definition follows at once. The vector
product
appears
in mechanics in connection with
couples.
If A and
A are two forces
forming
a
couple,
the moment of the
couple
is A X B
provided only
that B is a vector drawn from
any point
of A to
any point
of A. The
product
makes its
appearance again
in
considering
the velocities of the individ
ual
particles
of a
body
which is
rotating
with an
angular
ve
locity given
in
magnitude
and direction
by
A. If R be the
radius vector drawn from
any point
of the axis of rotation A
the
product
A X & will
give
the
velocity
of the
extremity
of
B
(Art.
51).
This
velocity
is
perpendicular
alike to the axis
of rotation and to the radius vector B.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 63
33.]
The vector
products
A X B and B x A are not the
same.
They
are in fact the
negatives
of each other. For if
rotation from A to B
appear positive
on one side of the
plane
of A and
B,
rotation from B to A will
appear positive
on the
other. Hence A X B is the normal to the
plane
of A and B
upon
that side
opposite
to the one
upon
which B
x A is the
normal. The
magnitudes
of A X B and B X A are the same.
Hence
AxB
=
-BxA.
(10)
The
factors
in a vector
product
can be
interchanged if
and
only
if
the
sign of
the
product
be reversed.
This is the first instance in which the laws of
operation
in
vector
analysis
differ
essentially
from those of scalar
analy
sis. It
may
be that at first this
change
of
sign
which must
accompany
the
interchange
of factors in a vector
product
will
give
rise to some
difficulty
and confusion.
Changes
similar to
this
are, however,
very
familiar. No one would think of inter
changing
the order of x and
y
in the
expression
sin
(x y)
without
prefixing
the
negative sign
to the result. Thus
sin
(y x)
=
sin
(x
y),
although
the
sign
is not
required
for the case of the cosine,
cos
(y x)
=
cos
(
x
y).
Again
if the
cyclic
order of the letters ABC in the area of a
triangle
be
changed,
the area will be
changed
in
sign (Art.
25).
AB C
=
-ACB.
In the same manner this reversal of
sign,
which occurs
when the order of the factors in a vector
product
is
reversed,
will
appear
after a little
practice
and
acquaintance just
as
natural and convenient as it is
necessary.
34.]
The distributive law of
multiplication
holds in the
case of vector
products just
as in
ordinary algebra
except
64 VECTOR ANALYSTS
that the order
of
the
factors
must be
carefully
maintained
when
expanding.
A
very simple proof may
be
given by making
use of the ideas
developed
in Art. 26.
Suppose
that
C
is not
coplanar
with A and B. Let A
and B be two sides of a
triangle
taken
in order. Then
(A
+
B)
will be the
third side
(Fig. 19).
Form the
prism
of which this
triangle
is the base and
of which C is the slant
height
or
edge.
The areas of the lateral faces of this
prism
are
A x
C,
B x
C,
(A
-f
B)
x C.
The areas of the bases are
5
(A
x
B)
and
- -
(A
x
B).
But the sum of all the faces of the
prism
is
zero;
for the
prism
is a closed surface. Hence
4
FIG. 19.
AxC
+
BxC-(A
+
B)xC
=
0,
or
A X C
+
B X C
=
(A
+
B)
X C.
(11)
The relation is therefore
proved
in case C is
non-coplanar
with A and B. Should C be
coplanar
with A and
B,
choose
D,
any
vector out of that
plane.
Then C
+
D also will lie out of
that
plane.
Hence
by (11)
A X
(C
+
D)
+
B X
(C
+
D)
=
(A
+
B)
x
(C
+
D).
Since the three vectors in each set
A, C, D,
and
B, C, D,
and
A
+
B, C,
D will be
non-coplanar
if D is
properly
chosen,
the
products
may
be
expanded.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
65
AxC
+ AxD-fBxC +
BxD
=
(A
+
B)
x C
+
(A
+
B)
x D.
But
by (11)
AxD
+
BxD
=
(A
+
B)xD.
Hence AxC
+
BxC
=
(A
+
B)xC.
This
completes
the demonstration. The distributive
law holds
for a vector
product.
The
generalization
is immediate.
(A
+
B+---)x(P
+ a +
---)
=
AxP
+
Axa
+
---
(11)
+
B x P
+
B x <J +
35.]
The vector
products
of the three unit vectors
i, j,
k are
easily
seen
by
means of Art. 17 to be
ixi
=
jxj
=
kxk
=
0,
ixj=-j
xi
=
k, (12)
jxk
=
k x
j
=
i,
kxi
=
ixk=j.
The skew
product
of two
equal
l
vectors of the
system i, j,
k
is zero. The
product
of two
unequal
vectors is the third taken
with the
positive sign
if the vectors follow in the
cyclic
order
i
j
k but with the
negative sign
if
they
do not.
If two vectors A and B are
expressed
in terms of
i,
j,
k,
their vector
product may
be found
by expanding according
to the distributive law and
substituting.
A x B
=
(A
l
i
+
-4
2
j
+
^
3 k)
x
(^i
+
2 j
+
3*)
=
A
l l
ixi
+
A
l
B
2 ixj
+
A
l BzixTt
+
A
2 l j
x i
+
AI 2
j
x
j
+
AZ
B
B
j
x
k,
+
A
z
S
1
k x i
+
A
B BZ
k x
j
+
A
z
B
z
k x k.
Hence A x B
=
(A^B^
-
A
B 2
)
i
+
(A
Z
B
1 -A,BB )j
4-
(A, z
-
A
2 BJ
k.
1
This follows also from the fact that the
sign
is
changed
when the order of
factors is reversed. Hence
j
X
j
=
j Xj=0.
5
66 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
This
may
be written in the form of a determinant as
Ax
B
=
The formulae for the sine and cosine of the sum or dif
ference of two
angles
follow
immediately
from the dot and
cross
products.
Let a and b be two unit vectors
lying
in the
i
j-plane.
If x be the
angle
that a makes with
i,
and
y
the
angle
b makes with
i,
then
a
=
Hence
If
Hence
Hence
Hence
a b
:
a b
:
cos
(y x)
:
V
a.V:
cos
(y
+
x)
:
a x b
:
a x b
=
sin
(y x)
-
axb
=
ax b
=
sin
(y
+
x)
-
cos x i
+
sin x
j,
cos
y
i
-f
sin
y j,
cos
(a, b)
=
cos
(y x),
cos x cos
y
+
sin x sin
y.
cos
y
cos x
+
sin
y
sin x.
cos
y
i sin
y j,
cos
(a,
b
)
=
cos
(y
+
x).
cos
y
cos x sin
y
sin x.
k sin
(a, b)
=
k sin
(y x),
k
(sin y
cos x sin x cos
y).
sin
y
cos x sin x cos
y.
k sin
(a,
b
)
=
k sin
(y
+
x)
9
k
(sin y
cos x
+
sin x cos
y).
sin
y
cos x
+
sin # cos
y.
If
/, m,
7i and Z
,
w
,
TI are the direction cosines of two
unit vectors a and a referred to
JT, F, ,
then
a
=
li
+
m
j
+
7i
k,
m
j
a a
=
cos
(a,
a
)
=
IV
+
m m
r
+
n n
f
,
as has
already
been shown in
Art. 29. The familiar formula
for the
square
of the sine of the
angle
between a and a
may
be found.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
67
a x a
=
sin
(a,
a
)
e
=
(mn
f
m
ri)
i
+
(n
V n
?
I) j
+
(Jm
-f
m)
k,
where e is a unit vector
perpendicular
to a and a .
(a
x a
) (a
x a
)
=
sin
2
(a,
a
f
)
e e
=
sin
2
(a,
a
).
sin
2
(a,
a
)
=
(mn
m
r
n)*+ (nl
n
f
/)
2
+(lm
I
m)*.
This leads to an
easy way
of
establishing
the useful
identity
=
(72
+
w
2
+
7i
2
) (V*
+
m
2
+
n
*) (ll +
mm
+
n n
)
2
.
Products
of
More than Two Vectors
36.] Up
to this
point nothing
has been said
concerning
products
in which the number of vectors is
greater
than
two. If three vectors are combined into a
product
the result
is called a
triple product.
Next to the
simple products
A-B and AxB the
triple products
are the most
important.
All
higher products may
be reduced to them.
The
simplest triple product
is formed
by multiplying
the
scalar
product
of two vectors A and B into a third C as
(A-B)
C.
This in
reality
does not differ
essentially
from scalar multi
plication (Art. 6).
The scalar in this case
merely happens
to
be the scalar
product
of the two vectors A and B. Moreover
inasmuch as two vectors cannot stand side
by
side in the
form of a
product
as BC without either a dot or a cross to
unite
them,
the
parenthesis
in
(AB)
C is
superfluous.
The
expression
^
n
cannot be
interpreted
in
any
other
way
*
than as the
product
of the vector C
by
the scalar AB.
i
Later
(Chap. V.)
the
product BC,
where no
sign
either dot or cross
occurs,
will be defined. But it will be seen there that
(A.B)
C and
A-(B C)
are identical
and
consequently
no
ambiguity
can arise from the omission of the
parenthesis.
68
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
37.]
The second
triple product
is the scalar
product
of
two
vectors,
of which one is itself a vector
product,
as
A-(BxC)
or
(AxB>C.
This sort of
product
has a scalar value and
consequently
is
often called the scalar
triple prod
uct. Its
properties
are
perhaps
most
easily
deduced from its commonest
geometrical
interpretation.
Let
A, B,
and C be
any
three vectors drawn
from the same
origin (Fig. 20).
Then BxC
is the area of the
par
allelogram
of which B and C are two
adjacent
sides. The
scalar
.
*
(14)
will therefore be the volume of the
parallelepiped
of which
BxC is the base and A the slant
height
or
edge.
See Art. 28.
This volume v is
positive
if A and BxC lie
upon
the same
side of the B
C-plane
;
but
negative
if
they
lie on
opposite
sides. In other words if
A, B,
C form a
right-handed
or
positive system
of three vectors the scalar A*
(BxC)
is
posi
tive;
but if
they
form a left-handed or
negative system,
it
is
negative.
In case
A, B,
and C are
coplanar
this volume will be
neither
positive
nor
negative
but zero. And
conversely
if
the volume is zero^the three
edges
A, B,
C of the
parallelo-
piped
must lie in one
plane.
Hence the
necessary
and
suffi
cient condition
for
the
coplanarity of
three vectors
A, B,
C none
of
which vanishes is
A-(BxC)
=
0. As a
corollary
the scalar
triple product
of three vectors of which two are
equal
or
collinear must vanish
;
for
any
two vectors are
coplanar.
The two
products A(BxC)
and
(AxB)-C
are
equal
to the
same volume v of the
parallelepiped
whose concurrent
edges
are
A, B,
C. The
sign
of the volume is the same in both
cases. Hence
(AxB)
.
c
=
A
.
(BxC)
=
,.
(14)
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 69
This
equality may
be stated as a rule of
operation.
The dot
and the cross in a scalar
triple product may
be
interchanged
without
altering
the value
of
the
product.
It
may
also be seen that the vectors
A, B,
C
may
be
per
muted
cyclicly
without
altering
the
product
A-(BxC)
=
B-(CxA)
=
C-(AxB).
(15)
For each of the
expressions gives
the volume of the same
parallelepiped
and that volume will have in each case the
same
sign,
because if A is
upon
the
positive
side of the B C-
plane,
B will be on the
positive
side of the C
A-plane
and C
upon
the
positive
side of the A
B-plane.
The
triple product
may
therefore have
any
one of six
equivalent
forms
A<BxC)
=
B-(CxA)
=:
C.(AxB) (35)
=
(AxB)-C
=
(BxC)-A
=
(CxA)-B
If however the
cyclic
order of the letters is
changed
the
product
will
change sign.
A-(BxC)
=
-
A<CxBV
(16)
This
may
be seen from the
figure
or from the fact that
BxC
=
CxB.
Hence : A scalar
triple product
is not altered
by interchanging
the dot or the cross or
by permuting cyclicly
the order
of
the
vectors,
but it is reversed in
sign if
the
cyclic
order be
changed.
38.]
A word is
necessary upon
the
subject
of
parentheses
in this
triple product.
Can
they
be omitted without am
biguity
?
They
can. The
expression
A-BxC
can have
only
the one
interpretation
A<BxC).
For the
expression (A-B)xC
is
meaningless.
It is
impos
sible to form the skew
product
of a scalar AB and a vector
70 VECTOR ANALYSIS
C.
Hence as there is
only
one
way
in which
ABxC
may
be
interpreted,
no confusion can arise from
omitting
the
parentheses.
Furthermore
owing
to the fact that there are
six scalar
triple products
of
A, B,
and C which have the same
value and are
consequently generally
not worth
distinguish
ing
the one from
another,
it is often convenient to use the
symbol
[ABC]
to denote
any
one of the six
equal products.
[A
B
C]
=
A.BxC
=
B*CxA
=
C AxB
=
AxB.C
=
BxC-A
=
CxA-B
then
[A
B
C]
=
-
[A B].
(16)
The scalar
triple products
of the three unit vectors
i,
j,
k
all vanish
except
the two which contain the three different
vectors.
[ijk]
=
_[ikj]
=
l.
(17)
Hence if three vectors
A, B,
C be
expressed
in
terms of
i, j,
k
as
B
=
^
i
+
A, j
+
8
k,
C
=
C
1
i+C
2 j
+
C
3
k,
then
[ABC]
=A
1 Z
C
3
+
,
C
2 A.+
This
may
be
obtained
by
actually
performing
the
multiplica
tions which are
indicated in
the
triple product.
The result
may
be written in the form of a
determinant.
1
[A
B
C]
=
-4i
\
B
1
This is the
formula
given
in solid
analytic
geometry
for the volume of a
tetrahedron one of whose
vertices is at the
origin.
For a more
general
formula
see
exercises.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
71
If more
generally
A, B,
C are
expressed
in terms of
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c which are not
necessarily
unit
vectors,
A
=
a
x
a
+
a
2
b
+
8
c
B
=
&!
a
+
&
2
b
+
J
8
c
C
=
c
l
a c
2
b
where
a^
#
2
,
#3," ftp
&
2
,
stants,
then
[A
B
0]
=
(a
l
&
2
C
B
+
are certain con
[a
b
c].
or
[A
B
C]
=
[a be] (19)
39.]
The third
type
of
triple product
is the vector
product
of two vectors of which one is itself a vector
product.
Such
are
Ax(BxC)
and
(AxB)xC.
The vector
Ax(BxC)
is
perpendicular
to A and to
(BxC).
But
(BxC)
is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of B and C. Hence
Ax
(BxC), being perpendicular
to
(BxC)
must lie in the
plane
of B and C and thus take the form
Ax(BxC)
=
x B
+
y
C,
where x and
y
are two scalars. In like manner also the
vector
(AxB)xC, being perpendicular
to
(AxB)
must lie
in the
plane
of A and B. Hence it will be of the form
(AxB)xC
=
ra.A
+
n B
where m and n are two scalars. From this it is evident that
in
general
(AxB)xC
is not
equal
to
Ax(BxC).
The
parentheses
therefore cannot be removed or inter
changed.
It is essential to know which cross
product
is
72 VECTOR ANALYSIS
formed
first and which second. This
product
is termed the
vector
triple product
in contrast to the scalar
triple product.
The vector
triple product may
be used to
express
that com
ponent
of a vector B which is
perpendicular
to a
given
vector
A. This
geometric
use of the
product
is valuable not
only
in
itself but for the
light
it sheds
AXB
AXB*
B
upon
the
properties
of the
product.
Let A
(Fig. 21)
be a
given
vector
and B another vector whose com
ponents parallel
and
perpendicular
to A are to be found. Let the
components
of B
parallel
and
per-
A
X
(AXB)
pendicular
to A be B and B" re-
2i
spectively.
Draw A and B from a
common
origin.
The
product
AxB
is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of A and B. The
product
Ax
(AxB)
lies in the
plane
of A and B. It is furthermore
perpendicular
to A. Hence it is collinear with B". An
examination of the
figure
will show that the direction of
Ax
(AxB)
is
opposite
to that of B". Hence
Ax(AxB)
=
cB",
where c is some scalar constant.
Now Ax
(AxB)
=
-
A* B sin
(A, B)
V
but
-
c B"-^=
-
c B sin
(A, B) b",
if b" be a unit vector in the direction of B".
Hence c A
2
A*A.
Hence
B"
=
-
Ax(AxB)
.
(20)
The
component
of B
perpendicular
to A has been
expressed
in terms of the vector
triple product
of
A, A,
and B. The
component
B
parallel
to A was found in Art 28 to be
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 73
B =?A
(21)
B
=
B
+
B
=
?A-^>.
(22)
AA AA
40.]
The vector
triple product
Ax
(BxC) may
be
expressed
as the sum of two terms as
Ax(BxC)=A-C
B-A-B C
In the first
place
consider the
product
when two of the
vectors are the same.
By equation (22)
A-A B
=
A-B A
-
Ax(AxB)
(22)
or
Ax(AxB)
=
A*B A
-
A-A B
(23)
This
proves
the formula in case two vectors are the same.
To
prove
it in
general express
A in terms of the three
non-coplanar
vectors
B, C,
and BxC.
A
=
bE
+
cC
+
a
(BxC),
(I)
where
#, &,
c are scalar constants. Then
Ax(BxC)
=
SBx(BxC)
+
cCx(BxC)
(II)
+
a
(BxC)x(BxC).
The vector
product
of
any
vector
by
itself is zero.
Hence
(BxC)x(BxC)
=
Ax(BxC)
=
6Bx(BxC)
+
c
Cx(BxC).
(II)
By (23) Bx(BxC)
=
B-C B
-
B-B C
Cx(BxC)
=
-
Cx(CxB)
=
-
C-B C
+ C-C B.
Hence
Ax(BxC)
=
[(&B-C
+
cC-C)B- (6B-B
+
cCB)C]. (II)"
But from
(I)
A-B
=
JBB
+
cC-B
+
a
(BxC>B
and
A-C
=
b
B-C
+
c C*C
+
a
(BxC)-O.
By
Art. 37
(BxC)-B
=
and
(BxC)-C
=
0.
Hence
A-B
=
JB-B
+
cC-B,
A-C
=
5B-C
+ cC-C.
74 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Substituting
these values in
(II)",
Ax(BxC)
=
A.C B
-
A.B C.
(24)
The relation is therefore
proved
for
any
three vectors
A, B,
C.
Another method
of
giving
the demonstration is as follows.
It was shown that the vector
triple product Ax(BxC)
was
of the form
Ax(BxC)
=
#B
+
yC.
Since
Ax(AxC)
is
perpendicular
to
A,
the direct
product
of
it
by
A is zero. Hence
A-[Ax(BxC)]
=
a; A*B
+
yAC
=
and x :
y
=
A*C : AB.
Hence
Ax(BxC)
=
n
(A-0
B
-
A-B
C),
where n is a scalar constant. It remains to show n
=
1.
Multiply by
B.
Ax(BxC>B
=
n
(A-C
B.B-A-B
C-B).
The scalar
triple product
allows an
interchange
of dot and
cross. Hence
Ax(BxC>B
=
A<BxC)xB
=
-
A-[Bx(BxC)],
if the order of the factors
(BxC)
and B be inverted.
-A-[Bx(BxC)]
=
-A-[B.C B-B.BC]
=
B-C AB
+
B-B AC.
Hence n
=
1 and
Ax(BxC)
=
A.C B A-B C.
(24)
From the three letters
A, B,
C
by
different
arrangements,
four allied
products
in each of which B and
C are included in
parentheses may
be formed. These are
Ax(BxC), Ax(CxB), (CxB)xA, (BxC)xA.
As a vector
product changes
its
sign
whenever the order of
two factors is
interchanged,
the above
products evidently
satisfy
the
equations
Ax
(BxC)
=
-
Ax(CxB)
=
(CxB)xA
=
-
(BxC)xA.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 75
The
expansion
for a vector
triple product
in which the
parenthesis
comes first
may
therefore be obtained
directly
from that
already
found when the
parenthesis
comes last.
(AxB)xC
=
-
Cx(AxB)
=
-
C-B A
+
CA B.
The formulae then become
Ax(BxC)
=
A-C B
-
A.B C
(24)
and
(AxB)xC
=
A*C B
-
C-B A.
(24)
These reduction formulae are of such constant occurrence and
great importance
that
they
should be
committed,
to
memory.
Their content
may
be stated in the
following
rule. To
expand
a vector
triple product first multiply
the exterior
factor
into the
remoter term in the
parenthesis
to
form
a scalar
coefficient for
the nearer
one,
then
multiply
the exterior
factor
into the nearer
term in the
parenthesis
to
form
a scalar
coefficient for
the
remoter
one,
and subtract this result
from
the
first.
41.]
As far as the
practical applications
of vector
analysis
are
concerned,
one can
generally get along
without
any
formulae more
complicated
than that for the vector
triple
product.
But it is
frequently
more convenient to have at
hand other reduction formulae of which all
may
be derived
simply by making
use of the
expansion
for the
triple product
Ax(BxC)
and of the rules of
operation
with the
triple pro
duct ABxC.
To reduce a scalar
product
of two vectors each of which
is itself a vector
product
of two
vectors,
as
(AxB>(CxD).
Let this be
regarded
as a scalar
triple product
of the three
vectors
A, B,
and CxD thus
AxB-(CxD).
Interchange
the dot and the
cross.
76
VECTOR ANALYSIS
AxB.(CxD)
=
A-Bx(CxD)
Bx(CxD)
=
B-D C
-
B-C D.
Hence
(AxB>(CxD)
=
A-C B-D
-
A-D B.C.
(25)
This
may
be written in determinantal form.
(25)
If A and D be called the extremes
;
B and C the means
;
A
and C the antecedents: B and D the
consequents
in this
product according
to the familiar
usage
in
proportions,
then
the
expansion may
be stated in words. The scalar
product
of two vector
products
is
equal
to the
(scalar) product
of the
antecedents times the
(scalar) product
of the
consequents
diminished
by
the
(scalar) product
of the means times the
(scalar) product
of the extremes.
To reduce a vector
product
of two vectors each of which
is itself a vector
product
of two
vectors,
as
(AxB)x(CxD).
Let CxD
=
E. The
product
becomes
(AxB)xE
=
A-E B
-
B-E A.
Substituting
the value of E back into the
equation
:
(AxB)x(CxD)
=
(A-CxD)B
-
(B-CxD)
A.
(26)
Let F
=
AxB. The
product
then becomes
Fx(CxD)
=
FD C F-C D
(AxB)x(CxD)
=
(AxB-D)C
-
(AxB-C)
D.
(26)
By equating
these two
equivalent
results and
transposing
all the terms to one side of the
equation,
[B
C
D]
A
-
[C
D
A]
B
+
[D
A
B]
C
-
[A
B
C]
D
-
0.
(27)
This is an
equation
with scalar
coefficients between the four
vectors
A, B, C,
D. There is in
general only
one such
equa-
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
11
tion,
because
any
one of the vectors can be
expressed
in
only
one
way
in terms of the other three : thus the scalar coeffi
cients of that
equation
which exists between four vectors are
found to be
nothing
but the four scalar
triple products
of
those vectors taken three at a time. The
equation may
also
be written in the form
[A
B
C]
D
=
[B
C
D]
A
+
[C
A
D]
B
+
[A
B
D]
C.
(27)
More
examples
of reduction
formulae,
of which some are
important,
are
given among
the exercises at the end of the
chapter.
In view of these it becomes
fairly
obvious that
the combination of
any
number of vectors connected in
any legitimate way by
dots and crosses or the
product
of
any
number of such combinations can be
ultimately
reduced to
a sum of terms each of which contains
only
one cross at most.
The
proof
of this theorem
depends solely upon
analyzing
the
possible
combinations of vectors and
showing
that
they
all
fall under the reduction formulae in such a
way
that the
crosses
may
be removed two at a time until not more than
one remains.
*
42.]
The formulae
developed
in the
foregoing
article have
interesting geometric interpretations. They
also afford a
simple
means of
deducing
the formulae of
Spherical Trigo
nometry.
These do not occur in the vector
analysis proper.
Their
place
is taken
by
the two
quadruple products,
(AxB>(CxD)
=
A-C B-D
-
B-C A-D
(25)
and
(AxB)x(CxD)
=
[ACD]
B
-
[BCD]
A
=
[ABD]
C
-
[ABC]
D,
(26)
which are now to be
interpreted.
Let a unit
sphere
(Fig. 22)
be
given.
Let the vectors
A, B, C,
D be unit vectors drawn from a common
origin,
the
centre of the
sphere,
and
terminating
in the surface of the
sphere
at the
points A,B, (7,
D. The
great
circular arcs
78
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
FIG. 22.
AB,
A
C) etc.,
give
the
angles
between the vectors A and
B,
A and
C,
etc. The
points
A, B, C,
D determine a
quadrilateral
upon
the
sphere.
A C and BD are one
pair
of
opposite
sides
;
AD and B
C>
the
other. AB and CD are the
diagonals.
(AxB).(CxD)
=
A-C B-D
-
A-D B-C
AxB
=
sin
(A, B),
CxD
=
sin
(C, D).
The
angle
between AxB and CxD is the
angle
between the normals to the AB-
and
CD-planes.
This is the same as
the
angle
between the
planes
themselves. Let it be denoted
by
x. Then
(AxB).(CxD)
=
sin
(A,B)
sin
(C,D)
cos a:.
The
angles (A, B), (C, D) may
be
replaced by
the
great
circular arcs
AB,
CD which measure them. Then
(AxB).(CxD)
=
sin A B sin CD
cos#,
A-C B-D- A.D B*C
=
cos AC cosBD
-
cos AD cos BC.
Hence
sin A B sin CD cos x
=
cos A C cos B D cos AD cos B C.
In words : The
product
of the cosines of two
opposite
sides
of a
spherical quadrilateral
less the
product
of the cosines of
the other two
opposite
sides is
equal
to the
product
of the
sines of the
diagonals multiplied by
the
cosine of the
angle
between them. This
theorem is credited to Gauss.
Let
A, B,
C
(Fig. 23)
be a
spherical
tri
angle,
the sides of which are arcs of
great
circles. Let the sides be denoted
by
a, 6,
c
respectively.
Let
A, B,
C be the unit vectors
drawn from the center of the
sphere
to the
points
-A, B,
C.
Furthermore let
pa,
pb,
pe
be the
great
circular arcs
dropped
FIG. 23.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 79
perpendicularly
from the vertices
-4, J9,
C to the sides
a, 6,
.
Interpret
the formula
(AxB)-(CxA)
=
A-C B-A
-
B.C A-A.
(AxB)
=
sin
(A, B)
=
sin
c,
(CxA)
=
sin
(C, A)
=
sin 6.
Then
(AxB)
(CxA)
=
sin c sin b cos
#,
where x is the
angle
between AxB and CxA. This
angle
is
equal
to the
angle
between the
plane
of
A,
B and the
plane
of
C,
A. It
is, however,
not the interior
angle
A which
is one of the
angles
of the
triangle
: but it is the exterior
angle
180
A,
as an examination of the
figure
will show.
Hence
(AxB). (CxA)
=
sin c sin b cos
(180 A)
=
sin c sin 6 cos A
AC BA BC A-A
=
cos & cos c cos a 1.
By equating
the results and
transposing,
cos a
=
cos 6 cos c sin 6 sin c cos A
cos 6
=
cos c cos a sin c sin a cos B
cos c
=
cos a cos 6 sin a sin 6 cos C.
The last two
may
be obtained
by cyclic permutation
of the
letters or from the identities
(BxC).(AxB)
=
B-A C B
-
C-A,
(CxAHBxC)
=
C-B A.C
-
B-C.
Next
interpret
the
identity (AxB)x(CxD)
in the
special
cases in which one of the vectors is
repeated.
(AxB)x(AxC)
=
[A
B
C]
A.
Let the three vectors
a,
b,
c be unit vectors in the direction of
BxC, CxA,
AxB
respectively.
Then
AxB
=
c sin
c,
AxC
=
b sin 6
(AxB)x(AxC)
=
cxb sin c sin &
=
A sin c sin 6 sin A
[A
B
C]
=
(AxB)-C
=
cC sin c
=
cos
(90
pc)
sin c
[ABC]
A
=
sin c sin
pc
A.
80 VECTOR ANALYSIS
By equating
the results and
cancelling
the common
factor,
sin^c
=
sin b sin A
sin^? a
=
sin c sin B
sin
pb
=
sin a sin C.
The last two
may
be obtained
by cyclic permutation
of the
letters. The formulae
give
the sines of the altitudes of the
triangle
in terms of the sines of the
angle
and sides.
Again
write
(AxB)x(AxC)
=
[ABC]A
(BxC)x(BxA)
=
[BCA]B
(CxA)x(CxB)
=
[CAB]C.
Hence sin c sin b sin A
=
[A
B
C]
sin a sin c sin B
=
[B
C
A]
sin b sin a sin C
=
[C
A
B].
The
expressions
[ABC], [BCA], [CAB]
are
equal. Equate
the results in
pairs
and the formulae
sin b sin A
=
sin a sin B
sin c sin B
=
sin b sin C
sin a sin C
=
sin c sin A
are obtained.
These
may
be written in a
single
line.
sin A sin B sin C
sin a sin b sin c
The
formulae of Plane
Trigonometry
are even more
easy
to
obtain. If A B C be a
triangle,
the sum of the sides taken
as
vectors is zero for the
triangle
is a closed
polygon.
From this
equation
a
+ b-f
c
=
almost all the
elementary
formulae follow
immediately.
It
is to be noticed that the
angles
from a to
b,
from b to
c,
from
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
81
o to a are not the interior
angles
A, B, (7,
but the exterior
angles
180
-A,
180
-
B,
180
-
C.
a
=
b
+
c
aa
=
(b
+
c)*(b
+
c)
=
b-b
+
c-c
+
2 bc.
If
a, J,
c be the
length
of the sides
a, b,
c, this becomes
c
2
=
a
2
+
6
2
-
2 a 6 cos C.
The last two are obtained in a manner similar to the first
one or
by cyclic permutation
of the letters.
The area of the
triangle
is
^axb
=
^bxc
=
2
cxa
=
2
a b sin C
=
%
b c sin A
=
^
c a sin B.
If each of the last three
equalities
be divided
by
the
product
a b
c,
the fundamental relation
sin A sin B sin
is obtained. Another formula for the area
may
be found from
the
product
(bxc)(bxc)
=
(cxa)-(axb)
2 Area
(6
c sin
A}
=
(c
a sin
B)
(a
b sin
(7)
a
2
sin -Z?sin C
2 Area
=
sin A
Reciprocal Systems of
Three
Vectors. Solution
of Equations
43.]
The
problem
of
expressing any
vector r in terms of
three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c
may
be solved as follows.
Let
82
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
where
a, J,
c are three scalar constants
to be determined
Multiply by
b x c.
r.bxc
=
a abxc +
6 bbxc +
cc-bxo
or
[rbc]
=
a
[a be].
In like manner
by
multiplying
the
equation by
c x a and
.
a X b the coefficients
b and c
may
be found.
[r
c
a]
=
I
[b
c
a]
[r
a
b]
=
c
[c
a
b]
Hence
r
=
a+
b +
,
(28)
[be a] [c
a
b]
The denominators
are all
equal.
Hence this
gives
the
equation
[a
b
c]
r
[b
c
r]
a
+
[c
r
a]
b
-
[r
a
b]
c
=
which must exist between the four vectors
r, a,
b,
c.
The
equation may
also be written
rb x c ro x
a,
ra x b
r
=
-
r
.
-
a
+
r v
..
b
+
e
[abe] [abc] [a be]
bxc
cxa,
axb
or r
=
r
r
_ a
+
r
r
b
+
r o.
[abc] [abc] [abc]
The three vectors which
appear
here
multiplied by
!,
namely
bxc cxa axb
_* _
-
> _
[a be] [a
b
c] [a
b
c]
are
very important. They
are
perpendicular respectively
to
the
planes
of b and
c,
c and
a,
a and b.
They
occur over and
over
again
in a
large
number of
important
relations. For
this reason
they
merit a
distinctive name and notation.
Definition
: The
system
of three vectors
b x c
^
cxa axb
[abc] [abc] [abc]
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 83
which are found
by dividing
the three vector
products bxc,
c x
a,
a x b of three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c
by
the scalar
product [abc]
is called the
reciprocal system
to
a, b,
c.
The word
non-coplanar
is
important.
If
a,
b,
c were co
planar
the scalar
triple product [a
b
c]
would vanish and
consequently
the fractions
bxc cxa axb
j j ________
[a be] [a
b
c] [a
b
c]
would all become
meaningless.
Three
coplanar
vectors have
no
reciprocal system.
This must be
carefully
remembered.
Hereafter when the term
reciprocal system
is
used,
it will be
understood that the three vectors
a, b,
c are not
coplanar.
The
system
of three vectors
reciprocal
to
system
a, b,
c
will be denoted
by primes
as a
,
b
,
c ,
,_bxc
?
h
,
_
c x a
,
,
__
a x b
(29)
""[abc]
[abc] ~[ac]
The
expression
for
r
reduces then to the
very simple
form
r
=
r-a a
+
r-b b
+
r.c c.
(30)
The vector r
may
be
expressed
in terms of the
reciprocal
system
a
,
b
,
c instead of in terms of
a, b,
c. In the first
place
it is
necessary
to note that if
a, b,
c are
non-coplanar,
a
,
b
,
c which are the normals to the
planes
of b and
c,
c and
a,
a and b must also be
non-coplanar.
Hence r
may
be
expressed
in terms of them
by
means of
proper
scalar
coefficients
#,
y,
z.
r x a
+ ?/b +
z c
Multiply
successively by
-a, -b,
-c. This
gives
[a
b
c]
r-a
=
x
[b
c
a],
x
=
r-a
[abc]r-b
=
y [cab], y
=
r-b
[a
b
c]
r-c
=
z
[a
b
c],
z
=
r-c
Hence
r
=
r-a a
+
r-b b
+
r-c c .
(31)
84 VECTOR ANALYSIS
44.]
If a
, V,
c be the
system reciprocal
to
a, b,
c the
scalar
product
of
any
vector of the
reciprocal system
into the
corresponding
vector of the
given system
is
unity
;
but
the
product
of two
non-corresponding
vectors is zero. That is
a .a
=
bM>=:c .c
=
l
(32)
a .b
=
a .c
=
b -a
=
b *c
=
c -a
=
c -b
=
0.
This
may
be seen most
easily by expressing
a
, V,
c in
terms of themselves
according
to the formula
(31)
r
=
raa
+
r*bb
+
rcc .
Hence a
=
a -aa
+
a b V
+
a cc
b
=
b .aa
+
b -bb
+
bW
c
=
c aa
+
c -bb
+
c
.cc .
Since a
,
b
,
c are
non-coplanar
the
corresponding
coeffi
cients on the two sides of each of these three
equations
must
be
equal.
Hence from the first
1
=
a *a
=
a -b
=
a c.
From the second
=
b a l=b b
=
b e.
From the third
=
c a
=
c b l
=
c o.
This
proves
the relations.
They may
also be
proved
directly
from the definitions of a
,
b
,
c .
bxc bxca
[be a]
a a
=
a
= = =
1
[abc] [abc] [abc]
bxc bxc-b
a
.
b =
b
= =
=0
[abc] [abc] [abc]
and so forth.
Conversely
if two sets of three vectors
each,
say
A, B, C,
and
a, b, c,
satisfy
the relations
Aa
=
Bb
=
Cc
=
1
A-b
=
Ac
=
Ba
=
B-c
=
Ca
=
Cb
=
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
85
then the set
A, B,
C is the
system reciprocal
to
a, b,
c.
By
reasoning
similar to that before
A
=
A-a a
+
Ab b
+
A-c c
B
=
B-a a
+
B-b b
+
B-c c
C
=
Caa
+
C-bb
+
C-c c
.
Substituting
in these
equations
the
given
relations the re
sult is
A
=
a
,
B
=
b
,
C
=
c
.
Hence
Theorem : The
necessary
and sufficient conditions that the
set of vectors a
,
b
,
c be the
reciprocals
of
a, b,
c is that
they satisfy
the
equations
a .a
=
b .b
=
c .c
=
l
(32)
a -b
=
a -c
=
b a
= b .c
=
c -a
=
c .b
=
0.
As these
equations
are
perfectly symmetrical
with
respect
to a
,
b
,
c and
a, b,
c it is evident that the
system
a, b,
c
may
be looked
upon
as the
reciprocal
of the
system
a
,
b
,
c
just
as the
system
a
,
b
,
c
may
be
regarded
as the
reciprocal
of
a, b,
c. That is to
say,
Theorem: If a
,
b
,
c be the
reciprocal system
of
a, b, c,
then
a, b,
c will be the
reciprocal system
of a
, V,
c .
V x c c x a a x b
(29V
-
b=-
-
-
.
v /
[a
b e
] [a
b c
] [a
b c
]
These relations
may
be demonstrated
directly
from the
definitions of a
,
b
,
c . The demonstration is
straightfor
ward,
but rather
long
and tedious as it
depends
on
compli
cated reduction formulae. The
proof given
above is as short
as could be desired. The relations between a
,
b
,c
and
a, b,
c are
symmetrical
and hence if a
,
b
,
c is the
reciprocal
system
of
a, b, c,
then
a, b,
c must be the
reciprocal system
of
86 VECTOR ANALYSIS
45.]
Theorem : If a
, V,
c and
a, b,
c be
reciprocal systems
the scalar
triple products [a
b c
]
and
[a
b
c]
are numerical
reciprocals.
That is
t.
b .
]=[i
[a bV] [abc]=l
xc cxa
axb"|
[a "be] [abc] [abc] J
[bxc
cxa
axb].
(33)
But
Hence
Hence
~[abc]
3
[bxc
cxa
axb]
=
(bxc)x(cxa>(axb).
(bxc)
x
(cxa)
=
[abc]c.
[bxc
cxa
axb]
=
[abc]
c-axb
=
[abc]
2
.
1 1
[a bV]
=
[abc]
: [abc]
2
=
[abc]
(33)
By
means of this relation between
[a
b c
]
and
[a
b
c]
it
is
possible
to
prove
an
important
reduction
formula,
(P.axE)(ABxC)
=
P-A P.B p.c
Q.A Q.B a-c
B*A *B
*C
(34)
which
replaces
the two scalar
triple products
by
a sum of
nine terms each of which is the
product
of three direct
pro
ducts. Thus the two crosses which occur in the two scalar
products
are removed. To
give
the
proof
let
P, ft,
B be
expressed
as
P
=
P-A A
+
P.B B
+ P.C C
Then
But
B
=
B-A A
+
B.B B
+ BC C .
P.A P.B
P.C
[POB]
=
a-A
Q.B a-c
R-A
R.B
R.C
1
[ABC]
[A
B
C
].
[A
B
C
J
=
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 87
Hence
[PQE] [ABC]
=
P.A P-B P-C
Q.A a-B Q.C
R.A R.B B*C
The
system of
three unit vectors
i, j,
k
is its own
reciprocal
system.
jxki
kxi
,,
i x
j
J
k==k-
(35)
For this reason the
primes
i
,
j
,
k are not needed to denote
a
system
of vectors
reciprocal
to
i, j,
k. The
primes
will
therefore be used in the future to denote another set of rect
angular
axes
i,
j,
k
,
just
as X*
,
F
,
Z* are used to denote a
set of axes different from
X, F,
Z.
The
only systems of
three vectors which are their own
reciprocals
are the
right-handed
and
left-handed systems of
three unit
vectors. That is the
system
i,
j,
k and the
system
i,
j,
k.
Let
A, B,
C be a set of vectors which is its own
reciprocal.
Then
by (32)
AA
=
B-B
=
CNC
=
1.
Hence the vectors are all unit vectors.
A-B
=
A-C
=
0.
Hence A is
perpendicular
to B and C.
B-A
=
B-C
=
0.
Hence B is
perpendicular
to A and C.
C-A =C.B
=
O.
Hence C is
perpendicular
to A and B.
Hence
A, B,
C must be a
system
like
i,
j,
k or like
i,
j,
k.
*
46.]
A scalar
equation
of the first
degree
in a vector r is
an
equation
in each term of which r occurs not more than
once. The value of each term must be scalar. As an exam
ple
of such an
equation
the
following may
be
given.
a a-bxr
+
6(oxd)(exr)
+
c fr
+
d
=
0,
88 VECTOR ANALYSIS
where
a, b, c, d, e,
f are known vectors
;
and
a, &, c, d,
known
scalars.
Obviously any
scalar
equation
of the first
degree
in
an unknown vector r
may
be reduced to the form
r-A
=
a
where A is a known vector
;
and
a,
a known scalar. To ac
complish
this result in the case of the
given equation proceed
as follows.
a axbor
+
"b
(cxd)xe-r
+
c fr
+
d
=
{a
axb
+
b
(cxd)xe
+
c
f}r
=
d.
In more
complicated
forms it
may
be
necessary
to make use
of various reduction formulae before the
equation
can be made
to take the desired
form,
]>A
=
a.
As a vector has three
degrees
of freedom it is clear that one
scalar
equation
is insufficient to determine a vector. Three
scalar
equations
are
necessary.
The
geometric interpretation
of the
equa
tion
r.A
=>
a
(36)
is
interesting.
Let r be a variable vector
(Fig. 24)
drawn from a fixed
origin.
Let
A be a fixed vector drawn from the same
origin.
The
equation
then becomes
r A cos
(r,A)
=
a,
a
or
T cos
(r,A)
=
,
if r be the
magnitude
of r
;
and A that of A. The
expression
r cos
(r, A)
is the
projection
of r
upon
A. The
equation
therefore states
that the
projection
of r
upon
a certain fixed vector A must
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
89
always
be constant and
equal
to
a/
A.
Consequently
the ter
minus of r must trace out a
plane perpendicular
to the vector
A at a distance
equal
to
a/
A from the
origin.
The
projec
tion
upon
A of
any
radius vector drawn from the
origin
to a
point
of this
plane
is constant and
equal
to
a/
A. This
gives
the
following
theorem.
Theorem : A scalar
equation
in an unknown vector
may
be
regarded
as the
equation
of a
plane,
which is the locus of the
terminus of the unknown vector if its
origin
be fixed.
It is
easy
to see
why
three scalar
equations
in an unknown
vector determine the vector
completely.
Each
equation
de
termines a
plane
in which the terminus of r must lie. The
three
planes
intersect in one common
point.
Hence one vec
tor r is determined. The
analytic
solution of three scalar
equations
is
extremely easy.
If the
equations
are
rA
=
a
r-B
=
b
(37)
r-C
=
c
9
it is
only necessary
to call to mind the formula
r
=
r.A A
+
r-BB
+
r-C C .
Hence
r
=
a A
+
6 B
+
c C
.
(38)
The solution is therefore
accomplished.
It is
expressed
in
terms A
,
B
,
C which is the
reciprocal system
to
A, B,
C. One
caution must however be observed. The vectors
A, B,
C will
have no
reciprocal system
if
they
are
coplanar.
Hence the
solution will fail. In this
case, however,
the three
planes
de
termined
by
the three
equations
will be
parallel
to a line.
They
will therefore either not intersect
(as
in the case of the
lateral faces of a
triangular
prism)
or
they
will intersect in a
common line. Hence there will be either no solution for
r
or
there will be an infinite number.
90 VECTOR ANALYSIS
From four scalar
equations
r-A
=
a
r.B
=
6
(39)
rC
=
c
rD =d
the vector r
may
be
entirely
eliminated. To
accomplish
this
solve three of the
equations
and substitute the value in the
fourth.
r
=
aA
+
6B
+
cC
a A D
+
&B .D
+
cC -D
=
d
or a
[BCD]
+
b
[CAD]
+
c
[ABD]
=
d
[ABC]. (40)
*
47.]
A vector
equation
of the first
degree
in an unknown
vector is an
equation
each term of which is a vector
quantity
containing
the unknown vector not more than once. Such
an
equation
is
(AxB)x(Cxr)
+
D ET
+
n r
+
F
=0,
where
A, B, C, D, E,
F are known
vectors,
n a known
scalar,
and r the unknown vector. One such
equation may
in
gen
eral be solved for r. That is to
say,
one vector
equation
is in
general
sufficient to determine the unknown vector which is
contained in it to the first
degree.
The method of
solving
a vector
equation
is to
multiply
it
with a dot
successively by
three
arbitrary
known
non-coplanar
vectors. Thus three scalar
equations
are obtained. These
may
be solved
by
the methods of the
foregoing
article. In the
first
place
let the
equation
be
A ar
+
B br
+
C c-r
=
D,
where
A, B, C, D, a, b,
c are known vectors. No scalar coeffi
cients are written in the
terms,
for
they may
be
incorporated
in
the vectors.
Multiply
the
equation successively by
A
,
B
,
C .
It is understood of course that
A, B,
C are
non-coplanar.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
91
a-r
=
D-A
r
b-r
=
D-B
c-r
=
D-C
.
But r
=
a a-r
+
b b-r
+
c c-r.
Hence r
=
D-A a
+
D-B b
+
D-C c .
The solution is therefore
accomplished
in case
A, B,
C are non-
coplanar
and
a, b,
c also
non-coplanar.
The
special
cases in
which either of these sets of three vectors is
coplanar
will not
be discussed here.
The most
general
vector
equation
of the first
degree
in an
unknown vector r contains terms of the
types
A
a-r,
n
r, Exr,
D.
That is it will contain terms which consist of a known
vector
multiplied by
the scalar
product
of another known vec
tor and the unknown vector
;
terms which are scalar multi
ples
of the unknown
vector;
terms which are the vector
product
of a known and the unknown vector
;
and constant
terms. The terms of the
type
A a-r
may always
be reduced
to three in number. For the vectors
a, b, c,
which are
multiplied
into r
may
all be
expressed
in terms of three non-
coplanar
vectors. Hence all the
products
a-r, b-r, or,
may
be
expressed
in terms of three. The sum of all terms of
the
type
A a-r therefore reduces to an
expression
of three
terms,
as
A a-r
+
B b-r
+ C c-r.
The terms of the
types
n r and Exr
may
also be
expressed
in this form.
n r
=
7i a a-r
+
n b b-r
+
n c c-r
Exr
=
Exa a-r
+
Exb
b-r+Exc
c-r.
Adding
all these terms
together
the whole
equation
reduces
to the form
L a-r
+
M b-r
+
N c-r
=
K.
92 VECTOR ANALYSIS
This has
already
been solved as
r
=
K.L a
+
K-M b
+
XJT c .
The solution is in terms of three
non-coplanar
vectors a
, V,
c
f
.
These form the
system reciprocal
to
a, b,
c in terms of which
the
products containing
the unknown vector r were
expressed.
*
SUNDRY APPLICATIONS OF PKODUCTS
Applications
to Mechanics
48.]
In the mechanics of a
rigid body
a force is not a
vector in the sense understood in this book. See Art. 3.
A force has
magnitude
and direction
;
but it has also a line
of
application.
Two forces which are alike in
magnitude
and
direction,
but which lie
upon
different lines in the
body
do not
produce
the same effect. Nevertheless vectors are
sufficiently
like forces to be useful in
treating
them.
If a number of forces f
x
,
f
2
,
f
3
,
---act on a
body
at
the
same
point
0,
the sum of the forces added as vectors is called
the resultant R.
E
=
f
1
+
f
2
+
f
8
+
...
In the same
way
if f
x
,
f
2
,
f
8
do not act at the same
point
the term resultant is still
applied
to the sum of these forces
added
just
as if
they
were vectors.
B
=
f
1
+
f
a
+
f
8
+
...
(41)
The idea of the resultant therefore does not introduce the
line of action of a force. As far as the resultant is concerned
a force does not differ from a vector.
Definition:
The moment of a force f about the
point
is
equal
to the
product
of the force
by
the
perpendicular
dis
tance from to the line of action of the force. The moment
however is best looked
upon
as a
vector
quantity.
Its
mag
nitude is as defined above. Its direction is
usually
taken to
DIRECT
AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
93
be the normal on that side of the
plane passed
through
the
point
and the line f
upon
which the force
appears
to
pro
duce a
tendency
to rotation about the
point
in the
positive
trigonometric
direction. Another method of
defining
the
moment of a force t
=
PQ
about the
point
is as follows :
The moment of the force f
=
PQ
about the
point
is
equal
to twice the area of the
triangle
PQ.
This includes at once
both the
magnitude
and direction of the moment
(Art. 25).
The
point
P is
supposed
to be the
origin
;
and the
point
Q,
the terminus of the arrow which
represents
the force f. The
letter M will be used to denote the moment. A
subscript
will
be attached to
designate
the
point
about which the moment is
taken.
The moment of a number of forces f
x
,
f
2
,
is the
(vector)
sum of the moments of the individual forces.
If
This is known as the total or resultant moment of the forces
*
v *&
49.]
If f be a force
acting
on a
body
and if d be the vector
drawn from the
point
to
any point
in the line of action of
the
force,
the moment of the force about the
point
is the
vector
product
of d into f.
Mo
W
=
dxf
(42)
For dxf
=
d
f
sin
(d, f)
e,
if e be a unit vector in the direction of dxf.
dxf
=
dsm
(d, f)/e.
Now d sin
(d, f)
is the
perpendicular
distance from to f.
The
magnitude
of dxf is
accordingly equal
to this
perpen
dicular distance
multiplied by/,
the
magnitude
of the force.
94 VECTOR ANALYSIS
This
is the
magnitude
of the moment
MO
{f}
. The direction
of dxf
is the same as the direction of the moment. Hence
the
relation
is
proved.
Mo
{f}
=
dxf.
The sum of the moments about of a number of forces
f
p
f
2
,
acting
at the same
point
P is
equal
to the moment
of the resultant B of the forces
acting
at that
point.
For let
d be the vector from to P. Then
Mo {f
x>
=
dxf
l
Mo {f
a |
=
dxf
a
+
...
(43)
=
dx( 1
+
f
a
+
-..)=dxB
The total moment about
f
of
any
number of forces f
x
,
f
2
,
acting
on a
rigid body
is
equal
to the total moment of those
forces about increased
by
the moment about of the
resultant
BO
considered as
acting
at 0.
M<x
{
f
i>
f
2 >}
=
Mo
{f
r
f
2
,
}
+
Mo<
{Bo \. (44)
Let
dj,
d
2
,
be vectors drawn from to
any point
in
f
r
f
2
,
respectively.
Let
d/,
d
2
,
be the vectors drawn
from O
f
to the same
points
in f
x
,
f
2
,
respectively.
Let o
be the vector from to_0 . Then
d^d/H-c,
d
2
=
d
2
+
c,
Mo
{f
i,
f
2
,
}
=
d
x
xf
j
+
d
2
xf
2
+
Mo
{f!,f2
,
J=d1
xf
1
+
d
a
xf
a
+
...
^
=
(d
x
-
c)xf!
+
(d2
-
c)xf
a
+
- .
=
d
x
xf
x
+d
2
xf
2
+
----
cx(f
j
+
f
a
+
. .
.)
But c is the vector drawn from to 0. Hence c x
f,
is the moment about of a force
equal
in
magnitude
and
parallel
in
direction to f
1
but situated at 0. Hence
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 95
f
a
+
...)
=
-
cxBo
=
Mo
{Bo}.
Hence
MO/
{f
x
,
f
2
,
}
=
M
{f r
f
a;,}
+
MCX
{Bo |. (44)
The theorem is therefore
proved.
The resultant is of course the same at all
points.
The
subscript
is attached
merely
to show at what
point
it is
supposed
to act when the moment about O
f
is taken. For
the
point
of
application
of E affects the value of that moment.
The scalar
product
of the total moment and the resultant
is the same no matter about what
point
the moment be taken.
In other words the
product
of the total
moment,
the result
ant,
and the cosine of the
angle
between them is invariant
for all
points
of
space.
E
MO
{f
i,
f
2
}=
B
MO
{f!
,
f
2
9
}
where O
f
and are
any
two
points
in
space.
This
-important
relation follows
immediately
from the
equation
Mo
{*i,
f
a
,
}
=
Mo
{fj
,
f
2
,
}
+ Mo
{Eo}.
For
E.Mo
if!,f2
,
}=*
M
{f^, }
+
E- M
{B }.
But the moment of E is
perpendicular
to E no matter what
the
point
of
application
be. Hence
E-MO*
IE
O
}
=
o
and the relation is
proved.
The variation in the total
moment due to a variation of the
point
about which the
moment is taken is
always perpendicular
to the resultant.
50.]
A
point
O
r
may
be found such that the total moment
about it is
parallel
to the
resultant. The condition for
parallelism
is
{f x
,
f
a
,
-}=<)
=0
96
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
where
is
any point
chosen at random.
Replace
Mo
{Eo}
by
its value
and for
brevity
omit to write the f
v
f
2
,
in the
braces
{ }.
Then
RxMcy
=
ExMo
-
Ex(cxE)
=
0.
The
problem
is to solve this
equation
for c.
ExMo
EE
c
+
R.c E
=
0.
Now R is a known
quantity.
M
o
is also
supposed
to be
known.
Let c be chosen in the
plane through perpen
dicular to E. Then Ec
=
and the
equation
reduces to
ExM
=
EE c
ExMo
E-E
If c be chosen
equal
to this vector the total moment about
the
point
O
r
,
which is at a vector distance from
equal
to
c,
will be
parallel
to E.
Moreover,
since the scalar
product
of
the total moment and the resultant is constant and since the
resultant itself is constant it is clear that in the case where
they
are
parallel
the numerical value of the total moment
will be a minimum.
The total moment is
unchanged by displacing
the
point
about which it is taken in the direction of the resultant.
For
Mo
jf !,
f
2
,
}
=
Mo
{f !
,
f
2
,
}
-
cxE.
If c
=
O
f
is
parallel
to
E,
cxE vanishes and the moment
about O
f
is
equal
to that about 0. Hence it is
possible
to
find not
merely
one
point
O
r
about which the total moment
is
parallel
to the resultant
;
but the total moment about
any
point
in the line drawn
through parallel
to E is
parallel
to E. Furthermore the solution found in
equation
for c is
the
only
one which exists in the
plane perpendicular
to E
unless the resultant E vanishes. The results that have been
obtained
may
be summed
up
as follows :
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 97
If
any system
of forces f
19
f
2
,
whose resultant is not
zero act
upon
a
rigid body,
then there exists in
space
one
and
only
one line such that the total moment about
any
point
of it is
parallel
to the resultant. This line is itself
parallel
to the resultant. The total moment about all
points
of it is the same and is
numerically
less than that about
any
other
point
in
space.
This theorem is
equivalent
to the one which states that
any system
of forces
acting upon
a
rigid body
is
equivalent
to a
single
force
(the resultant) acting
in a definite line and
a
couple
of which the
plane
is
perpendicular
to the resultant
and of which the moment is a minimum. A
system
of forces
may
be reduced to a
single
force
(the resultant) acting
at
any
desired
point
of
space
and a
couple
the moment of which
(regarded
as a vector
quantity)
is
equal
to the total moment
about of the forces
acting
on the
body.
But in
general
the
plane
of this
couple
will not be
perpendicular
to the result
ant,
nor will its moment be a minimum.
Those who would
pursue
the
study
of
systems
of forces
acting
on a
rigid body
further and more
thoroughly may
consult the Traite de
Mecanique
Rationnelle
l
by
P.
APPELL.
The first
chapter
of the first volume is
entirely
devoted to
the discussion of
systems
of forces.
Appell
defines a vector
as a
quantity possessing magnitude,
direction,
and
point
of
application.
His vectors are
consequently
not the same as
those used in this book. The treatment of his vectors is
carried
through
in the Cartesian
coordinates. Each
step
however
may
be
easily
converted into the notation of vector
analysis.
A number of exercises is
given
at the close of
the
chapter.
51.] Suppose
a
body
be
rotating
about an axis with a con
stant
angular velocity
a. The
points
in the
body
describe
circles concentric with the axis in
planes perpendicular
to
1
Paris,
Gauthier-Villars et
Fils,
1893.
7
98 VECTOR ANALYSIS
FIG. 25.
the axis.
The
velocity
of
any point
in its circle is
equal
to the
product
of the
angular velocity
and the radius of the
circle.
It is therefore
equal
to the
product
of the
angular
velocity
and the
perpendicular
dis
tance from the
point
to the axis.
The direction of the
velocity
is
perpendicular
to the axis and to
the radius of the circle described
by
the
point.
Let a
(Fig. 25)
be a vector drawn
along
the axis of rotation in that
direction in which a
right-handed
screw would advance if turned in
the direction in which the
body
is
rotating.
Let the
magnitude
of a
be
a,
the
angular velocity.
The vector a
may
be taken to
represent
the rotation of the
body.
Let r be a radius vector
drawn from
any point
of the axis of rotation to a
point
in the
body.
The vector
product
axr
=
a
rsin(a,r)
is
equal
in
magnitude
and direction to the
velocity
v of the
terminus of r. For its direction is
perpendicular
to a and r
and its
magnitude
is the
product
of a and the
perpendicular
distance r sin
(a, r)
from the
point
to the line a. That is
v
=
axr.
(45)
If the
body
be
rotating simultaneously
about several axes
a
i*
a
2>
a
a
which
pass through
the same
point
as in the
case of the
gyroscope,
the velocities due to the various
rotations are
v
i
-=a
1
xr
1
v
8
=
a
8
xr
8
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
99
where r
x
,
r
2
,
r
3
,
are the radii vectores drawn from
points
on the axis a
19
a
2
,
a
3
,
to the same
point
of the
body.
Let
the vectors r
x
,
r
2
,
r
8
,
be drawn from the common
point
of
intersection of the axes. Then
TJ
=
r
a
=
r
8
= =
r
and
v
=
v
t
+
v
2
+
v
3
+
==
a
x
xr
+
a
2
xr
+
a
8
xr
+
This shows that the
body
moves as if
rotating
with the
angular velocity
which is the vector sum of the
angular
velocities a
19
a
2
,
a
8
,
This theorem is sometimes known
as the
parallelogram
law of
angular
velocities.
It will be shown later
(Art.)
60 that the motion of
any
rigid body
one
point
of which is fixed is at each instant of
time a rotation about some axis drawn
through
that
point.
This axis is called the instantaneous axis of rotation. The
axis is not the same for all
time,
but
constantly changes
its
position.
The motion of a
rigid body
one
point
of which is
fixed is therefore
represented by
v
=
axr
(45)
where a is the instantaneous
angular velocity;
and
r,
the
radius vector drawn from the fixed
point
to
any point
of the
body.
The most
general
motion of a
rigid body
no
point
of which
is fixed
may
be treated as follows. Choose an
arbitrary
point
0. At
any
instant this
point
will have a
velocity
v .
Relative to the
point
the
body
will have a motion of rotation
about some axis drawn
through
0. Hence the
velocity
v of
any point
of the
body may
be
represented by
the sum of
V the
velocity
of and
axr the
velocity
of that
point
relative to 0.
v
=
v
+
axr.
(46)
100 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
In case v is
parallel
to
a,
the
body
moves around a and
along
a
simultaneously.
This is
precisely
the motion of a
screw
advancing along
a.
In case v is
perpendicular
to
a,
it
is
possible
to find a
point, given by
the vector
r,
such that
its
velocity
is zero. That is
This
may
be done as follows.
Multiply by
xa.
(axr)xa
=
v xa
or
aa r a-r a
=
v xa.
Let r be chosen
perpendicular
to a. Then ar is zero and
aa r
=
v x a
f
=
-
v x a
aa
The
point
r,
thus
determined,
has the
property
that its veloc
ity
is zero. If a line be drawn
through
this
point parallel
to
a,
the motion of the
body
is one of instantaneous rotation
about this new axis.
In case v is neither
parallel
nor
perpendicular
to a it
may
be resolved into two
components
v v 4- v
"
n
v
n r n
which are
respectively parallel
and
perpendicular
to a.
v
=
v
+
v
"
+
axr
A
point may
now be found such that
v
"
=
axr.
Let the different
points
of the
body
referred to this
point
be
denoted
by
r . Then the
equation
becomes
v
=
v
+
axr .
(46)
The motion here
expressed
consists of rotation about an axis
a and
translation
along
that axis. It is therefore seen that
the most
general
motion of a
rigid body
is at
any
instant
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 101
the motion of a screw
advancing
at a certain rate
along
a
definite axis a in
space.
The axis of the screw and its rate
of
advancing per
unit of rotation
(i.
e. its
pitch)
change
from
instant to instant.
52.]
The conditions for
equilibrium
as obtained
by
the
principle
of virtual velocities
may
be treated
by
vector
methods.
Suppose any system
of forces f
x
,
f
2
,
act on a
rigid body.
If the
body
be
displaced through
a vector dis
tance D whether this distance be finite or infinitesimal the
work done
by
the forces is
The total work done is therefore
W^^i
l
+
D.f
2
+
...
If the
body
be in
equilibrium
under the action of the forces
the work done must be zero.
W=
D-fj
+
D-f
2
+
=
D-Cfj
+
f
2
+
=
D.E
=
0.
The work done
by
the forces is
equal
to the work done
by
their resultant. This must be zero for
every displacement
D. The
equation
D-E
=
holds for all vectors D. Hence
E
=
0.
The total resultant must be zero if the
body
be in
equilibrium.
The work done
by
a force f when the
rigid body
is dis
placed by
a rotation of
angular velocity
a for an infinitesimal
time t is
approximately
a-dxf
t,
where d is a vector drawn from
any point
of the axis of rota
tion a to
any point
of f. To
prove
this break
up
f into two
components
f
,
f
"
parallel
and
perpendicular respectively
to a.
a-dxf
=
a-dxf
+
a-dxf".
102
VECTOR ANALYSIS
As f is
parallel
to a the scalar
product [a
d f
]
vanishes.
a-dxf
=
a-dxf".
On the other hand the work done
by
t" is
equal
to the work
done
by
f
during
the
displacement.
For f
being parallel
to
a is
perpendicular
to its line of action. If h be the common
vector
perpendicular
from the line a to the force f
",
the work
done
by
f
"
during
a rotation of
angular velocity
a for time
t is
approximately
The vector d drawn from
any point
of a to
any point
of f
may
be broken
up
into three
components
of which one is
h,
another
is
parallel
to
a,
and the third is
parallel
to f ". In the scalar
triple product [adf] only
that
component
of d which is
perpendicular
alike to a and f
"
has
any
effect. Hence
W= a-hxf
"
t
=
a-dxf t
f
=
a-dxf t.
If a
rigid body upon
which the forces f
v
f
2
,
act be dis
placed by
an
angular velocity
a for an infinitesimal time t
and if d
x
,
d
2
,
be the vectors drawn from
any point
of
a to
any points
of f
v
f
2
,
-
respectively,
then the work done
by
the forces f
v
f
2
,
-
will be
approximately
W=
(a-djXfj
+
ad
2
xf
2
+
)
t
=
a.(d 1
xf
1
+
d
2
xf
2
+
.-.)*
=
a.M
{f
1
,f
2 ,...}
t.
If the
body
be in
equilibrium
this work must be zero.
Hence
a*M
\t
l9
f
2
,
}
t
=
0.
The scalar
product
of the
angular velocity
a and the total
moment of the
forces t
v
f
2
,
about
any point
must be
zero. As a
may
be
any
vector
whatsoever the moment itself
must vanish.
Mo
{f
r
f
r
-
}
=
0.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
103
The
necessary
conditions that a
rigid body
be in
equilib
rium under the action of a
system
of forces is that the result
ant of those forces and the total moment about
any point
in
space
shall vanish.
Conversely
if the resultant of a
system
of forces and the
moment of those forces about
any
one
particular point
in
space
vanish
simultaneously,
the
body
will be in
equilibrium.
If E
=
0,
then for
any displacement
of translation D
DE
=
o.
JF=D-f
1
+
D.f
2
+
... =
and the total work done is
zero,
when the
body
suffers
any
displacement
of translation.
Let
Mo
{fp
f
2
>
}
be zero for a
given point
0. Then for
any
other
point
O
1
Mo<
{f
x
,
f
2
,
-\
=
Mo
1
f
lf
f
2
,
-
}
+
M
{Bo}-
But
by hypothesis
E is also zero. Hence
Hence
where a is
any
vector whatsoever. But this
expression
is
equal
to the work done
by
the forces when the
body
is rotated
for a time t with an
angular velocity
a about the line a
passing through
the
point
O
1
. This work is zero.
Any displacement
of a
rigid body may
be
regarded
as a
translation
through
a distance D combined with a rotation
for a time t with
angular velocity
a about a suitable line a in
space.
It has been
proved
that the total work done
by
the
forces
during
this
displacement
is zero. Hence the forces
must be in
equilibrium.
The theorem is
proved.
104 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Applications
to
Geometry
53.]
Relations between two
right-handed systems
of three
mutually perpendicular
unit vectors. Let
i, j,
k and i
,
j
,
k
be two such
systems. They
form their own
reciprocal systems.
Hence
r
=
/ I
+r
*^,t
r
^*v,
(47)
and r
=
ri i
+
rj j
+
rk k .
From this
/ i
=
i -i i
+
i
.j j
+
i -k k
=
a
1
i
+
a
2
j
+
a
3
k
I
k
=
k -i i
+
k
-j j
+
k -k k
=
c
l
i
+
c
2 j
+
c
3
k.
The
scalarsflj,
a
2
,
a
3
;
b
lt
Z>
2
,
b
3
;
c
v 2
,
c
3
are
respectively
the
direction cosines of i
; j
;
k with
respect
to
i, j,
k.
That is
<&]_
cos
(i , i)
a
2
=
cos
(i
,
j)
a
3
=
cos
(i
, k)
0j
"
==-
COS
(j
)
l)
Ot
^
==-
COS
(j
i
j)
t>
3
-
COS
(J
,
Kj (4o)
c
x
=
cos
(k
, i)
c
2
=
cos
(k ,
j)
c
3
=
cos
(k
,
k).
In the same manner
^
i
=
i-i i
+
i-j j
7
+
i-k
k =
^
i
+
\
y +
GI
k
j
j
-
j-i
i
+
j-j
j +
j-k
k
=
a
a
i
+
6
2
j
+
c
2
k
(47)"
( k
=
k.i i
+
k.j j
+
k-k k
=
a
a
i
f
+
J
8
J
+
C
3
k/
!/!_/ "1 9i 9i 9
t
fcf !?
I /t ^ I n &
j
/ 4
and )
j.j
=
1
=
2
2
+
J
2
2
+
c
2
2
(49)
(
k-k
=
1
=
a
s
2
+
6
3
2
+
c
3
2
and
]
j
.k
= =
\ cj
+
&
2
c
2
+
b
B
c
s (50)
I
i_^ !
f\
\
K !
=
U
=
Cj ttj
-f-
C<
dy
-f-
C
3 a%
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 105
and
\ j-k
= =
a*
a
9 + K I* +
c
c,
(50)
j.k
= =
#
2
a
3
+
6
2
6
3
+
and
But
Hence
k
=
i
xj
=
(a2
5
3
-
a
3
6
2)
i
y
l "2
=
(a2
&
3
-
a
3
6
2),
(51)
(52)
Or
Co
=
and similar relations
may
be found for the other six
quantities
a
v
a
2
,
a
3
;
b
v
&
2
,
&
3
. All these scalar relations between the
coefficients of a transformation which
expresses
one set of
orthogonal
axes X
1
,
F
,
Z* in terms of another set
JT, F,
Z are
important
and well known to students of Cartesian methods.
The ease with which
they
are obtained here
may
be note
worthy.
A number of vector
relations,
which are
perhaps
not so well
known,
but nevertheless
important, may
be found
by
multi
plying
the
equations
i
=
a
l
i
+
a
2
j
+
a
3
k
in vector
multiplication.
&!
k
Cj j
=
a
3 j
a
2
k.
(53)
The
quantity
on either side of this
equality
is a vector. From
its form
upon
the
right
it is seen to
possess
no
component
in
106 VECTOR ANALYSIS
the i direction but to lie
wholly
in the
jk-plane
;
and from
its form
upon
the left it is seen to lie in the
j
k
-plane.
Hence it must be the line of intersection of those two
planes.
Its
magnitude
is V
af
+
a or
V
b^
+
c^.
This
gives
the
scalar relations
af
+
a*
=
V
+
*!
2
=
1
-
a*.
The
magnitude
1
a^
is the
square*of
the sine of the
angle
between the vectors i and i . Hence the vector
^k -cj ^sj-aak (53)
is the line of intersection of the
j
k
-
and
jk-planes,
and
its
magnitude
is the sine of the
angle
between the
planes.
Eight
other similar vectors
may
be
found,
each of which
gives
one of the nine lines of intersection of the two sets of mu
tually orthogonal planes.
The
magnitude
of the vector is in
each case the sine of the
angle
between the
planes.
54.]
Various
examples
in Plane and Solid
Geometry may
be solved
by
means of
products.
Example
1 : The
perpendiculars
from the vertices of a trian
gle
to the
opposite
sides meet in a
point.
Let AB be the
triangle.
Let the
perpendiculars
from A to BC and from B
to CA meet in the
point
0. To show is
perpendicular
to A B.
Choose as
origin
and let OA
=
A,
OB
=
B,
and
=C. Then
=
C-B,
By hypothesis
A.(C
-
B)
=
and
B<A
-
C)
=
0.
Add;
C<B
-
A)
=
0,
which
proves
the
theorem.
Example
2 : To find the vector
equation
of a line drawn
through
the
point
B
parallel
to a
given
vector A.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
107
Let be the
origin
and B the vector OS. Let be the ra
dius vector from to
any point
of the
required
line. Then
E B is
parallel
to A. Hence the vector
product
vanishes.
Ax(B-B)
=
0.
This is the desired
equation.
It is a vector
equation
in the
unknown vector B. The
equation
of a
plane
was seen
(page
88)
to be a scalar
equation
such as
BC
=
c
in the unknown vector B.
The
point
of intersection of a line and a
plane may
be
found at once. The
equations
are
(
Ax(B
-
B)
=
i
B-C
=
e
AxB
=
AxB
A-C B
-
C-B A
=
(AxB)xC
A-C B
-
c A
=
(AxB)xC
Hence
(AxB)xC
+
c A
.
A-C
The solution
evidently
fails when AC
=
0. In this case how
ever the line is
parallel
to the
plane
and there is no solution
;
or,
if it lies in the
plane,
there are an infinite number of solu
tions.
Example
3: The introduction of vectors to
represent planes.
Heretofore vectors have been used to denote
plane
areas of
definite extent. The direction of the vector was normal to
the
plane
and the
magnitude
was
equal
to the area to be re
presented.
But it is
possible
to use vectors to denote not a
plane
area but the entire
plane
itself,
just
as a vector
represents
a
point.
The result is
analogous
to the
plane
coordinates of
analytic geometry.
Let be an assumed
origin.
Let MNbe
a
plane
in
space.
The
plane
MN is to be denoted
b^
a vector
108 VECTOR ANALYSIS
whose direction is the direction of the
perpendicular dropped
upon
the
plane
from the
origin
and whose
magnitude
is the
reciprocal
of the
length
of that
perpendicular.
Thus the nearer
a
plane
is to the
origin
the
longer
will be the vector which
represents
it.
If r be
any
radius vector drawn from the
origin
to a
point
in the
plane
and if
p
be the vector which denotes the
plane,
then
r-p
=
1
is the
equation
of the
plane.
For
rp
=
r cos
(r, p) p.
Now
p,
the
length
of
p
is the
reciprocal
of the
perpendicular
distance from to the
plane.
On the other hand r cos
(r, p)
is that
perpendicular
distance. Hence
rp
must be
unity.
If r and
p
be
expressed
in terms of
i, j,
k
r
=
#i
+
yj
+
zk
p
=
ui
+
vj
+
wit
Hence
rp
=
xu
+
yv
+
zw
=
L.
The
quantities
u, v,
w are the
reciprocals
of the
intercepts
of
the
plane p upon
the axes.
The relation between r and
p
is
symmetrical.
It is a rela
tion of
duality.
If in the
equation
r-p
=
1
r be
regarded
as
variable,
the
equation represents
a
plane p
which is the locus of all
points given by
r. If however
p
be
regarded
as variable and r as
constant,
the
equation repre
sents a
point
r
through
which all the
planes p pass.
The
development
of the idea of
duality
will not be carried out.
It is familiar to all students of
geometry.
The use of vec
tors to denote
planes
will
scarcely
be alluded to
again
until
Chapter
VII.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
109
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER II
The scalar
product
of two vectors is
equal
to the
product
of their
lengths
multiplied by
the cosine of the
angle
between
them.
A-B
=
A B cos
(A, B) (1)
A-B
=
B.A
(2)
A.A
=
^.
(3)
The
necessary
and sufficient condition for the
perpendicularity
of two vectors neither of which vanishes is that their scalar
product
vanishes. The scalar
products
of the vectors
i,
j,
k
are
^=J!Uk!=o
(4)
A.B
=
A
1
B
1
+
A,,
B
2
+
AS
B
z
(7)
H
=
A*
=
A*
+
A*
+
A*.
(8)
If the
projection
of a vector B
upon
a vector A is B
f
,
-R
A B
A (*\
XA
The vector
product
of two vectors is
equal
in
magnitude
to
the
product
of their
lengths multiplied by
the sine of the an
gle
between them. The direction of the vector
product
is the
normal to the
plane
of the two vectors on that side on which
a rotation of less than 180 from the first vector to the second
appears positive.
AxB
=
A B sin
(A, B)
c.
(9)
The vector
product
is
equal
in
magnitude
and direction to the
vector which
represents
the
parallelogram
of which A and B
are the two
adjafcent
sides. The
necessary
and sufficient con
dition for the
parallelism
of two vectors neither of which
110
VECTOR ANALYSIS
vanishes
is that their vector
product
vanishes. The com
mutative laws do not hold.
AxB
=
AxB
=
-BxA
ixi
=jxj
=
kxk
=
ixj
=
jxi
=
k
jxk
=
kxj
=i
kxi
=
ixk
=
j
2)
i
+
(Aa
B
l
-
A
1
(10)
(12)
AxB
=
B
n
Bo
(13)
(13)
The scalar
triple product
of three vectors
[A
B
C]
is
equal
to the volume of the
parallelepiped
of which
A, B,
C are three
edges
which meet in a
point.
[AB C]
=
A-BxC
=
B.CxA
=
C-AxB
=
AxB-C
=
BxCA
=
CxA-B
[ABC]
=-
[A OB].
(15)
(16)
The dot and the cross in a scalar
triple product may
be inter
changed
and the order of the letters
may
be
permuted cyclicly
without
altering
the value of the
product
;
but a
change
of
cyclic
order
changes
the
sign.
[ABC]
=
(18)
[ABC]
=
[a be] (19)
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS
111
If the
component
of B
perpendicular
to A be
B",
B
,,
=
_AX(AXB)
A*A
Ax(BxC)
=
A-C B
-
A-B C
(24)
(AxB)xC
=
A-C B
-
C-B A
(24)
(AxB>(CxD)
=
A.C B-D
-
A-D B-C
(25)
(AxB)x(CxD)
=
[A CD]
B-
[BCD]
A
=
[ABD] C-[ABC]
D.
(26)
The
equation
which subsists between four vectors
A, B, C,
D
is
[BCD] A-[CDA]B
+
[DAB]
C-
[ABC]
D
=
0.
(27)
Application
of formulae of vector
analysis
to obtain the for
mulae of Plane and
Spherical Trigonometry.
The
system
of vectors a
, V,
c is said to be
reciprocal
to the
system
of three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c
bxc cxa axb
when a
=
_ .
.,
b
=
= -=> *
=
(29)
[a be] [abc] [abc]
A vector r
may
be
expressed
in terms of a set of vectors and
its
reciprocal
in two similar
ways
r = r.a a
+
r.V b
+
r-c c
(30)
r
=
r-aa
+
r.bb
+
r.cc .
(31)
The
necessary
and sufficient conditions that the two
systems
of
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c and a
,
b
,
c be
reciprocals
is that
a
.a =
Vb
=
c c
=
1
a .b
=
a -c
= b .c
=
b .a =
c -a
=
e
-b
=
0.
If a
,
b
,
c form a
system reciprocal
to
a, b,
c
;
then
a,
b,
c
will
form a
system
reciprocal
to a
,
b
,
c .
112
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
P.A P.B P.C
a-A ft-B a-c
R.A B-B R-C
[PaK][ABC]
=
(34)
The
system
i, j,
k is its own
reciprocal
and if
conversely
a
system
be its own
reciprocal
it must be a
right
or left handed
system
of three
mutually perpendicular
unit vectors.
Appli
cation of the
theory
of
reciprocal systems
to the solution of
scalar and vector
equations
of the first
degree
in an unknown
vector.
The vector
equation
of a
plane
is
r-A
=
a.
(36)
Applications
of the methods
developed
in
Chapter
II.,
to the
treatment of a
system
of forces
acting
on a
rigid body
and in
particular
to the reduction of
any system
of forces to a
single
force and a
couple
of which the
plane
is
perpendicular
to that
force.
Application
of the methods to the treatment of
instantaneous
motion of a
rigid body obtaining
v
=
v
+
a x r
(46)
where v is the
velocity
of
any point,
v a translational veloc
ity
in the direction
a,
and a the vector
angular velocity
of ro
tation. Further
application
of the methods to obtain the
conditions for
equilibrium by making
use of the
principle
of
virtual velocities.
Applications
of the method to obtain
the relations which exist between the nine direction cosines
of the
angles
between two
systems
of
mutually orthogonal
axes.
Application
to
special problems
in
geometry including
the form under which
plane
coordinates make their
appear
ance in vector
analysis
and the method
by
which
planes (as
distinguished
from finite
plane areas)
may
be
represented
by
vectors.
DIRECT AND SKEW PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 113
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER II
Prove the
following
reduction formulae
1.
Ax{Bx(CxD)}
=
[ACD]B-A-BCxD
=
BD AxC B-C AxD.
2.
[AxB
CxD
ExF]
=
[ABD] [CEF]- [ABC] [DBF]
=
[ABE] [FCD]
-
[ABF] [BCD]
=
[CD A] [BEF]
-
[CDB] [AEF].
3.
[AxB
BxC
CxA]
=
[ABC]
2
.
P.A P.B P
4
[PQE]
(AxB)
=
Q.B Q
RA RB R
5.
Ax(BxC)
+
Bx(CxA)
+
Cx(AxB)
=
0.
6.
[AxP
Bxtt
CxR]
+
[Axtt
BxR
CxP]
+
[AxR
BxP
Cxtt]
=
0.
7. Obtain formula
(34)
in the text
by expanding
[(AxB)xP].[Cx(ttxR)]
in two different
ways
and
equating
the results.
8. Demonstrate
directly by
the above formulae that if
a
, V,
c form a
reciprocal system
to
a, b, c;
then
a, b,
c form
a
system reciprocal
to a
,
b
,
c .
9. Show the connection between
reciprocal systems
of vec
tors and
polar triangles upon
a
sphere*
Obtain some of the
geometrical
formulae connected with
polar triangles by
inter
preting
vector formulae such as
(3)
in the above list.
10. The
perpendicular
bisectors of the sides of a
triangle
meet in a
point.
11. Find an
expression
for the common
perpendicular
to
two lines
not
lying
in the same
plane.
114 VECTOR ANALYSIS
12. Show
by
vector methods that the formulae for the vol
ume of a tetrahedron whose four vertices are
IS
13.
Making
use of formula
(34)
of the text show that
[abo]
=
a be
N
1
n
m
n
1
I
m
I
1
where
a, &,
c are the
lengths
of
a, b,
c
respectively
and where
I
=
cos
(b, c),
m
=
cos
(c, a),
n
=
cos
(a, b).
14. Determine the
perpendicular (as
a vector
quantity)
which is
dropped
from the
origin upon
a
plane
determined
by
the
termini
of the vectors
a, b,
c. Use the method of solution
given
in Art. 46.
15. Show that the volume of a tetrahedron is
equal
to one
sixth of the
product
of two
opposite edges by
the
perpendicu
lar distance between them and the sine of the included
angle.
16. If a line is drawn in each face
plane
of
any
triedral
angle
through
the vertex and
perpendicular
to the third
edge,
the
three lines thus obtained lie in a
plane.
CHAPTER III
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
Differentiation of
Functions
of
One Scalar Variable
55.]
IF a vector varies and
changes
from r to r the incre
ment of r will be the difference between r and r and will be
denoted as usual
by
A r.
Ar
=
r
-r,
(1)
where A r must be a vector
quantity.
If the variable r be
unrestricted the increment A r is of course also unrestricted :
it
may
have
any magnitude
and
any
direction.
If, however,
the vector r be
regarded
as a function
(a
vector
function)
of
a
single
scalar variable t the value of A r will be
completely
determined when the two values t and t
f
of
,
which
give
the
two values r and r
,
are known.
To obtain a clearer
conception
of the
quantities
involved
it will be
advantageous
to think of the vector r as drawn
from a fixed
origin (Fig. 26).
When
the
independent
variable t
changes
its
value the vector r will
change,
and as t
possesses
one
degree
of freedom r will
vary
in such a
way
that its terminus
describes a curve in
space,
r will be
the radius vector of one
point
P of
the curve
;
r
,
of a
neighboring point
P
f
. A r will be the
chord PP
1
of the curve. The ratio
Ar
A*
FIG. 26.
116 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
will be a vector collinear with the chord PP
f
but
magnified
in the ratio 1 : A t. When A t
approaches
zero P
f
will
ap
proach
P,
the chord PP
1
will
approach
the
tangent
at
P,
and
the vector
Ar
...
rfr
will
approach
i\ t (t t
which is a vector
tangent
to the curve at P directed in that
sense in which the variable t increases
along
the
curve.
If r be
expressed
in terms of
i, j,
k as
r
=
r
x
i
+
r
2
j +
r
z
k
the
components
r
v
r
2
,
r
3
will be functions of the scalar t.
r
=
(r1
+
Arj)i+ (^2
+
Ar
2)j
+
(r3
+
Ar
3)k
Ar
=
r r
=
Ar
x
i
+
Ar
2 j
+
Ar
3
k
A r
_
A
?*!
.
A r
2
.
A r
8
^
1
"
J+
k
and
Hence the
components
of the first derivative of r with re
spect
to t are the first derivatives with
respect
to t of the
components
of r. The same is true for the second and
higher
derivatives.
.
.
~
i j__ _f
,
_
3
*
_ __ _ _
dt*~ dt* dt* dt*
(2)
d
n
r d
n
r,
.
d
n
r
fl
d
n
r*
- -
l
i
j__?
i
_i__? v
dt
n
dt
dt
n
J
dt*
In a similar manner if r be
expressed
in terms of
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c as
r
=
aa
+
&b
+
cc
d
n
r d
n
a
d
n
b d
n
c
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 117
Example
: Let r
=
a cos t
+
b sin t.
The vector r will then describe an
ellipse
of which a and b
are two
conjugate
diameters. This
may
be seen
by
assum
ing
a set of
oblique
Cartesian axes
X,
Y
coincident with a
and b. Then
X
=
a cos
t,
Y
=
6 sin
t,
which is the
equation
of an
ellipse
referred to a
pair
of con
jugate
diameters of
lengths
a and b
respectively.
dr
-3
=
a sin t
+
b cos t.
a t
Hence
=
a cos
(t
+
90)
+
b sin
(t
+
90).
The
tangent
to the curve is
parallel
to the radius vector
for
+
90).
2r
=
(a
cos t
+
b sin
t).
The second derivative is the
negative
of r. Hence
is
evidently
a differential
equation
satisfied
by
the
ellipse.
Example
: Let r
=
a cosh t
+
b sinh t.
The vector r will then describe an
hyperbola
of which a and
b are two
conjugate
diameters.
dr
=
a sinh t
+
b cosh
t,
dt
and
- -
=
a cosh t
+
b sinh t.
Hence
=
r
d t*
is a differential
equation
satisfied
by
the
hyperbola.
118
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
56.]
A combination
of vectors
all of which
depend
on the
same
scalar variable
t
may
be differentiated
very
much as in
ordinary
calculus.
d
For
(a +
Aa)
.
(b
A(a-b)
=
(a
+
Aa)
(b
+
Ab)
-
a-b
Ab
Aa Aa-Ab
=
a H
--
b
+
-
1
--
-
A*
A*
A*
Hence in the limit when A t
=
0,
d_
dt
_(a.bxc)
=
a-b
dt
v
\d
t
X
[b
X
The last three of these formulae
may
be demonstrated
exactly
as the first was.
The formal
process
of differentiation in vector
analysis
differs in no
way
from that in scalar
analysis except
in this
one
point
in which vector
analysis always
differs from scalar
analysis, namely
: The order of the factors in a vector
product
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
119
cannot be
changed
without
changing
the
sign
of the
product.
Hence of the two formulae
d
and
the first is
evidently
incorrect,
but the second correct. In
other
words,
scalar differentiation must take
place
without
altering
the order of the factors of a vector
product.
The
factors must be differentiated in situ. This of course was to
be
expected.
In case the vectors
depend upon
more than one variable
the results are
practically
the same. In
place
of total deriva
tives with
respect
to the scalar
variables,
partial
derivatives
occur.
Suppose
a and b are two vectors which
depend
on
three scalar variables
#,
y,
z. The scalar
product
ab will
depend upon
these three
variables,
and it will have three
partial
derivatives of the first order.
The second
partial
derivatives are formed in the same
way.
52
-
9y \3x5y
120 VECTOR ANALYSTS
Often it is more convenient to use not the derivatives but
the differentials. This is
particularly
true when
dealing
with
first
differentials. The formulas
(3), (4)
become
d
(a b)
=
da, b
+
a
db,
(3)
d
(a
X
b)
=
ds, x b
+
a x
db,
(4)
and so forth. As an illustration consider the
following
example.
If r be a unit vector
rr
=
1.
The locus of the terminus of r is a
spherical
surface of unit
radius described about the
origin,
r
depends upon
two vari
ables. Differentiate the
equation.
Hence r d r
=
0.
Hence the increment di of a unit vector is
perpendicular
to
the vector. This can be seen
geometrically.
If r traces a
sphere
the variation d r must be at each
point
in the
tangent
plane
and hence
perpendicular
to r.
*57.j
Vector methods
may
be
employed advantageously
in the discussion of curvature and torsion of curves. Let r
denote the radius vector of a curve
where f is some vector function of the scalar t. In most
appli
cations in
physics
and mechanics t
represents
the time. Let
s be the
length
of arc measured from some definite
point
of
the curve as
origin.
The increment A r is the chord of the
curve. Hence A r
/
A s is
approximately equal
in
magnitude
to
unity
and
approaches unity
as its limit when A s becomes
infinitesimal. Hence d r
/
d s will be a unit vector
tangent
to
the curve and will be directed toward that
portion
of the
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
121
curve
along
which s is
increasing (Fig.
27).
Let t be the
unit
tangent UAt
The curvature of the curve is the
limit of the ratio of the
angle through
which the
tangent
turns to the
length
of the arc. The
tangent changes by
the increment At. As t
is of unit
length,
the
length
of A t is
approximately
the
angle
through
which the
tangent
has turned measured in circular
measure. Hence the directed curvature C is
LIM
=
t
=
As=0 As ds ds*
The vector C is collinear with A t and hence
perpendicular
to
t;
for inasmuch as t is a unit vector At is
perpendicular
to t.
The
tortuosity
of a curve is the limit of the ratio of the
angle through
which the
osculating plane
turns to the
length
of the arc. The
osculating plane
is the
plane
of the
tangent
vector t and the curvature vector C. The normal to this
planei8
N
=
txC.
If c be a unit vector collinear with C
n
=
t x c
will be a unit normal
(Fig. 28)
to the
osculating plane
and
the three vectors
t, c,
n form an
i,
j,
k
system,
that
is,
a
right-handed rectangular system.
Then the
angle through
which the
osculating
plane
turns will be
given approximately by
A n and hence the
tortuosity
is
by
definition _
d n
/
d s.
From the fact that
t, c,
n form an
i, j,
k
system
of unit
vectors
122 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
t t
=
c c
=
nn
=
1
and tc
=
cn
=
nt
=
0.
Differentiating
the first set
t-dt
=
cdc
=
ndn
=
0,
and the second
t* do
+
rft c =cdn
+
dcn
=
ndt
+
dnt==0.
But d t is
parallel
to c and
consequently perpendicular
to n.
n- dt
=
0.
Hence d n t
=
0.
The increment of n is
perpendicular
to t. But the increment
of n is also
perpendicular
to n. It is therefore
parallel
to c.
As the
tortuosity
is T
=
dn/ds,
it is
parallel
to dn and hence
to c.
The
tortuosity
T is
~ds^
d*r d*r
T
v
*
j O
*
d s*
i
\
VCC/
The first term of this
expression
vanishes. T moreover has
been seen to be
parallel
to C
=
d
2
r/ds
2
.
Consequently
the
magnitude
of T is the scalar
product
of
T
by
the unit vec
tor c in
the direction of C. It is desirable however to have
the
tortuosity positive
when the normal n
appears
to turn in
the
positive
or counterclockwise direction if viewed from
that side of the n
c-plane upon
which t or the
positive part
of the curve lies. With this convention d n
appears
to move
in the direction c when the
tortuosity
is
positive,
that
is,
n
turns
away
from c. The scalar value of the
tortuosity
will
therefore be
given by
c
T.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
123
1 dr d
2
r d 1
c T = c x
But c is
parallel
to the vector d
2
i/d
s
2
. Hence
dr
ds ds
2
~~
And c is a unit vector in the direction C. Hence
C
~
Hence T. -c-T
=
- .
x
(12)
Or r
=
.
(13)
The
tortuosity may
be obtained
by
another method which
is somewhat shorter if not
quite
so
straightforward.
tc
=
cn
=
nt
=
0.
Hence dtc
=
dct
dc n
=
dn c
dn*t
=
dtn.
Now d t is
parallel
to c
;
hence
perpendicular
to n.
Hence
d t n
=
0. Hence dnt
=
0. Butdnis
perpendicular
to n.
Hence d n must be
parallel
to c. The
tortuosity
is the
mag
nitude of
dn/ds
taken however with the
negative sign
because d n
appears
clockwise from the
positive
direction of
the curve. Hence the scalar
tortuosity
T
may
be
given by
dn dc
r=- .c
=
n.
,
(14)
ds ds
r
=
txc-^-
C
,
(14)
as
124
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
C
c
=
dc
ds
V
cc
dC
,
d
/
!;
C
---VC.C
ds ds
C-C
But t x c C
=
0.
t x
c
A/C
C
C-C
m
1
=
_ dC
T~
ITTc
(13)
ds*
In Cartesian coordinates this becomes
T=
(13)
Those who would
pursue
the
study
of twisted curves and
surfaces in
space
further from the
standpoint
of vectoi-s will
find the book
"
Application
de la Methode Vectorielle de Grass-
maun d la Greometrie
Infinitesimale"
1
by
FEHB
extremely
1
Paris,
Carre et
Naud,
1899.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 125
helpful.
He works with vectors
constantly.
The treatment
is
elegant.
The notation used is however
slightly
different
from that used
by
the
present
writer. The fundamental
points
of difference are exhibited in this table
HI X
a
2
~
Oi 2]
a
x
a
2
x a
3
=
[a x
a
2
a
3 ]
~
[ax
a
2 aj.
One used to either method need have no
difficulty
with the
other. All the
important elementary properties
of curves
and surfaces are there treated.
They
will not be taken
up
here.
*
Kinematics
58.]
Let r be a radius vector drawn from a fixed
origin
to
a
moving point
or
particle.
Let t be the time. The
equation
of the
path
is then
The
velocity
of the
particle
is its rate of
change
of
position.
This is the limit of the increment A r to the increment A t.
LIM
f
A
r"|
d r
V
=
A
* .
This
velocity
is a vector
quantity.
Its direction is the
direction of the
tangent
of the curve described
by
the
par
ticle. The term
speed
is used
frequently
to denote
merely
the scalar value of the
velocity.
This convention will be
followed here. Then
.-,
(16)
if s be the
length
of the arc measured from some fixed
point
of the curve. It is found convenient in mechanics to denote
differentiations with
respect
to the time
by
dots
placed
over
the
quantity
differentiated. This is the
oldfliixional
notation
126 VECTOR ANALYSIS
introduced
by
Newton. It will also be convenient to denote
the unit
tangent
to the curve
by
t. The
equations
become
--T.
<">
v
=
v t.
(17)
The acceleration is the rate of
change
of
velocity.
It
is a vector
quantity.
Let it be denoted
by
A. Then
by
definition
LIM A v d v
_ _
-At=OA7-rf7
=
dv d
and
Differentiate the
expression
v
=
v t.
dv
d(vt)
dv dt
A -
__
-
v
.
_
* I
nj
__. -
dt
~
dt dt dt
dv d
z
s~
dt dt d s
_ __ _
=
C t?
d t ds d t
where C is the
(vector)
curvature of the curve and v is the
speed
in the curve.
Substituting
these values in the
equation
the result is
A
=
s t
+
v* C.
The acceleration of a
particle moving
in a curve has there
fore been broken
up
into two
components
of which one is
paral
lei to the
tangent
t and of which the other is
parallel
to the
curvature
C,
that
is,
perpendicular
to the
tangent.
That this
resolution has been
accomplished
would be
unimportant
were
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 127
it not for the remarkable fact which it
brings
to
light.
The
component
of the acceleration
parallel
to the
tangent
is
equal
in
magnitude
to the rate of
change
of
speed.
It is
entirely
independent
of what sort of curve the
particle
is
describing.
It would be the same if the
particle
described a
right
line
with the same
speed
as it describes the curve. On the other
hand the
component
of the acceleration normal to the
tangent
is
equal
in
magnitude
to the
product
of the
square
of the
speed
of the
particle
and the curvature of the curve. The
sharper
the
curve,
the
greater
this
component.
The
greater
the
speed
of the
particle,
the
greater
the
component.
But the
rate of
change
of
speed
in
path
has no effect at all on this
normal
component
of the acceleration.
If r be
expressed
in terms of
i,
j,
k as
r
=
# i
+
y}
+
z
k,
v
=
V
**
+
y*
+
*
2
,
(16)
A
=
v
=
r
=
ii
+
yj
+
*
k,
(18)
x x
+
i/ i/ +
z %
A
=
v=s
=
y *
V
x
2
+
y*
+
z
2
From these formulae the difference between st the rate of
change
of
speed,
and A
=
r,
the rate of
change
of
velocity,
is
apparent.
Just when this difference first became
clearly
recognized
would be hard to
say.
But certain it is that
Newton must have had it in mind when he stated his second
law of motion. The rate of
change
of
velocity
is
proportional
to the
impressed
force
;
but rate of
change
of
speed
is not.
59.]
The
hodograph
was introduced
by
Hamilton as an
aid to the
study
of the curvilinear motion of a
particle.
With
any
assumed
origin
the vector
velocity
r is laid off.
The locus of its terminus is the
hodograph.
In other
words,
the radius vector in the
hodograph gives
the
velocity
of the
128 VECTOR ANALYSIS
particle
in
magnitude
and direction at
any
instant. It is
possible
to
proceed
one
step
further and construct the hodo
graph
of the
hodograph.
This is done
by laying
off the
vector acceleration A
=
r from an assumed
origin.
The
radius vector in the
hodograph
of the
hodograph
therefore
gives
the acceleration at each instant.
Example
1 : Let a
particle
revolve in a circle
(Fig. 29)
of radius r with a uniform
fV * ^-r^
angular velocity
a. The
speed
of the
particle
will then
be
equal
to
v
=
a r.
Let r be the radius vector
drawn to the
particle.
The
velocity
v is
perpendicular
to r and to a. It is
f
=
v
=
a x r.
The vector v is
always perpendicular
and of constant
magni
tude. The
hodograph
is therefore a circle of radius v
=
a r.
The radius vector r in this circle is
just ninety degrees
in
advance of the radius vector r in its
circle,
and it conse
quently
describes the circle with the same
angular velocity
a. The acceleration A which is the rate of
change
of y is
always perpendicular
to v and
equal
in
magnitude
to
A
=
a v
=
a
2
r.
The acceleration A
may
be
given by
the formula
r
=
A
=
axv
=
ax(axr)
=
ar a a-a r.
But as a is
perpendicular
to the
plane
in which r
lies,
a r
=
0.
Hence
9
r
=
A
=
aa r
=
a
2
r.
The acceleration due to the uniform motion of a
particle
in
a circle is directed toward the centre and is
equal
in
magni
tude to the
square
of the
angular velocity multiplied by
the
radius of the circle.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
129
Example
2: Consider the motion of a
projectile.
The
acceleration in this case is the acceleration
g
due to
gravity.
r
=
A
=
g.
The
hodograph
of the
hodograph
reduces to a constant
vector. The curve is
merely
a
point.
It is
easy
to find
the
hodograph.
Let v be the
velocity
of the
projectile
in
path
at
any given
instant. At a later instant the
velocity
will be
v
=
v
+
t
g.
Thus the
hodograph
is a
straight
line
parallel
to
g
and
pass
ing through
the
extremity
of v . The
hodograph
of a
particle moving
under the influence of
gravity
is hence a
straight
line. The
path
is well known to be a
parabola.
Example
3 : In case a
particle
move under
any
central
acceleration
r
=
A
=
f(r).
The
tangents
to the
hodograph
of r are the accelerations r!
But these
tangents
are
approximately
collinear with the
chords between two successive values r and f of the radius
vector in the
hodograph.
That is
approximately
A*
Multiply by
rx. r x r = r x .
Since r and
r
are
parallel
r x
(r
-
r
)
=
0.
Hence r x r
=
r x r .
But
J
r x f is the rate of
description
of area. Hence the
equation
states that when a
particle
moves under an ac
celeration directed towards the
centre,
equal
areas are
swept
over in
equal
times
by
the radius vector.
9
130 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Perhaps
it would be well to
go
a little more
carefully
into
this
question.
If r be the radius vector of the
particle
in
its
path
at one
instant,
the radius vector at the next instant
is r
+
A r. The area of the vector of which r and r
+
A r are
the
bounding
radii is
approximately equal
to the area of the
triangle
enclosed
by
r,
r
+
A
r,
and the chord A r.
This
area is
The rate of
description
of area
by
the radius vector is
consequently
LIM irx(r+ Ar)
Lm
1
AT
1
A*
=
02 A*
~A*-=02 A*~2
r
Let r and r be two values of the
velocity
at two
points
P and P
which are near
together.
The acceleration r at P
is the limit of
r r
_
A r
A*
"
A *
*
A
* * "
Break
up
the vector
^-
= ?^IlI?
into two
components
one
A t
A t
parallel
and the other
perpendicular
to the
acceleration r .
Ar.
if n be a normal to the
vector if . The
quantity
x
ap
proaches unity
when A t
approaches
zero. The
quantity y
approaches
zero when A t
approaches
zero.
Ar =
r-r
=
#A*r
+
yA*n.
Hence r x
(r
-
r
)
=
x A* r x r
+
y
A* r x n.
r x
(f
-
r
)
=
r x r
-
(r
+
^
A M
x f .
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
131
Hence
Ar
rxr-r xf
=
xr A*
+
zA*rxr
+
yA*
rxn.
/A 6
But each of the three terms
upon
the
right-hand
side is an
infinitesimal of the second order. Hence the rates of
descrip
tion of area at P and P
d
differ
by
an infinitesimal of the
second order with
respect
to the time. This is true for
any
point
of the curve. Hence the rates must be
exactly equal
at all
points.
This
proves
the theorem.
60.]
The motion of a
rigid body
one
point
of which is
fixed is at
any
instant a rotation about an
instantaneous axis
passing through
the fixed
point.
Let
i,
j,
k be three axes fixed in the
body
but
moving
in
space.
Let the radius vector r be drawn from the fixed
point
to
any point
of the
body.
Then
But d r
=
(d
r
i)
i
+
(d
r
j) j
4-
(d
r
k)
k.
Substituting
the values of d r
i,
d r
j,
d r k obtained from
the second
equation
dr
=
(xi
di+
yi
d
j +
2 i d
k)
i
j
di +
yj
*dj
+
zj
But i
j =j
k
=
k i
=
0.
Hence i
dj +j
di
=
Q or
j-c?i
=
i
dj
j.dk
+
k.dj
=
or
k.dj
=
j-dk
k.di
+
i.rfk
=
or idk
=
k di.
Moreover
i.i=j .j=kk
=
l.
Hence i d i
=
j
d
j
=
k d k
=
0.
132
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Substituting
these values in the
expression
for d r.
dr
=
(zi
dk
yjdi)i+(jdi
s k
+
( y
k
.
d
j
-
x i d
k)
k.
This is a vector
product.
dr
=
(Wj
i
+
idkj
+
jdik)x(>i
+
yj
+ 2;
k).
Let
d
j
.
d k
.
d i
k
-r
l+|
-i
J+J
ii
k-
Then
. d r
r
=
;n
=axr-
This shows that the instantaneous motion of the
body
is one
of rotation with the
angular velocity
a about the line a.
This
angular velocity changes
from instant to instant. The
proof
of this theorem fills the lacuna in the work in Art. 51.
Two infinitesimal rotations
may
be added like vectors.
Let a
x
and a
2
be two
angular
velocities. The
displacements
due to them are
d
l
r
=
a
x
x r d
t,
d
2
r
=
a
2
x r d t.
If r be
displaced by
a,
it becomes
T
+
d
1
T
=
T
+
a,
1
xrdt.
If it then be
displaced by
a
2
,
it becomes
r
4-
d r
=
r
+
d
l
r
+
%
x
[r
+
(a x
x
r)
d
t]
d t.
Hence d r
=
aj
x r d t
+
a
2
x r d t
+
a
2
x
(a x
x
r) (d
)
2
.
If the infinitesimals
(d t)
2
of order
higher
than the first be
neglected,
d
r =
a
x
x r d t
+
a
2
x
r
d t
=
(a x
+
a
2)
x r d
t,
which
proves
the theorem. If both sides be divided
by
d t
. dr
r
= =
(a
1
+
a
2
)
x r.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
133
This is the
parallelogram
law for
angular
velocities. It
was obtained before
(Art. 51)
in a different
way.
In case the direction of
a,
the instantaneous
axis,
is con
stant,
the motion reduces to one of
steady
rotation about a.
r
= a
x r.
The acceleration r
=
axr
+
axr
=
axr
+
ax
(axr).
As a does not
change
its direction a must be collinear with
a and hence
a
x r is
parallel
to a x r. That
is,
it is
perpen
dicular to r. On the other hand ax
(a
x
r)
is
parallel
to r.
Inasmuch as all
points
of the
rotating body
move in con
centric circles about a in
planes perpendicular
to
a,
it is
unnecessary
to consider more than one such
plane.
The
part
of the acceleration of a
particle
toward the centre
of the circle in which it moves is
a x
(a
x
r).
This is
equal
in
magnitude
to the
square
of the
angular
velocity multiplied by
the radius of the circle. It does not
depend upon
the
angular
acceleration a at all. It
corresponds
to what is known as
centrifugal
force. On the other hand
the acceleration normal to the radius of the circle is
axr.
This is
equal
in
magnitude
to the rate of
change
of
angular
velocity multiplied by
the radius of the circle. It does not
depend
in
any way upon
the
angular velocity
itself but
only
upon
its rate of
change.
61.]
The
subject
of
integration
of vector
equations
in which
the differentials
depend upon
scalar variables needs but a
word. It is
precisely
like
integration
in
ordinary
calculus.
If then d r
=
d
s,
r
=
s
+
C,
134 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
where C is some constant vector. To
accomplish
the
integra
tion in
any particular
case
may
be a matter of some
difficulty
just
as it is in the case of
ordinary integration
of scalars.
Example
1 :
Integrate
the
equation
of motion of a
projectile.
The
equation
of motion is
simply
which
expresses
the fact that the acceleration is
always
ver
tically
downward and due to
gravity.
r =
g
t
+ b,
where b is a constant of
integration.
It is
evidently
the
velocity
at the time t
=
0.
r
=
ig*2
+
b*
+
c.
c is another constant of
integration.
It is the
position
vector
of the
point
at time t
=
0. The
path
which is
given by
this
last
equation
is a
parabola.
That this is so
may
be seen
by
expressing
it in terms of x and
y
and
eliminating
t.
Example
% : The rate of
description
of areas when a
par
ticle moves under a central acceleration is constant.
r
=
f(r).
Since the acceleration is
parallel
to the
radius,
r x r
=
0.
But r x r
=
(r
x
r).
a L>
For
(r
x f
)
=
r x f
+
r x r.
u/ t
Hence
(r
x
r)
=
CL t
and
r
x f
=
C,
which
proves
the statement.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
135
Example
3 :
Integrate
the
equation
of motion for a
particle
moving
with an acceleration toward the centre and
equal
to
a constant
multiple
of the inverse
square
of the distance
from the centre.
^2
Given
Then
r
x r
=
0.
Hence r
x r
=
C.
Multiply
the
equations together
with x.
r xC -1 -1
(
^-
=
rx
(rxr)=
-jjj-
{r.r
r
-
r-r
r}.
r r
=
r
2
.
Differentiate. Then r r
=
r r.
Hence *2L
=
_
L
r
o o
*
Each side of this
equality
is a
perfect
differential.
Integrate.
Then
r x
C
=
+
e
I,
c* r
where e I is the vector constant of
integration,
e is its
magni
tude and I a unit vector in its direction.
Multiply
the
equa
tion
by
r .
r r x C r r
+
e r I.
But
c*
r
*
r r x C r x r C C C
136 VECTOR ANALYSIS
T f
C C
p
=
s"
and cos u
=
cos
(r, I).
c
Then
p
=
r
+
e r cos u.
Or
p
r
=
1
+
e cos w
This is the
equation
of the
ellipse
of which e is the eccentri
city.
The vector
I
is drawn in the direction of the
major
axis. The
length
of this axis is
It is
possible
to
cany
the
integration
further and obtain
the time. So far
merely
the
path
has been found.
Scalar Functions
of
Position in
Space.
The
Operator
V
62.
]
A function V
(x,
y, z)
which takes on a definite scalar
value for each set of coordinates
#,
y,
z in
space
is called a
scalar function of
position
in
space.
Such a
function,
for ex
ample,
is
V
O, y, z)
==
x
2
+
y*
+
z
2
=
r\
This function
gives
the
square
of the distance of the
point
(x, y, z)
from the
origin.
The function V will be
supposed
to
be in
general
continuous and
single-valued.
In
physics
scalar
functions of
position
are of constant occurrence. In the
theory
of heat the
temperature
T at
any point
of a
body
is a
scalar function of the
position
of that
point.
In mechanics
and theories of attraction the
potential
is the
all-important
function.
This, too,
is a scalar function of
position.
If a scalar function V be set
equal
to a
constant,
the
equa
tion
V(x,y,z)=c. (20)
defines a surface in
space
such that at
every point
of it the
function V has the same value c. In case V be the
tempera-
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
137
ture,
this is a surface of constant
temperature.
It is called an
isothermal surface. In case V be the
potential,
this surface of
constant
potential
is known as an
equipotential
surface. As
the
potential
is a
typical
scalar function of
position
in
space,
and as it is
perhaps
the most
important
of all such functions
owing
to its manifold
applications,
the surface
V
O, y,z)=c
obtained
by setting
V
equal
to a constant is
frequently spoken
of as an
equipotential
surface even in the case where V has
no connection with the
potential,
but is
any
scalar function
of
positions
in
space.
The rate at which the function V increases in the Xdirec
tion that
is,
when x
changes
to x
+
A x and
y
and z remain
constant is
LIM
["
F"
(a?
+
A
a,
y, g)
-
T
(x, y, z)
"1
Aa =
L
A x
J*
This is the
partial
derivative of Fwith
respect
to x. Hence
the rates at which V increases
in the directions of the three
axes
X,
Y)
Z are
respectively
3V 3V 3V
~Wx
Ty*
Tz
Inasmuch as these are rates in a certain
direction,
they may
be written
appropriately
as vectors. Let
i, j,
k
be a
system
of unit vectors coincident with the
rectangular system
of
axes
X, Y)
Z. The rates of increase of V are
3V 3V
3V
1
JZ*
J
5?
~3~z
The sum of these three vectors would therefore
appear
to be
a vector which
represents
both in
magnitude
and direction
the resultant or most
rapid
rate of increase of V. That this
is
actually
the case will be shown later
(Art. 64).
138 VECTOR ANALYSIS
63.]
The vector sum which is the resultant rate of increase
of Fis denoted
by
VF
V V
represents
a directed rate of
change
of V a directed
or vector derivative of
F^
so to
speak.
For this reason VF
will be called the derivative of
V;
and
F,
the
primitive
of
VF. The terms
gradient
and
slope
of F are also used for
V F. It is
customary
to
regard
Vas an
operator
which obtains
a vector VF from a scalar function F of
position
in
space.
This
symbolic operator
V was introduced
by
Sir W. R.
Hamilton and is now in universal
employment.
There
seems, however,
to be no
universally recognized
name
l
for
it,
although owing
to the
frequent
occurrence of the
symbol
some name is a
practical necessity.
It has been found
by
experience
that the
monosyllable
del is so short and
easy
to
pronounce
that even in
complicated
formulae in which V occurs
a number of times no inconvenience to the
speaker
or hearer
arises from the
repetition.
VFis read
simply
as
"
del F."
Although
this
operator
V has been defined as
v=i*
+ ji- +k
*
dx
dy
9z
1
Some use the term Nabla
owing
to its fancied resemblance to an
Assyrian
harp.
Others have noted its likeness to an inverted A and have
consequently
coined the none too
euphonious
name Ailed
by inverting
the order of the letters in
the word Delta.
Foppl
in his
Einfuhrung
in die Maxwell
1
sche Theorie der Elec-
tricitdt avoids
any special designation
and refers to the
symbol
as "die
Operation
V.
v
How this is to be read is not
divulged.
Indeed,
for
printing
no
particular
name is
necessary,
but for
lecturing
and
purposes
of instruction
something
is re
quiredsomething
too that does not confuse the
speaker
or hearer even when
often
repeated.
THE DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS OF VECTORS
139
so that it
appears
to
depend upon
the choice of the
axes,
it
is in
reality independent
of them. This would be surmised
from the
interpretation
of V as the
magnitude
and direction
of the most
rapid
increase of V. To demonstrate the inde
pendence
take another set of
axes,
i
, j
,
k and a new set of
variables #
,
y
^
z
f
referred to them. Then
V
referred to this
system
is
v/
= i
?T7
+
J
o^7
+
k
^T7
(
22
)
a x a
y
d z
By making
use of the formulae
(47)
and
(47)",
Art.
53,
page
104,
for transformation of axes from
i,
j,
k to i
, j ,
k and
by
actually carrying
out the differentiations and
finally by
taking
into account the identities
(49)
and
(50),
V
may
actually
be transformed into V.
The details of the
proof
are omitted
here,
because another
shorter method of demonstration is to be
given.
64]
Consider two surfaces
(Fig. 30)
and
y,z)=c
V
(x,
y, z)
=
c
+
d
c,
upon
which Vis constant and which are moreover
infinitely
near
together.
Let
#,
y,
z be a
given point upon
the surface
V=c. Let r denote the ra
dius vector drawn to this
point
from
any
fixed
origin.
Then
any point
near
by
in
the
neighboring
surface V
c
+
d c
may
be
represented
by
the radius vector r
+
d r.
The actual increase of Ffrom
the first surface to the second
is a fixed
quantity
dc. The rate of increase is a variable
FIG. 30.
140 VECTOR ANALYSIS
quantity
and
depends upon
the direction dr which is fol
lowed when
passing
from one surface to the other. The rate
of increase will be the
quotient
of the actual increase d c and
the distance
V
d r d r between the surfaces at the
point
x,
y,
z in the direction d r. Let n be a unit normal to the
surfaces and d n the
segment
of that normal
intercepted
between the
surfaces,
n d n will then be the least value for
d r. The
quotient
.
\/d
r d r
will therefore be a maximum when d r is
parallel
to n and
equal
in
magnitude
of d n. The
expression
is therefore a vector of which the direction is the direction of
most
rapid
increase of Fand of which the
magnitude
is the
rate of that increase. This vector is
entirely independent
of
the axes
JT, Y,
Z. Let d c be
replaced by
its
equal
d V which
is the increment of F^in
passing
from the first surface to the
second. Then let V Vbe
defined again
as
Vr=4^n. (24)
d n
From this
definition,
V V is
certainly
the vector which
gives
the direction of most
rapid
increase of V and the rate
in that direction. Moreover VFis
independent
of the axes.
It remains to show that this definition is
equivalent
to the one
first
given.
To do this
multiply by
d r.
dV
VF.dr
=
-n.dr.
(25)
d n
n is a unit normal. Hence n d r is the
projection
of d r on
n and must be
equal
to the
perpendicular
distance d n between
the surfaces.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
141
dV
dT
=
-dn
=
dV
(25)
dn
5V 5V 5V
But
=7r-
-=
-z
dx
dy
5z
where
(d x?
+ (d
y)
2
+
(d *)
2
=
d r d r.
If dr takes on
successively
the values i
dx,
j dy,
kdz the
equation (25)
takes on the values
5V
ids= ~dx
d x
sv
d
y
=
d
y (26)
9V
If the factors rf
a;,
rf
y,
rf be cancelled these
equations
state
that the
components
VF
i,
VF*
j,
VF- k of VF in the
i,
j,
k directions
respectively
are
equal
to
3V 5V
5_V
5x
5y*
5z
VF=(VF. i)i
+
(Vr-j)j
+
(VT. k)k.
Henceby(26)
VF=
i
|^
+
j
|T+
k
|
The second definition
(24)
has been reduced to the first
and
consequently
is
equivalent
to it.
*65.]
The
equation (25)
found above is often taken as a
definition of VV.
According
to
ordinary
calculus the deriv
ed
y
ative
-
satisfies the
equation
d x
,
dy
dx
=
dy
dx
142 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Moreover this
equation
defines
dy /
dx. In a similar manner
it is
possible
to
lay
down the
following
definition.
Definition:
The derivative
V^
of a scalar function of
position
in
space
shall
satisfy
the
equation
for all values of d r.
This definition is
certainly
the most natural and
important
from theoretical considerations. But for
practical purposes
either of the definitions before
given
seems to be better.
They
are more
tangible.
The real
significance
of this last
definition cannot be
appreciated
until the
subject
of linear
vector functions has been treated. See
Chapter
VII.
The
computation
of the derivative V of a function is most
frequently
carried on
by
means of the
ordinary partial
differentiation.
Example
1 :
(ix
+
jy
+
kz)
The derivative of r is a unit vector in the direction of r.
This is
evidently
the direction of most
rapid
increase of r
and the rate of that increase.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
143
Example
% : Let
T
V1F
1 X
Hence
T
(x
z
+
y
z
+
2
)* (x
z
+
y
z
+
2
2
)*
-k
2
+
g
2
)t
_1
1
1 -r -r
and V
~
==
7
-
^i
=
~T
r
(r r)
r
3
The derivative of
1/r
is a vector whose direction is that
of
r,
and whose
magnitude
is
equal
to the
reciprocal
of the
square
of the
length
r.
Example
3:
V
r
n
n r
n
~
2
r
=
n r*
i>r
The
proof
is left to the reader.
Example 4
Let
F(#, y, z)
=
log y#
2
+
y*.
V
log V^Tp
=
i
TT 5
+ j
2 f 2
+ k
22 22
If r denote the vector drawn from the
origin
to the
point
,
y, z)
of
space,
the function V
may
be written as
2/1 *)
=
log Vr.r-(k.r)
2
and ix
+
)y
=
T k kr.
Hence V
log
V^ +
y
""
r r
T
-
k kr
(r-kk.r).(r-kk.r)
144 VECTOR ANALYSIS
There is another method of
computing
V which is based
upon
the
identity
Example
1 : Let V
=
Vrr
=
r.
d V
=
=^
=
Hence
v
r r
-
V
i>r r
Example
2 : Let V
=
r
a,
where a is a constant vector.
d F=dr.a
=
dr Vr.
Hence V V
=
a.
Example
3: Let F=
(rxa) (rxb),
where a and b are
constant vectors.
V
=
rr ab r-a rb.
dV
=
2cZr*r a-b dr-a r-b drb r-a
=
di VFl
Hence VF
==
2 r a-b a r.b b r^a
Vr=
(ra-b-ar-b)
+
(ra-b -br.a)
=
bx(rxa)
-fax
(rxb).
Which of these two methods for
computing
V
shall be
applied
in a
particular
case
depends entirely upon
their
relative ease of execution in that case. The latter method is
independent
of the coordinate axes and
may
therefore be
preferred.
It is also shorter in case the function Fcan be
expressed easily
in terms of r. But when V cannot be so
expressed
the former method has to be resorted to.
*66.]
The
great importance
of the
operator
V in mathe
matical
physics may
be seen from a few illustrations.
Sup
pose
T
(#, y, z)
be the
temperature
at the
point
#,
y,
z of a
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
145
heated
body.
That direction in which the
temperature
de
creases most
rapidly gives
the direction of the flow of heat.
V
T,
as has been
seen,
gives
the direction of most
rapid
increase of
temperature.
Hence the flow of heat f is
f
=
_&
vr,
where k is a constant
depending upon
the material of the
body. Suppose again
that V be the
gravitational potential
due to a fixed
body.
The force
acting upon
a unit mass at
the
point (#, y, z)
is in the direction of most
rapid
increase of
potential
and is in
magnitude equal
to the rate of increase
per
unit
length
in that direction. Let F be the force
per
unit
mass. Then
F
=
VF.
As different writers use different conventions as
regards
the
sign
of the
gravitational potential,
it
might
be well to state
that the
potential
Preferred to here has the
opposite sign
to
the
potential energy.
If Wdenoted the
potential energy
of
a mass m situated at
#,
y, z,
the force
acting upon
that mass
would be
F
=
-
VfF.
In case V
represent
the electric or
magnetic potential
due
to a definite electric
charge
or to a definite
magnetic pole
re
spectively
the force F
acting upon
a unit
charge
or unit
pole
as the case
might
be is
F
=
-
VF.
The force is in the direction of most
rapid
decrease of
potential.
In
dealing
with
electricity
and
magnetism poten
tial and
potential energy
have the same
sign
;
whereas in
attraction
problems they
are
generally
considered to have
opposite signs.
The direction of the force in either case is in
the direction of most
rapid
decrease of
potential energy.
The
difference between
potential
and
potential energy
is this.
10
146 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Potential in
electricity
or
magnetism
is the
potential energy
per
unit
charge
or
pole
;
and
potential
in attraction
problems
is
potential energy per
unit mass
taken, however,
with the
negative sign.
*67.]
It is often convenient to treat an
operator
as a
quantity provided
it
obeys
the same formal laws as that
quantity.
Consider for
example
the
partial
differentiators
!_ A !..
9x
3y
3z
As far as combinations of these are
concerned,
the formal laws
are
precisely
what
they
would be if instead of differentiators
three true scalars
a, 6,
c
were
given.
For instance
the commutative law
99
d 9
=
-
*,
a
=
a,
Sx3y 3ySx
the associative law
5 9 3\ 3 3 3
and the distributive law
3
f
3
3\
33 33
( -+_-)=_--_
+
._ --
a(b
+
c)
=
a
3x\3y 3zJ 3x3y
dxdz
hold for the differentiators
just
as for scalars. Of course such
formulae as
3 3
where u is a function of x cannot hold on account of the
properties
of differentiators. A scalar function u cannot be
placed
under the influence of the
sign
of differentiators.
Such a
patent
error
may
be avoided
by remembering
that an
operand
must be understood
upon
which
3/3
# is to
operate.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 147
In the same
way
a
great advantage may
be obtained
by
looking upon
V-if +jf
+
kf
3x
dy
dz
as a vector. It is not a true
vector,
for the coefficients
.., JL, A
P#
dy
dz
are not true scalars. It is a vector differentiator and of
course an
operand
is
always implied
with it. As far as formal
operations
are concerned it behaves like a vector. For
instance
V
(u
+
v)
=
Vu
+
V
v,
V(ttfl)
=
(Vtt)
v
+
^(Vtf),
c V u
=
V
(c u),
if w and v are
any
two scalar functions of the scalar variables
#,
y,
2 and if c be a scalar
independent
of the variables with
regard
to which the differentiations are
performed.
68.]
If A
represent any
vector the formal combination
A. Vis
A.V
=
A
l
/-
x+
A
2
/-
+
A
s
j-,
(27)
provided
A
=
A
l
i
+
A^
j
+
A%
k.
This
operator
A V is a scalar differentiator. When
applied
to a scalar function V
(x, y, z)
it
gives
a scalar.
<^
r
-A+^+^- (28)
Suppose
for convenience that A is a unit vector a.
(a.V)F=a1
I
+
a
2
r
+a8
r
(29)
148 VECTOR ANALYSIS
where
a
v a^aB
are the direction cosines of the line a referred
to the axes
Jf, F,
Z.
Consequently (a V)
V
appears
as the
well-known
directional derivative of V in the direction a.
This is often written
3V 3V
, 3F,
3V
T^^+^-^sT-
(29)
It
expresses
the
magnitude
of the rate of increase of V in
the direction a. In the
particular
case where this direction is
the normal n to a surface of constant value of
F,
this relation
becomes the normal derivative.
if n
x
,
n
2
,
n
3
be the direction cosines of the normal.
The
operator
a V
applied
to a scalar function of
position
V
yields
the same result as the direct
product
of a and the
vector V V.
(a.V)F=a.(VF). (30)
For this reason either
operation may
be denoted
simply by
a- VF
without
parentheses
and no
ambiguity
can result from the
omission. The two different forms
(a V)
Fand a-
(V F)
may
however be
interpreted
in an
important
theorem.
(a V)
F is the directional derivative of F in the direction
a. On the other hand a
(
V
V)
is the
component
of VF in
the direction a.
Hence : The directional derivative of F in
any
direction is
equal
to the
component
of the derivative
VFin that direction. If Fdenote
gravitational potential
the
theorem becomes : The directional derivative of the
potential
in
any
direction
gives
the
component
of the force
per
unit
mass in that direction. In case Fbe electric or
magnetic
potential
a difference of
sign
must be observed.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
149
Vector Functions
of
Position in
Space
69.]
A vector function of
position
in
space
is a function
V
(x, y, z)
which associates with each
point
x,
y,
z in
space
a definite
vector. The function
may
be broken
up
into its three com
ponents
V
(x, y, z)
=
F! (x, y,z)i+
F
2 (x, y, z) j
+
F
3 (a?, y, z)
k.
Examples
of vector functions are
very
numerous in
physics.
Already
the function VF has occurred. At each
point
of
space
VF has in
general
a definite vector value. In mechan
ics of
rigid
bodies the
velocity
of each
point
of the
body
is a
vector function of the
position
of the
point.
Fluxes of
heat,
electricity, magnetic
force, fluids, etc.,
are all vector functions
of
position
in
space.
The scalar
operator
a V
may
be
applied
to a vector func
tion V to
yield
another vector function.
Let V
=
Fi
(x, y,z)
i
+
F
2 (as, y, z) j
+
F
3 (x, y, z)
k
and
a
=
a
1
i
+
a
2
j
+
a
3
k.
Then
a
-
V
=
i^
+
a
3^+-af
3
(a.V)V
=
(a.V) F!
i
+
(a.V)
F
2
j
+
(a.V)F,
k
9V 3V 9V\
-
(
a
9V, 9V
2
3V
2
150
VECTOR ANALYSIS
This
may
be written in the form
Hence
(a V)
V is the directional derivative of the vector
function V in the direction a. It is
possible
to write
(a V)
V
=
a
-
V V
without
parentheses.
For the
meaning
of the vector
symbol
V when
applied
to a vector function V has not
yet
been
defined. Hence from the
present standpoint
the
expression
a V V can have but the one
interpretation given
to it
by
(a V)
V.
70.] Although
the
operation
V V has not been defined and
cannot be at
present,
1
two formal combinations of the vector
operator
V and a vector function
V
may
be treated. These
are the
(formal)
scalar
product
and the
(formal)
vector
prod
uct of V into V.
They
are
T
<
82
>
and
VxV
=
i
+
]-
+kxV.
(88)
V V is read del dot
V;
and V x
V,
del cross V.
The
differentiators
, , ,
being
scalar
operators, pass
by
the dot and the cross. That is
(32)
Qy
3z
(88)
These
may
be
expressed
in
terms of the
components F", PI. V,
ofV.
i
A definition of
V
V will be
given
in
Chapter
VII.
,
THE DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS OF VECTORS 151
Now
Then
dx 9x
Sx
3y dy 9y
~5y
8V_9V
}
5V,
3F
3* 3*
h
3
Jl
~3
i.fl-
3V
(34)
Hence V V
=
Moreover i
>
rf
+
^7
+
3T-
(
32
)"
This
may
be
written in
the form of a
determinant
VxV=
i
j
k
333
(33)"
152 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
It is to be understood that the
operators^are
to be
applied
to
the functions V
v
F"
2
,
F
3
when
expanding
the determinant.
From some
standpoints objections may
be
brought
forward
against
treating
V as a
symbolic
vector and
introducing
V
V
and V x V
respectively
as the
symbolic
scalar and vector
products
of V into V. These
objections may
be avoided
by
simply laying
down the definition that the
symbols
V and
V
x,
which
may
be looked
upon
as
entirely
new
operators
quite
distinct from
V,
shall be
and V xV
=
ix +
jx-4-kx-.
(33)
But for
practical purposes
and for
remembering
formulae it
seems
by
all means advisable to
regard
3 5 3
as a
symbolic
vector differentiator. This
symbol obeys
the
same laws as a vector
just
in so far as the
differentiators
333
^
T~~ T~
^)e
y
^e same *aws ^ or(^nar
y
scalar
quantities.
71.]
That the two functions V
V and V x V have
very
important physical meanings
in connection with the vector
function V
may
be
easily recognized. By
the
straight
forward
proof
indicated in Art. 63 it was seen that the
operator
V is
independent
of the choice of axes. From this
fact the inference is immediate that V V and V x V
represent
intrinsic
properties
of V invariant of choice of axes. In order
to
perceive
these
properties
it is convenient to attribute to the
function V some definite
physical
meaning
such as flux or
flow of a fluid substance. Let therefore the vector V denote
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 153
at each
point
of
space
the direction and the
magnitude
of the
flow of some fluid. This
may
be a material fluid as water
or
gas,
or a fictitious one as heat or
electricity.
To obtain as
great
clearness as
possible
let the fluid be material but not
necessarily
restricted to
incompressibility
like water.
Then
=
i~+j.
+
k
*I
dx
3y
dz
is called the
divergence
of V and is often written
V V= div V.
The reason for this term is that VV
gives
at each
point
the
rate
per
unit volume
per
unit time at which fluid is
leaving
that
point
the rate of diminution of
density.
To
prove
this consider a small cube of matter
(Fig. 31).
Let the
edges
of the cube be
dx,
dy,
and dz
respectively.
Let
V
(x,
y, z)
=
V
l
(x
9
y,z)i+ V^
(xy
y,
z) j
+
F
3 (x, y, z)
k.
Consider the amount of fluid which
passes through
those
faces of the cube which are
parallel
to the
F^-plane,
i. e.
perpendicular
to the X
axis. The normal to the
face whose x coordinate is
the
lesser,
that
is,
the nor
mal to the left-hand face
of the cube is i. The flux
of substance
through
this
face is
xy2
FIG. 31.
-i.V
(x,y,z)
dy
dz.
The normal to the
oppo-
z
site
face,
the face whose
x coordinate is
greater by
the amount
dx,
is
+
i and the flux
through
it is therefore
164 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
r
3v i
i V
(x
+ dx,
y, z) dy
dz
=
i
V(#, y, z)
+
dx
dy
dz
3V
=
i V
(xy
y, z) dy
dz
+
i
-
dx
dy
dz.
c)
x
The total
flux outward
from the cube
through
these two
faces is therefore the
algebraic
sum of these
quantities.
This
is
simply
3V , ,
.
3^
i -=
dx
dy
dz
=
-^
-
dx
dy
dz.
9 x 9 x
In like manner the fluxes
through
the other
pairs
of faces of
the cube are
3V,,,
j,,c)V
i
^
dx
dy
dz and k
-
dx
dy
dz.
9
y
9 z
The total flux out from the cube is therefore
/. 3V
t
3V
t
, 3V\
(
i
+
j
+
k
.
)
dx
dy
dz.
\
9x
dy 9zJ
This is the net
quantity
of fluid which leaves the cube
per
unit time. The
quotient
of this
by
the volume dx
dy
dz of
the cube
gives
the rate of diminution of
density.
This is
V.T.I. +
,
.
9x
dy
9z 9x
dy
9z
Because V V thus
represents
the diminution of
density
or the rate at which matter is
leaving
a
point per
unit volume
per
unit
time,
it is called the
divergence.
Maxwell
employed
the term
convergence
to denote the rate at which fluid
ap
proaches
a
point per
unit volume
per
unit time. This is the
negative
of the
divergence.
In case the fluid is
incompressible,
as much matter must leave the cube as enters it. The total
change
of contents must therefore be zero. For this reason
the characteristic differential
equation
which
any incompres
sible fluid must
satisfy
is
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
155
where V is the flux of the fluid. This
equation
is often
known as the
hydrodynamic equation.
It is satisfied
by any
flow of
water,
since water is
practically incompressible.
The
great importance
of the
equation
for work in
electricity
is due
to the fact that
according
to Maxwell s
hypothesis
electric dis
placement obeys
the same laws as an
incompressible
fluid. If
then D be the electric
displacement,
div D
=
V D
=
0.
72.]
To the
operator
V X Maxwell
gave
the name curl.
This nomenclature has become
widely accepted.
V x V
=
curl V.
The curl of a vector function
V is itself a vector function
of
position
in
space.
As the name
indicates,
it is
closely
connected with the
angular velocity
or
spin
of the flux at
each
point.
But the
interpretation
of the curl is neither so
easily
obtained nor so
simple
as that of the
divergence.
Consider as before that V
represents
the flux of a fluid.
Take at a definite instant an infinitesimal
sphere
about
any
point (#, y, z).
At the next instant what has become of the
sphere
? In the first
place
it
may
have moved off as a whole
in a certain direction
by
an amount d r. In other words it
may
have a translational
velocity
of
dr/dt.
In addition to
this it
may
have
undergone
such a deformation that it is no
longer
a
sphere.
It
may
have been
subjected
to a strain
by
virtue of which it becomes
slightly ellipsoidal
in
shape.
Finally
it
may
have been rotated as a whole about some
axis
through
an
angle
dw. That is to
say,
it
may
have an
angular velocity
the
magnitude
of which is
dw/dt.
An
infinitesimal
sphere
therefore
may
have
any
one of three
distinct
types
of motion or all of them combined.
First,
a
translation with definite
velocity.
Second,
a strain with three
definite rates of
elongation along
the axes of an
ellipsoid.
156 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Third,
an
angular velocity
about a definite axis. It is this
third
type
of motion which is
given by
the curl. In
fact,
the curl of the flux V is a vector which has at each
point
of
space
the direction of the instantaneous axis of rotation at
that
point
and a
magnitude equal
to twice the instantaneous
angular velocity
about that axis.
The
analytic
discussion of the motion of a fluid
presents
more difficulties than it is
necessary
to introduce in
treating
the curl. The motion of a
rigid body
is
sufficiently complex
to
give
an
adequate
idea of the
operation.
It was seen
(Art.
51)
that the
velocity
of the
particles
of a
rigid body
at
any
instant is
given by
the formula
v
=
v
+
a x r.
curl v
=
Vxv
=
Vxv
+
Vx(axr).
Let a
=
a
l
i
+
a%
j
+
a
3
k
r
=
r
1
i
+
r
2
j
+
r
3
k=:;ri
+
2/j-fzk
expand
V X
(a
x
r) formally
as if it were the vector
triple
product
of
V, a,
and r. Then
V x v
=
V x v
+
(V
-
r)
a
-
(V a)
r.
v is a constant vector. Hence the term V x v vanishes.
V
.
r
=
+
^
+
=
3.
3 x 3
y
3 z
As a
is a constant vector it
may
be
placed upon
the other side
of the differential
operator,
V a
=
a V.
/ 3 3
3\
a
-
Vr=(
ai^
+
a
2j-+
a
s^Jr
=
a
1
i
Hence Vxv
=
3a a
=
2a.
Therefore in the case of the motion of a
rigid body
the curl
of the linear
velocity
at
any point
is
equal
to twice the
angular velocity
in
magnitude
and in direction.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 157
V x v
=
curl v
=
2
a,
a =
^Vxv=|
curl v.
v
= v
+
^
(V
x
v)
x
r =
v
+
\
(curl v)
x r.
(34)
The
expansion
of
V
x
(a
x
r) formally may
be avoided
by
multiplying
a x r out and then
applying
the
operator
V
X to
the result.
73.]
It
frequently happens,
as in the case of the
applica
tion
just
cited,
that the
operators
V>V% V X,
have to be
applied
to combinations of scalar
functions,
vector
functions,
or both. The
following
rules of
operation
will be found
useful. Let
u,
v be scalar functions and
u,
v vector func
tions of
position
in
space.
Then
V(t6
+
t?)
=
Vw
+
Vfl
(35)
V.(u
+
v)
=
V.u
+
V-v
(36)
Vx(u
+
v)
=
Vxu
+
Vxv
(37)
V
(u
v)
=
v V u
+
u V v
(38)
V
(w v)
=
V M v
+
M V v
(39)
v
(40)
(41)
+
v x
(V
x
u)
+
u x
(V
x
v)
1
V.(uxv)=v.Vxu
u-Vxv
(42)
Vx
(uxv)
=
v.Vu~vV-u-u.Vv
+
uV.v.
1
(43)
A word is
necessary upon
the matter of the
interpretation
of such
expressions
as
Vu
v,
V u
v,
Vu x v.
The rule followed in this book is that the
operator
V
applies
to the nearest term
only.
That
is,
1
By
Art. 69 the
expressions
v
V
n and n
V
v me to be
interpreted
as
(V
V)
uand
(
u
*
V)
v-
158 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
V uv
=
(V u)
v
V u v
=
(
V
u)
v
V u x v
=
(
V
u)
x v.
If
V
is to be
applied
to more than the one term which follows
it,
the terms to which it is
applied
are enclosed in a
paren
thesis as
upon
the left-hand side of the above
equations.
The
proofs
of the formulae
may
be
given
most
naturally
by expanding
the
expressions
in terms of three assumed unit
vectors
i, j,
k. The
sign
2 of summation will be found con
venient.
By
means of it the
operators
V> V* A
x take the
form
The summation extends over
#, y,
z.
To demonstrate Vx
(wv)
^
9 x
Hence Vx
(wv)
=
Vwxv
+
^Vxv.
To demonstrate
V
(u v)
=
v V u
+
u V v
+
v
x
(
V x
u)
+
n x
(
V x
v).
THE DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
OF VECTORS
159
^
.
3 u
^
.
3 v
V(u.v)
=
2^-v+^^.-
Now
,3u
^
3 u
.
^
.
9 u
2
v
._
1 =
vx(V xu)
+
2v.i-
or
IE
v i
=
v x
(
V x
u)
+
v Vu.
**
9
x
3
v
In like manner
T u
;r-
*
=
u x
(
V
x
v)
+
u V v.
d
x
Hence
V(uv)=vVu
+
+
v
x
(V
x
n)
+
u x
(V
x
v).
The other formulae are demonstrated in a similar manner.
71]
The notation
l
V(u-v)
u (44)
will be used to denote that in
applying
the
operator
V to the
product (u v),
the
quantity
u is to be
regarded
as constant.
That
is,
the
operation
V is carried out
only partially upon
the
product (u v).
In
general
if V is to be carried out
partially upon any
number of functions which occur after
it in a
parenthesis,
those functions which are constant for the
differentiations are written after the
parenthesis
as
subscripts.
Let M
=
U i
1
This idea and notation of a
partial
V so to
speak may
be avoided
by
means
of the formula 41. But a certain amount of
compactness
and
simplicity
is
lost
thereby.
The idea of
V (
u v
)u
is
surely
no more
complicated
than u
V
v or
v X
(V
X
n).
160
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
then
n-v
=
M
1 1
+
u^v2
+
u
z
and V
(u V)
3^0
But
and
V(u.v)
T
=
Hence
V(u-v) rrr^j
Vw
x
+
But
V(u-v)
n
=
w
1
Vi?
1
+
^
a
Vi?
a
+
w
8
V?
8 (44)
and
V(uv)
v
=
^j
V^
x
+
i;
2
V^
2
+
^
3
V^
3
.
Hence V
(u- v)
=
V
(u- v)
u
+
V
(u- v) v
.
(45)
This formula
corresponds
to the
following
one in the nota
tion of differentials
d
(u v)
=
d
(u v)
u
+
d
(u v)
T
or d
(u v)
=
u d v
+
d n v.
The formulae
(35)-(43) given
above
(Art. 73) may
be
written in the
following
manner,
as is obvious from
analogy
with the
corresponding
formulae in differentials :
V
(u
+
v*)
=
V
(u
+
v\
+
V
(u
+
v)9 (35)
V.
(u
+
v)
=
V-
(u
+
v)
u
+
V-
(u
+
v)
v (36)
V x
(u +
v)
=
V x
(u
+
v)u
+
V x
(u
+
v)y (37)
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
161
V
(u v)
=
V
(u
v\
+
V
(u
v\ (38)
V-
(u
v)
=
V-
(u
v).
+
V-
Ov)
r
(39)
V x
(u
v)
=
V x
(i* v)
a
+
V x
(u
v)
v
(40)
V
(u- v)
=
V
(u. v)u
+
V
(u. v)
v
(41)
V
(u
x
v)
=
V
(u
x
v)a
+ V
(u
x
v)
y
(42)
V x
(u
x
v)
=
V x
(u
x
v)
a
+
V x
(u
x
v)
v
.
(43)
This notation is
particularly
useful in the case of the
scalar
product
u^v and for this reason it was introduced.
In almost all other cases it can be done
away
without loss of
simplicity.
Take for instance
(43)
.
Expand
V x
(u
x
v)
u
formally.
V x
(u
x
v)
u
=
(V v)
u
(V u)
v,
where it must be understood that u is constant for the differ
entiations which occur in
V. Then in the last term the
factor u
may
be
placed
before the
sign
V. Hence
V X
(uX v)
u
=
u
V
*
v u-
Vv.
In
like manner V x
(u
x
v)
v
=
v V u v V u.
Hence
Vx(uxv)=vVu
v V u u V v
+
u V v.
75.]
There are a number of
important
relations in which
the
partial operation
V
(u v)u
figures.
u x
(V
x
v)
=
V
(u v)
a
-
u V
v,
(46)
or
V(u-v)u
=
u. Vv
+
u x
(V
x
v), (46)
or u V v
=
V
(u v)
u
+
(V
x
v)
x u.
(46)"
The
proof
of this relation
may
be
given by expanding
in
terms of
i, j,
k. A method of
remembering
the result
easily
is as follows.
Expand
the
product
u x
(V
x
v)
ll
162 VECTOR ANALYSIS
formally
as if
V, u,
v were all real vectors. Then
ux(Vxv)=u.vV
u V v.
The second term is
capable
of
interpretation
as it stands.
The first
term, however,
is not. The
operator
V has
nothing
upon
which to
operate.
It therefore must be
transposed
so
that it shall have u
v
as an
operand.
But u
being
outside
of the
parenthesis
in u x
(V
x
v)
is constant for the differen
tiations. Hence
u v V
=
V
(u v)
u
and u x
(V
x
v)
=
V
(u v)
u
u V v.
(46)
If u be a unit
vector,
say
a,
the formula
a-Vv
=
V(av)
a
+
(V
x
v)
x a
(47)
expresses
the fact that the directional derivative a V v of a
vector function v in the direction a is
equal
to the derivative
of the
projection
of the vector v in that direction
plus
the
vector
product
of the curl of v into the direction a.
Consider the values of v at two
neighboring points.
v
(x, y, z)
and v
(x
+ dx,
y
+
dy>
z
+
dz)
d v
=
v
(x
+ dx,
y
+
dy,
z
+
dz)
v
(#, y, z).
Let v
=
v{i
+
v
2
j
+
v
8
k
dv
=
dv
l
i
+
dv%j
+
dv
3
k.
But
by (25)
dv
1
=
dr*
d
v%
=
dr
dv%
=
dr
Hence d
v
s=
d r
(V
v
l
i
+
V v
2
j
+
Vv
z k).
Hence d v
=
d r V v
By (46)"
d v
=
V
(rfr
v)
dr
+
(V
x
v)
x dr.
(48)
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
163
Or if V denote the value of v at the
point (#, y, z)
and v the
value at a
neighboring point
v
=
v
+
V
(d
r
v)dr +
(V
x
v)
x dr.
(49)
This
expression
of v in terms of its value v at a
given point,
the
dels,
and the
displacement
d r is
analogous
to the
expan
sion of a scalar functor of one variable
by Taylor
s
theorem,
/<*>=/(*>+.TOO
**
The derivative of
(r v)
when v is constant is
equal
to v.
That is V
(r v)
v
=
v.
For V
(r v)
v
=
v V r
-
(V
x
r>
x
v,
9
v Vr
=
v
l
i
+
v%j
+
8
k
=
v,
V x r
=
0.
Hence V
(r v)v
=
v.
In like manner if instead of the finite vector
r,
an infinitesimal
vector d r be
substituted,
the result still is
V
(d
r
v)v
=
v.
V/fllO*^
By (49)
v
=
V
+
V
(d
r
v)dr
+
(V
x
v)
x d r
V
(d
r
v)
=
V
(d
r
v)d ;
+
V
(d
r
vV
Hence V
(d
r
v)dr
=
V
(d
r
v)
v.
Substituting
:
v
=
^
v
o
+
^V(dr.v)
+
^(Vxv)xdr.
(50)
This
gives
another form of
(49)
which is sometimes more
convenient It is also
slightly
more
symmetrical.
164 VECTOR ANALYSIS
*
76.]
Consider a
moving
fluid. Let v
(#,
T/, 3,
t)
be the
velocity
of the fluid at the
point (#, y, z)
at the time t. Sur
round a
point
(a; , y
,
z
)
with a small
sphere.
dr dr
=
c
2
.
At each
point
of this
sphere
the
velocity
is
v
=
v
+
d r V v.
In the increment of time B t the
points
of this
sphere
will have
moved the distance
The
point
at the center will have moved the distance
The distance between the center and the
points
that were
upon
the
sphere
of radius d r at the commencement of the
interval $ t has become at the end of that interval S t
To find the locus of the
extremity
of dr
r
it is
necessary
to
eliminate d r from the
equations
c
2
=
d r d r.
The first
equation may
be solved for d r
by
the method of
Art.
47,
page
90,
and the solution substituted into the second.
The result will show that the infinitesimal
sphere
has been transformed into an
ellipsoid by
the motion of the
fluid
during
the time 8 1.
A more definite account of the
change
that has taken
place
may
be obtained
by making
use of
equation (50)
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 165
v
=
iv
+
|v(rfr.v)
+
2-(Vx
v) xdr,
v
=
v
+i[V(dr.v)-v ]
+
|(Vxv)xdr;
S
or of the
equation (49)
v
=
v
+
V(dr-v)dr
+(Vx v)xrfr,
v
=
v
+
[V
(dr v)
dr
+
I
(V
x
v)
x d
r]+
^
(V
x
v)
x d r.
The first term v in these
equations expresses
the fact that
the infinitesimal
sphere
is
moving
as a whole with an instan
taneous
velocity equal
to V . This is the translational element
of the motion. The last term
^(Vxv)xdr
=
curl v x d r
shows that the
sphere
is
undergoing
a rotation about an
instantaneous axis in the direction of curl v and with an
angu
lar
velocity equal
in
magnitude
to one half the
magnitude
of
curl v. The middle term
or
v(dr.v)
dr
-
(Vx v)
x dr
expresses
the fact that the
sphere
is
undergoing
a defor
mation known as
homogeneous
strain
by
virtue of which it
becomes
ellipsoidal.
For this term is
equal
to
dx
V^j
+
dy
V#
2
+
dz
if
Vj,
v
2
,
v
s
be
respectively
the
components
of v in the direc
tions
i,
j,
k. It is
fairly
obvious that at
any given point
(#o> 2A
z
o)
^ set of three
mutually perpendicular
axes
i,
j,
k
may
be chosen such that at that
point V^,
V#
2
,
V#
3
are re-
166 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
spectively
parallel
to them. Then the
expression
above
becomes
simply
dx
*i
i+dy
^i
+
dz
s
^.
dx
y
9y
9^
The
point
whose coordinates referred to the center of the
infinitesimal
sphere
are
dx,
dy,
dz
is therefore endowed with this
velocity.
In the time S t it
will have moved to a new
position
The
totality
of the
points upon
the
sphere
goes
over into the
totality
of
points upon
the
ellipsoid
of
which the
equation
is
dx
2
dy
2
dz*
y
The statements made before
(Art. 72) concerning
the three
types
of motion which an infinitesimal
sphere
of fluid
may
possess
have therefore now been demonstrated.
77.]
The
symbolic operator
V
may
be
applied
several times
in succession. This will
correspond
in a
general way
to
forming
derivatives of an order
higher
than the first. The
expressions
found
by
thus
repeating
V will all be
independ
ent of the axes because V itself is. There are six of these
dels of the second order.
Let V
(#, y, z)
be a scalar function of
position
in
space.
The derivative VF is a vector function and hence has a curl
and a
divergence.
Therefore
V-VF,
VxVF
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
167
are the two derivatives of the second order which
may
be
obtained
from V.
V-VF=div VF
(51)
V x VF=curl VF.
(52)
The second
expression
Vx V Vvanishes
identically.
That
is,
the derivative
of any
scalar
function
V
possesses
no curl. This
may
be seen
by expanding
V x VV in terms of
i, j,
k. All
the terms cancel out. Later
(Art.
83)
it will be shown con
versely
that if a vector function
W
possesses
no
curl,
i. e. if
V x W
=
curl
W
=
0,
then W
=
VF,
W
is the derivative of some scalar function F.
The first
expression
V V F when
expanded
in terms of
i, j,
k becomes
Symbolically,
V V
=
^
+
-5
+ -r
y2 O <i/2 O /v 2
The
operator
V V is therefore the well-known
operator
of
Laplace. Laplace
s
Equation
becomes in the notation here
employed
V-VF=0.
(53)
When
applied
to a scalar function F the
operator
V V
yields
a scalar function which
is, moreover,
the
divergence
of the
derivative.
Let T be the
temperature
in a
body.
Let c be the con
ductivity, p
the
density,
and k the
specific
heat. The
flow f is
168
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The rate at which heat is
leaving
a
point per
unit volume
per
unit time is V f. The increment of
temperature
is
rfr=-^-V.f
dt.
p
K
d
-
=
-^.VT.
at
p
K
This is Fourier s
equation
for the rate of
change
of
tempera
ture.
Let V be a vector
function,
and V
v
V
v
V
z
its three com
ponents.
The
operator
V V of
Laplace may
be
applied
to V.
v.vv
=
v-vr
1
i
+
v-vr
2
j
+
v.vr
3
k
(54)
If a vector function V satisfies
Laplace
s
Equation,
each of
its three scalar
components
does. Other dels of the second
order
may
be obtained
by considering
the
divergence
and curl
of V. The
divergence
V V has a derivative
VV-V
=
VdivV.
(55)
The curl V X V has in turn a
divergence
and a
curl,
and V V x
V,
VxVxV.
V
-
V x V
=
div curl V
(56)
and V x V x V
=
curl curl V.
(57)
Of these
expressions
V V x
V vanishes
identically.
That
is,
the
divergence of
the curl
of any
vector is zero. This
may
be
seen
by expanding
V V x V in terms of
i, j,
k. Later
(Art.
83)
it will be shown
conversely
that if the
divergence
of a
vector function W vanishes
identically,
i. e. if
V W
=
div W
=
0,
then W
=
V x V
=
curl
V,
W
is the curl of some vector function V.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
169
If the
expression
V x
(V
x
V)
were
expanded formally
according
to the law of the
triple
vector
product,
Vx(VxV)
=
V-VV-V.VV.
The term
V
V
V
is
meaningless
until
V
be
transposed
to
the
beginning
so that it
operates upon
V.
VxVxV
=
VV.V-V-VV,
(58)
or curl curl V
=
V div V
-
V VV.
(58)
This formula is
very important.
It
expresses
the curl of the
curl of a vector in terms of the derivative of the
divergence
and the
operator
of
Laplace.
Should the vector function V
satisfy Laplace
s
Equation,
V VV
=
and
curl curl V
=
V div V.
Should the
divergence
of V be
zero,
curl curl V
=
V VV.
Should the curl of the curl of V
vanish,
V div V
=
V VV.
To sum
up.
There are six of the dels of the second order.
V-VT,
VxVF,
V-VV,
V V
V,
V V x
V,
V x V x V.
Of
these,
two vanish
identically.
VxVr=0,
V-VxV
=
0.
A third
may
be
expressed
in terms of two others.
VxVxV
=
VV.V-V.VV.
(58)
The
operator
V V is
equivalent
to the
operator
of
Laplace.
170 VECTOR ANALYSIS
*
78.]
The
geometric interpretation
of V Vw is
interesting.
It
depends upon
a
geometric interpretation
of the second
derivative of a scalar function u of the one scalar variable x.
Let u
i
be the value of u at the
point
x
t
. Let it be
required
to find the second derivative of u with
respect
to x at the
point
x . Let x
l
and x
2
be two
points equidistant
from # .
That
is,
let
Xn
*""
XQ XQ
~~~
*/ &t
* a
^^
ni
o
Then
-
^
is the ratio of the difference between the
average
of u at the
points
x
l
and #
2
and the value of u at x to the
square
of the
distance of the
points
x
v
#
3
from x . That
d*u
.
LIM.
is
easily proved by Taylor
s theorem.
Let u be a scalar function of
position
in
space.
Choose
three
mutually orthogonal
lines
i, j,
k
and evaluate the
expressions
Let o?
2
and
a?!
be two
points
on the line i at a distance a from
x
;
#
4
and #
3
,
two
points
on
j
at the same distance a from
s
> #e
and #
6
,
two
points
on k at the same distance a from x .
=
u~
?^_.
LIM
._2 :
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 171
Add:
-LIM
r
~a=OL
As V and V- are
independent
of the
particular
axes
chosen,
this
expression may
be evaluated for a different set of
axes,
then for still a different
one,
etc.
By adding together
all
these results
u
\
+
u
%
+
*
6 n terms
-
a== a
Let n become infinite and at the same time let the different
sets of axes
point
in
every
direction
issuing
from #
. The
fraction
u
\
+
U
2
+
*
^ n terms
6 n
then
approaches
the
average
value of u
upon
the surface of a
sphere
of radius a
surrounding
the
point
x . Denote this
by
u
a
.
= a
V Vu is
equal
to six times the limit
approached by
the ratio
of the excess of u on the surface of a
sphere
above the value
at the center to the
square
of the radius of the
sphere.
The
same
reasoning
holds in case u is a vector
function.
If u be the
temperature
of a
body
V-V
u
(except
for a
constant factor which
depends upon
the material of the
172 VECTOR ANALYSIS
body)
is
equal
to the rate of increase of
temperature (Art.
77).
If VV^is
positive
the
average temperature upon
a
small
sphere
is
greater
than the
temperature
at the center.
The center of the
sphere
is
growing
warmer.
In the case
of a
steady
flow the
temperature
at the center must remain
constant.
Evidently
therefore the condition for a
steady
flow is
V V u
=
0.
That
is,
the
temperature
is a solution of
Laplace
s
Equation.
Maxwell
gave
the name concentration to V Vu whether
u be a scalar or vector function.
Consequently
V Vu
may
be called the
dispersion
of the function u whether it be scalar
or vector. The
dispersion
is
proportional
to the excess of
the
average
value of the function on an infinitesimal surface
above the value at the center. In case u is a vector function
the
average
is a vector
average.
The additions in it are
vector additions.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER III
If a vector r is a function of a scalar t the derivative of
r with
respect
to t is a vector
quantity
whose direction is
that of the
tangent
to the curve described
by
the terminus
of r and whose
magnitude
is
equal
to the rate of advance of
that terminus
along
the curve
per
unit
change
of t. The
derivatives of the
components
of a vector are the
components
of the derivatives.
d
n
r d
n
r,.
d r
.
d* r~
=
i
H j H k ( 2V
dt* dt
n
dt*
J
dt*
A combination of vectors or of vectors and scalars
may
be
differentiated
just
as in
ordinary
scalar
analysis except
that
the differentiations must be
performed
in situ.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
173
(3)
(4)
or d
(a
b)
=
d a b
+
a d
b,
(3)
d(axb)
=
daxb
+
axdb,
(4)
and so forth. The differential of a unit vector is
perpendicu
lar to that vector.
The derivative of a vector r with
respect
to the arc s of
the curve which the terminus of the vector describes is
the unit
tangent
to the curves directed toward that
part
of the
curve
along
which $ is
supposed
to increase.
r."-
<"
The derivative of t with
respect
to the arc * is a vector whose
direction is normal to the curve on the concave side and
whose
magnitude
is
equal
to the curvature of the curve.
The
tortuosity
of a curve in
space
is the derivative of the
unit normal n to the
osculating plane
with
respect
to the
arc s.
^n_^_/rfr
<?
2
r
_1_
\
~
ds~
ds\ds
X
ds*
VCTC/
The
magnitude
of the
tortuosity
is
r=
rdr d*r cZ
3
r"|
L^s
^T
2
rf^J
174 VECTOR ANALYSIS
If r denote the
position
of a
moving particle,
t the
time,
v the
velocity,
A the
acceleration,
*-*---*
The acceleration
may
be broken
up
into two
components
of
which one is
parallel
to the
tangent
and
depends upon
the
rate of
change
of the scalar
velocity
v of the
particle
in its
path,
and of which the other is
perpendicular
to the
tangent
and
depends upon
the
velocity
of the
particle
and the curva
ture of the
path.
A
=
s t
+
2
C.
(19)
Applications
to the
hodograph,
in
particular
motion in a
circle,
parabola,
or under a central acceleration.
Application
to the
proof
of the theorem that the motion of a
rigid body
one
point
of which is fixed is an instantaneous rotation about
an axis
through
the fixed
point.
Integration
with
respect
to a scalar is
merely
the inverse
of differentiation.
Application
to
finding
the
paths
due to
given
accelerations.
The
operator
V
applied
to a scalar function of
position
in
space gives
a vector whose direction is that of most
rapid
increase of that function and whose
magnitude
is
equal
to
the rate of that increase
per
unit
change
of
position
in that
direction
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 175
The
operator
V is invariant of the axes
i,
j,
k. It
may
be
denned
by
the
equation
n,
(24)
or W-dT
=
dV.
(25)
Computation
of the derivative VV
by
two methods
depend
ing upon equations (21)
and
(25)
. Illustration of the oc
currence of V in mathematical
physics.
V
may
be looked
upon
as a fictitious
vector,
a vector
differentiator. It
obeys
the formal laws of vectors
just
in
so far as the scalar differentiators of
51
5
x>
"9
/
d
y,
9
1
3
z
obey
the formal laws of scalar
quantities
A
-
VF
=^
+
^i^
l7
<
28
>
If a be a unit vector a VV is the directional derivative of V
in the direction a.
a.VF
=
(a-V) F=a(VF).
(30)
If
V
is a vector function a VV is the directional
derivative
of that vector function in the direction a.
-
_ ,-J~ +
k.^-,
(32)
3
x
9
y
3
z
VxV=ix|^
+
jx
+
kx
,
(33)
3x
3y
3
z
V.V=
^
J
+
^
+
^
8
,
(32)
3
x
3
y
3
z
176 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Proof that V V is the
divergence
of V and V x
V,
the curl
of V.
V V
=
div
V,
V X V
=
curl V.
V
O
+
t;)
=
V u
+ Vtf,
(35)
V
(u
+
v)
=
V u
+
V
v,
(36)
Vx(u
+
v)=Vxn
+
Vxv,
(37)
V
(u v)
=
v V u
+
u V
v,
(38)
V
(u v)
=
V u v
+
u V
v, (39)
V x
(u
v)
=
V u x v +
u V x
v,
(40)
V(nv)=vVu
+
U Vv +
vx
(
V x
n)
+
n x
(V
x
v), (41)
V
(n
x
v)
=
v
Vxu-u-Vxv, (42)
Vx
(u
x
v)
=v .Vu v V u u Vv
+
uV* v.
(43)
Introduction of the
partial
del,
V
(u v)
u,
in which the dif
ferentiations are
performed upon
the
hypothesis
that u is
constant.
u x
(V
x
v)
=
V
(u v)
u
n Vv.
(46)
If a be a unit vector the directional derivative
a V v
=
V
(a v)
a
+
(V
x
v)
x a.
(47)
The
expansion
of
any
vector function v in the
neighborhood
of a
point
(x# y#
z
)
at which it takes on the value of v is
v
=
v
+
V
(d
r
v)dr
+
(V
x
v)
x
dr,
(49)
or v
=
\
v
+
V
(d
r
.
v)
+
\
(V
x
v)
x d r.
(50)
Application
to
hydrodynamics.
The dels of the second order are six in number.
THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
177
V x VF= curl VF=
0,
(52)
x)
2
F" wv &v
V-VJ^vV^f^+^
+
Vp
(51)
d
x
2
d
y
2
9
z
2
V V is
Laplace
s
operator.
If
VVF=0,
Vsatisfies La
place
s
Equation.
The
operator may
be
applied
to a vector.
VV. V
=
VdivV,
(55)
V V x V
=
div curl V
=
0,
(56)
Vx VxV=curlcurlV
=
VV.V- V. VV.
(58)
The
geometric interpretation
of V
V
as
giving
the
disper
sion of a function.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER III
1. Given a
particle moving
in a
plane
curve. Let the
plane
be the
ij-plane.
Obtain the formulae for the
compo
nents of the
velocity parallel
and
perpendicular
to the radius
vector r. These are
rp
kxr,
where is the
angle
the radius vector r makes with
i,
and k
is the normal to the
plane.
2. Obtain the accelerations of the
particle parallel
and
perpendicular
to the radius vector. These are
Express
these formulae in the usual manner in terms of x
and
y.
12
178 VECTOR ANALYSIS
3. Obtain the accelerations of a
moving particle parallel
and
perpendicular
to the
tangent
to the
path
and reduce the
results to the usual form.
4. If
r,
</>,
be a
system
of
polar
coordinates in
space,
where r is the distance of a
point
from the
origin, </>
the
meridianal
angle,
and 6 the
polar
angle
;
obtain the
expressions
for the
components
of the
velocity
and acceleration
along
the
radius
vector,
a
meridian,
and a
parallel
of latitude. Reduce
these
expressions
to the
ordinary
form in terms of
#,
y,
z.
5. Show
by
the direct method
suggested
in Art. 63 that
the
operator
V is
independent
of the axes.
6.
By
the second method
given
for
computing
V find
the derivative V of a
triple product [a be]
each term of which
is a function of
#,
y,
z in case
a
=
(r r)
r,
b
=
(r a)
e,
c
=
r x
t,
where
d, e,
f are constant
vectors.
7.
Compute
V V Fwhen Fis r
2
, r, -,
or -r
,
r r*
8.
Compute
V V
V,
VV
V,
and V x V x
V
when
V
is
equal
to r and when V is
equal
to
-j>
and show that in these
cases the formula
(58)
holds.
9.
Expand
V x VVand V V x V in terms of
i, j,
k and
show that
they
vanish
(Art. 77).
10. Show
by
expanding
in terms of
i, j,
k
that
Vx VxV=VV. V-V VV.
11. Prove
A.V(7-W)
=
VA.VW+ WA-
VV,
and
(VxV)
x W=Vx
(Vx
CHAPTER IV
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
79.]
Let W
(#, y, z)
be a vector function of
position
in
space.
Let C be
any
curve in
space,
and r the radius vector
drawn from some fixed
origin
to the
points
of the curve.
Divide the curve into infinitesimal elements dr. From the
sum of the scalar
product
of these elements d r and the value
of the function W at some
point
of the element
thus 2 W d r.
The limit of this sum when the elements dr become infinite
in
number,
each
approaching
zero,
is called the line
integral
of
W
along
the curve C and is written
.dr.
and dT
=
i dx
+
j
dy
+
k
dz,
r r
I W dr
=
i
[W+dx -\-W*dy +W%dz\. (1)
t/ (7 t/ C7
The definition of the line
integral
therefore coincides with
the definition
usually given.
It is however
necessary
to
specify
in which direction the radius vector r is
supposed
to
describe the curve
during
the
integration.
For the elements
d r have
opposite signs
when the curve is described in
oppo-
180 VECTOR ANALYSIS
site directions. If one method of
description
be denoted
by
C and the other
by
(7,
/W
d r
=
--
I
W d r.
-G J c
In case the curve C is a closed curve
bounding
a
portion
of
surface the curve will
always
be
regarded
as described in
such a direction that the enclosed area
appears positive
(Art. 25).
If f denote the force which
may
be
supposed
to
vary
from
point
to
point along
the curve
(7,
the work done
by
the force
when its
point
of
application
is moved from the initial
point
r of the curve C to its final
point
r is the line
integral
ff
.
dr= f f dr.
J c J
r
Theorem : The line
integral
of the derivative V F of a
scalar function
V(x,y, z) along any
curve from the
point
r
to the
point
r is
equal
to the difference between the values
of the function F
(#, y, z)
at the
point
r and at the
point
r .
That
is,
Vr.dr
=
F(r)
-
F(r )
=
V(x,y,z)
-
V(xy*d.
o
By
definition d r V F"
=
d V
fdV=
F(r)
-
F(r )
=
Ffey,^)
-
V(xyz.). (2)
Theorem : The line
integral
of the derivative VF" of a
single
valued scalar function of
position
V taken around a
closed curve vanishes.
The fact that the
integral
is taken around a closed curve
is denoted
by writing
a circle at the foot of the
integral sign.
To show
(3)
THE INTEGRAL
CALCULUJS
OF VECTORS 181
The initial
point
r and the final
point
r coincide. Hence
Hence
by (2)
fvF.dr
=
0.
Jo
Theorem :
Conversely
if the line
integral
of W about
every
closed curve
vanishes,
W is the derivative of some scalar
function V
(x, y, z)
of
position
in
space.
Given
J
o
To show W
=
VV.
Let r be
any
fixed
point
in
space
and r a variable
point.
The line
integral
J
di
is
independent
of the
path
of
integration
C. For let
any
two
paths
C and C
f
be drawn between r and r. The curve which
consists of the
path
C from r to r and the
path
C
f
from r
to r is a closed curve. Hence
by hypothesis
/W*cZr+
fw.dr
=
0,
j
/
c
/Wdr
=
/
W*dr.
-c
J
c
Hence / W d r
=
/ W dr.
J
c
J
c
Hence the value of the
integral
is
independent
of the
path
of
integration
and
depends only upon
the final
point
r.
182 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The value of the
integral
is therefore a scalar function of
the
position
of the
point
r whose coordinates are
x,
y,
z.
Let the
integral
be taken between two
points infinitely
near
together.
y,z).
But
by
definition
VV d r
=
d V.
Hence W
The theorem is therefore demonstrated.
80.]
Let f be the force which acts
upon
a unit mass near
the surface of the earth under the influence of
gravity.
Let
a
system
of axes
i, j,
k be chosen so that k is vertical. Then
The work done
by
the force when its
point
of
application
moves from the
position
r to the
position
r is
w
=
I f*dT
=
I
#
k d r
=
I
gdz.
J
r
J
r
J
r
Hence w
=
g
(z
z
)
=
g (z z).
The force f is said to be derivable from a
force-function
V
when there exists a scalar function of
position
V such that
the force is
equal
at each
point
of the derivative VF.
Evidently
if Vis one
force-function,
another
may
be obtained
by adding
to V
any arbitrary
constant. In the above ex
ample
the force-function is
V=w
=
g(z
Q
-z).
Or more
simply
V
=
g
z.
The force is f
=
VF=-0k.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
183
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a force-function
V
(z, y, z)
exist,
is that the work done
by
the force when its
point
of
application
moves around a closed circuit be zero.
The work done
by
the force is
w
=
I f d r.
If this
integral
vanishes when taken around
every
closed
contour
And
conversely
if f
=
VV
the
integral
vanishes. The force-function and the work done
differ
only by
a constant.
V
=
w
+
const
In case there is
friction
no force-function can exist. For the
work done
by
friction when a
particle
is moved around in a
closed circuit is never zero.
The force of attraction exerted
by
a fixed mass M
upon
a unit mass is directed toward the fixed mass and is
propor
tional to the inverse
square
of the distance between the
masses.
M
f
=
-c-r.
r
6
This is the law of universal
gravitation
as stated
by
Newton.
It is
easy
to see that this force is derivable from a force-
function V. Choose the
origin
of coordinates at the center
of the
attracting
mass M. Then the work done is
M
? r d r.
But r d r
=
r d
r,
r
dr r
r
dr
M
1)
=
-c$r
I =-cM
j
---
}
J
r
r
2
I
r r
3
184
VECTOR ANALYSIS
By
a
proper
choice of units the constant c
may
be made
equal
to
unity.
The force-function V
may
therefore be
chosen as
If there had been several
attracting
bodies
the force-function would have been
M<
where r
r
r
2
,
r
8
,
are the distances of the attracted unit
mass from the
attracting
masses M
v M%
y
M
B
The law of the conservation of mechanical
energy requires
that the work done
by
the forces when a
point
is moved
around a closed curve shall be zero. This is on the
assump
tion that none of the mechanical
energy
has been converted
into other forms of
energy during
the motion. The law of
conservation of
energy
therefore
requires
the forces to be
derivable from a force-function.
Conversely
if a force-
function exists the work done
by
the forces when a
point
is
carried around a closed curve is zero and
consequently
there
is no loss of
energy.
A mechanical
system
for which a force-
function exists is called a conservative
system.
From the
example just
cited above it is clear that bodies
moving
under
the law of universal
gravitation
form a conservative
system
at least so
long
as
they
do not collide.
81.]
Let W
(x,
y, z)
be
any
vector function of
position
in
space.
Let S be
any
surface. Divide this surface into in
finitesimal
elements. These elements
may
be
regarded
as
plane
and
may
be
represented by
infinitesimal vectors of
which the direction is at each
point
the direction of the
normal to the surface at that
point
and of which the
magni
tude is
equal
to the
magnitude
of the area of the infinitesimal
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 185
element.
Let this infinitesimal vector which
represents
the
element of surface in
magnitude
and direction be denoted
by
d a. Form the sum
which is the sum of the scalar
products
of the value of W
at each element of surface and the
(vector)
element of
surface. The limit of this sum when the elements of sur
face
approach
zero is called the
surface integral
of W over
the surface
$,
and is written
(4)
The value of the
integral
is scalar. If W and da be ex
pressed
in terms of their three
components parallel
to
i, j,
k
or d a
=
dy
dz i
-f
dz dx
j
+
dx
dy
k,
(5)
The surface
integral
therefore has been defined as is cus
tomary
in
ordinary analysis.
It is however
necessary
to
determine with the
greatest
care which normal to the surface
d a is. That
is,
which side of the surface
(so
to
speak)
the
integral
is taken over. For the normals
upon
the two sides
are the
negatives
of each other. Hence the surface
integrals
taken over the two sides will differ in
sign.
In case the
surface be looked
upon
as
bounding
a
portion
of
space
d a
is
always
considered to be the exterior normal.
If f denote the flux of
any
substance the surface
integral
f.rfa
s
186 VECTOR ANALYSIS
gives
the amount of that substance which is
passing through
the surface
per
unit time. It was seen before
(Art. 71)
that
the rate at which matter was
leaving
a
point per
unit
volume
per
unit time was V f. The total amount of mat
ter which leaves a closed
space
bounded
by
a surface S
per
unit time is the
ordinary triple integral
(6)
Hence the
very important
relation
connecting
a surface in
tegral
of a flux taken over a closed surface and the volume
integral
of the
divergence
of the flux taken over the
space
enclosed
by
the surface
///
CO
Written out in the notation of the
ordinary
calculus this
becomes
I I
\Xdy
dz
+
Ydzdx
+
Zdxdy~\
3Y,
where
X, F,
Z are the three
components
of the flux f. The
theorem is
perhaps
still more familiar when each of the three
components
is treated
separately.
(8)
This is known as Gauss s Theorem. It states that the surface
integral (taken
over a closed
surface)
of the
product
of a
function X and the cosine of the
angle
which
the exterior
normal to that surface makes with the X-axis is
equal
to
the volume
integral
of the
partial
derivative of that function
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 187
with
respect
to x taken
throughout
the volume enclosed
by
that surface.
If the surface S be the surface
bounding
an infinitesimal
sphere
or cube
ff f-da
=
V-f dv
where d v is the volume of that
sphere
or cube. Hence
V.f
=
^
fff-da.
(9)
dv
J J
a
This
equation may
be taken as a
definition
of the
divergence
V f. The
divergence
of a vector function f is
equal
to the
limit
approached by
the surface
integral
of f taken over a sur
face
bounding
an infinitesimal
body
divided
by
that volume
when the volume
approaches
zero as its limit. That is
V.f=
,
A
--
f-da.
(10)
dvQ
dvJJs
From this definition which is
evidently independent
of the
axes all the
properties
of the
divergence may
be deduced. In
order to make use of this definition it is
necessary
to
develop
at least the elements of the
integral
calculus of vectors before
the
differentiating operators
can be treated. This definition
of V f
consequently
is
interesting
more from a theoretical
than from a
practical standpoint.
82.]
Theorem : The surface
integral
of the curl of a vector
function is
equal
to the line
integral
of that vector function
taken around the closed curve
bounding
that surface.
ff
J J
V x W-da= w-dr.
(11)
8
J
O
This is the celebrated theorem of Stokes. On account of its
great importance
in all branches of mathematical
physics
a
number of different
proofs
will be
given.
188 VECTOR ANALYSIS
First Proof : Consider a small
triangle
1 23
upon
the surface
S
(Fig. 32).
Let the value of W at the vertex 1 be W .
Then
by (50), Chap.
III.,
the value at
any neighboring point
is
W
=
~{
W
+
V
(W*
8
r)
+
(V
x
W)
x 8 r
j
,
where the
symbol
8 r has been introduced for the sake of dis
tinguishing
it from d r which is to be used as the element of
integration.
The
integral
of W taken around the
triangle
FIG. 32.
Cw-dr=l
fw
o
-dr
+
g
fv(W-Sr).<Zr
+
5
f
(V
x
W)
x Sr-dr.
/
A
The first term
I fw
o
.dr
=
iw
o
.
Cdr
2
JA JA
vanishes because the
integral
of d r around a closed
figure,
in
this case a small
triangle,
is zero. The second term
g
fv(W-Sr).dr
J
A
vanishes
by
virtue of
(3) page
180. Hence
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
189
Cw*di
=
l
fvxWxSr-dr.
JA
J
A
Interchange
the dot and the cross in this
triple product.
V
xW-Sr x dr.
=|
J
When dr is
equal
to the side 12 of the
triangle,
Sr is also
equal
to this side. Hence the
product
Sr x di
vanishes because 8 r and d r are collinear. In like manner
when dr is the side
31,
8r is the same side
13,
but taken
in the
opposite
direction. Hence the vector
product
vanishes.
When dr is the side
#5,
Sr is a line drawn from the vertex
1 at which W=W to this side S3. Hence the
product
8 r x d r
is twice the area of the
triangle.
This
area, moreover,
is the
positive
area 1 % 3. Hence
|r
x dr
=
where d a denotes the
positive
area of the
triangular
element
of surface. For the infinitesimal
triangle
therefore the
relation
=
V x W
holds.
Let the surface 8 be divided into
elementary triangles.
For convenience let the curve which bounds the surface
be made
up
of the sides of these
triangles.
Perform the
integration
fw-dr
J
A
around each of these
triangles
and add the results
together.
2/
1
a JA
190 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
The second member
]
V x W
d a
3
is the surface
integral
of the curl of W.
2
V x
W-rfa=JJv
x W
In
adding together
the line
integrals
which occur in the first
member it is
necessary
to notice that all the sides of the ele
mentary triangles except
those which lie
along
the
bounding
curve of the surface are traced twice in
opposite
directions.
Hence all the terms in the sum
which arise from those sides of the
triangles lying
within the
surface S cancel
out,
leaving
in the sum
only
the terms
which arise from those sides which make
up
the
bounding
curve of the surface. Hence the sum reduces to the line in
tegral
of W
along
the curve which bounds the surface S.
=
fw
Jo
Hence V x W d a
=
W d r.
=
f
Jo
FIG. 33.
Second Proof : Let C be
any
closed
contour drawn
upon
the surface S
(Fig. 33).
It will be assumed that C
is continuous and does not cut itself.
Let C
r
be another such contour near
to C. Consider the variation S which
takes
place
in the line
integral
of W
in
passing
from the contour C to the
contour C".
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
191
/V.dr
=
f
t/ t/
S
fwdr
= f
But
d(W-
and
Hence
J*W
&dT=
Cw*dST=f
d(W*Sr)
--
CdW *ST.
The
expression
d
(W
8
r)
is
by
its form a
perfect
differential.
The value of the
integral
of that
expression
will therefore be
the difference between the values of W d r at the end and at
the
beginning
of the
path
of
integration.
In this case the
integral
is taken around the closed contour C. Hence
/^
Jc
Hence
and S fw-rfr= fsw.dr- f
9W
J J
But d W
=
-K
d a?
+
-7T
d
y
+
PW 3W 3W
or d W
=
-^
i d! r
+
^ j
d r
+
-^
k d
r,
& x d
y
d z
and
v x &
y
192
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Substituting
these values
dT i.Br-~
-8r i-dr
x ox
+
similar terms in
y
and z.
[
But
by (25) page
111
Hence sfwdr=/
j
i x
^
Srxdr
+
similar terms in
y
and z
|
.
or 8 fW d r
=
fV x W
8 r x d r.
In
Fig.
33 it will be seen that d r is the element of arc
along
the curve C and 8 r is the distance from the curve C to
the curve C
r
. Hence 8 r X d r is
equal
to the area of an ele
mentary parallelogram
included between C and C
f
upon
the
surface S. That is
S
fw-dr= fv x W da.
Let the curve C
starting
at a
point
in
expand
until it
coincides with the contour
bounding
S. The line
integral
will
vary
from the value at the
point
to the value
/
t/O
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 193
taken around the contour which bounds the surface S. This
total variation of the
integral
will be
equal
to the sum of the
variations
8
Or f Wdr= ff Vx W-da.
(11)
83.]
Stokes s theorem that the surface
integral
of the curl
of a vector function is
equal
to the line
integral
of the func
tion taken
along
the closed curve which bounds the surface
has been
proved.
The converse is also true.
If
the
surface
integral of
a vector
function
U is
equal
to the line
integral of
the
function
W taken around the curve
bounding
the
surface
and
if
this relation holds
for
all
surfaces
in
space,
then TT is the curl
of
W. That is
if f fll. da
=
f
Wdr,
thenU=Vx W.
(12)
Form the surface
integral
df the difference between IT and
V x W.
//
(tf~
Vx
W)*da=f
W*dr
-
f
W-dr
=
0,
or f f
(TI-
V x
W)-da
=
0.
Let the surface S over which the
integration
is
performed
be
infinitesimal. The
integral
reduces to
merely
a
single
term
(U_V
x
As this
equation
holds for
any
element of surface d
a,
the
first factor vanishes. Hence
IT- V x W
=
0.
Hence IT
=
V x W.
The converse is therefore demonstrated.
13
194
VECTOR ANALYSIS
A definition of V x W which is
independent
of the axes
i, j,
k
may
be obtained
by applying
Stokes s theorem to an in
finitesimal
plane
area. Consider a
point
P. Pass a
plane
through
Pand draw in
it,
concentric with
P,
a small circle of
area d a.
Vx
W.da=f
W*dT.
(13)
When d a has the same direction as
V
X W the value of the
line
integral
will be a
maximum,
for the cosine of the
angle
between
V
x W and d a will be
equal
to
unity.
For this
value of
da,
=rfa
IM
F/V
f
W-rfrl
(13)
rfa=:0
Lda.dajo
J
Hence the curl V x W of a vector function W has at each
point
of
space
the direction of the normal to that
plane
in
which the line
integral
of W taken about a small circle con
centric with the
point
in
question
is a maximum. The
mag
nitude of the curl at the
point
is
equal
to the
magnitude
of
that line
integral
of maximum value divided
by
the area of
the circle about which it is taken. This definition like the
one
given
in Art. 81 for the
divergence
is
interesting
more
from theoretical than from
practical
considerations.
Stokes s theorem or rather its converse
may
be used to de
duce Maxwell s
equations
of the
electro-magnetic
field in a
simple
manner. Let E be the electric
force,
B the
magnetic
induction,
H the
magnetic
force,
and C the flux of
electricity
per
unit area
per
unit time
(i.
e. the current
density).
It is a fact learned from
experiment
that the total electro
motive force around a closed circuit is
equal
to the
negative
of the rate of
change
of total
magnetic
induction
through
the circuit. The total electromotive force is the line
integral
of the electric force taken around the circuit. That is
Edr.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
195
The total
magnetic
induction
through
the circuit is the sur
face
integral
of the
magnetic
induction B taken over a surface
bounded
by
the circuit.
That is
B d*.
i
Experiment
therefore shows that
or
/E-dr=/l
B d a.
J
o
J J a
Hence
by
the converse of Stokes s theorem
V x E
=
-
B,
curl E
=
-
B.
It is also a fact of
experiment
that the work done in
carry
ing
a unit
positive magnetic pole
around a closed circuit is
equal
to 4?r times the total electric flux
through
the circuit.
The work done in
carrying
a unit
pole
around a circuit is
the line
integral
of H around the circuit. That is
The total flux of
electricity through
the circuit is the
surface
integral
of C taken over a surface bounded
by
the
circuit. That is
///*
Experiment
therefore teaches that
=
47r Cf
J J s
196
VECTOR ANALYSIS
By
the converse of Stokes s theorem
V x H
=
4 TT C.
With a
proper interpretation
of the current
C,
as the dis
placement
current in addition to the conduction
current,
an
interpretation depending upon
one of Maxwell s
primary
hypotheses,
this relation and the
preceding
one are the funda
mental
equations
of Maxwell s
theory,
in the form used
by
Heaviside and Hertz.
The theorems of Stokes and Gauss
may
be used to demon
strate the identities.
V V x W
=
0,
div curl W
=
0.
Vx
VF=0,
curl VF=0.
According
to Gauss s theorem
VX Wdv=
According
to Stokes s theorem
f fvxW-da
=
CW dr.
Hence fffv-VxWdtf= Cw*dr.
Apply
this to an infinitesimal
sphere.
The surface
bounding
the
sphere
is closed. Hence its
bounding
curve reduces to a
point
;
and the
integral
around
it,
to zero.
V-VxWdv
=
fw-dr
=
0,
J
o
V V x W
=
0.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 197
Again
according
to Stokes s theorem
ffvxvr.<2a
=
fvr-dr.
Apply
this to
any
infinitesimal
portion
of surface. The curve
bounding
this surface is closed. Hence the line
integral
of
the derivative VF"vanishes.
V x
As this
equation
holds for
any
d
a,
it follows that
Vx VF=0.
In a similar manner the converse theorems
may
be
demonstrated. If the
divergence
V TT of a vector function
TJ is
everywhere
zero,
then TT is the curl of some vector
function
W.
TJ
=
V x W*
If the curl Vx II of a vector function TT is
everywhere
zero,
then U is the derivative of some scalar function
F",
84.] By making
use of the three fundamental relations
between the
line, surface,
and volume
integrals,
and the
dels
/
viz.
:
,
(2)
JYv
x W-rfa= f
W.rfr,
(11)
(7)
it is
possible
to obtain a
large
number of formulae for the
transformation of
integrals.
These formulae
correspond
to
198 VECTOR ANALYSIS
those connected with
u
integration by parts
"
in
ordinary
calculus.
They
are obtained
by integrating
both sides of the
formulae,
page
161,
for
differentiating.
First V
(u v)
=
u V v
+
v V u.
C C C
Jc
~Jc
V (
T
J G
V
Hence I % V v di
=
[uv]
\ vV u* dx.
(14)
r
The
expression [u v]
represents
the difference between the value of
(u
v)
at
r,
the
end of the
path,
and the value at r
,
the
beginning
of the
path.
If the
path
be closed
f^Vvdr
=
-
C V u*dr.
(14)
Jo Jo
Second V x
(u v)
=
u V x v
+
V u x v.
f* f* f* (* (* f*
I I V
x
(
wv
)*^
a=
/
/
^Vxvrfa+/ I Vwxv-da.
J J S J J S J J 8
Hence
f* f* f* f* f*
I I
V^xvda=l
uv dr I I
wVxvda,
(15)
J J a Jo J J a
&Vxvda= / uv dr I I
V?txvrfa,
(15)
Jo J J a
Third
Vx
(wV
/
y)^^VxV^
+ V^xV
2;
But V x V
v
=
Hence
V
x
(u
V
v)
=
V
u x V
v,
or
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
199
f* f* f* f*
J J S
J J 8
Hence
f* f*
f*
,-y
, P
^-J
7
S-4
/>V
IIVO AVt/ It I 1
\ /
J J s
Jo Jo
Fourth V
(u
v)
=
u
V v
+
V w v.
///
r r r C C C *
JJJV.(T)^=JJJVT^
+
JJJ
V-vd
Hence
^ v a
or
C C C
^7uv
dv=
I I
Mvda
rrr^V V^i;,
(17)
;
Fifth
v(V^xv)
=
VXV^*v
v^-VXv.
V
(V
M x
v)
=
V
^
V
x
v,
Hence
rfv^xvrfa
=
fffv^vxvdi;.
(18)
In all these formulae which contain a
triple integral
the
surface $ is the closed surface
bounding
the
body throughout
which the
integration
is
performed.
Examples
of
integration by parts
like those above can be
multiplied
almost without limit.
Only
one more will be
given
here. It is known as Greens Theorem and is
perhaps
the most
important
of all. If u and v are
any
two scalar
functions of
position,
200
VECTOR ANALYSIS
V
(^
V
fl)
=
V^
V
tf
+
24
V
V^
V
O
V
u)
=
V
u
V
v
+
v
V V u>
J J J
^
u
^
vclv==
J J J
V-
(uvv)dv
C f
Cu^
Hence
/ /
/V^-Vtfdfl=/
/^VvcU
/
r/^V-Vvdi?,
=
/ /
^
V
^ d a f
j
I
v^*V udv.
(19)
By subtracting
these
equalities
the formula
(20)
/ / /
(^
V V
^ v
V
V
w
)
^ ^
=
/
/
(^
V
t> v
V
^)
^ a.
is
obtained.
By expanding
the
expression
in terms of
i, j,
k
the
ordinary
form of Green s theorem
may
be obtained. A
further
generalization
due to Thomson
(Lord Kelvin)
is the
following
:
/ / lw^/u*Vvdv=l
I
uwVv*d&
I I I u\
=
/ I
vwVU"d*
I I I
v\?
[w^ u^
dv,
(21)
where w is a third scalar function of
position.
The element of volume dv has
nothing
to do with the scalar
function v in these
equations
or in those that
go
before. The
use of v in these two different senses can
hardly give
rise to
any misunderstanding.
*
85.]
In the
preceding
articles the scalar and vector func
tions which have been
subject
to treatment have been
sup-
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
201
posed
to be
continuous,
single-valued, possessing
derivatives
of the first two orders at
every point
of
space
under consider
ation. When the functions are discontinuous or
multiple-
valued,
or fail to
possess
derivatives of the first two orders
in certain
regions
of
space,
some caution must be exercised in
applying
the results obtained.
Suppose
for instance
VF-
The line
integral
y
dx
Introducing polar
coordinates
x
=
r cos
6,
y
=
r sin
0,
7 V d r
=
I d 0.
Form the line
integral
from the
point (
+
1,0)
to the
point
(1, 0) along
two different
paths.
Let one
path
be a semi
circle
lying
above the JT-axis
;
and the
other,
a semicircle
lying
below that axis. The value of the
integral along
the
first
path
is
/-*
along
the second
path,
I d 6 TT.
From this it
appears
that the
integral
does not
depend merely
upon
the limits of
integration,
but
upon
the
path
chosen,
202
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
the value
along
one
path being
the
negative
of the value
along
the
other.
The
integral
around the circle which is a
closed
curve
does
not
vanish,
but is
equal
to 2 TT.
It
might
seem
therefore
the results of Art. 79 were false
and that
consequently
the entire bottom of the work which
follows
fell out.
This
however
is not so. The
difficulty
is
that the function
1 V
F=tan
^-
x
is not
single-valued.
At the
point
(1,1),
for
instance,
the
function V takes on not
only
the value
-i
TT
F= tan
l =
-r>
4
but a whole series of values
7T
-+&7T,
where k is
any positive
or
negative integer.
Furthermore at
the
origin,
which was included between the two semicircular
paths
of
integration,
the function V becomes
wholly
inde
terminate and fails to
possess
a derivative. It will be seen
therefore that the
origin
is a
peculiar
or
singular point
of the
function V. If the two
paths
of
integration
from
(+
1,
0)
to
(1,0)
had not included the
origin
the values of the
integral
would not have differed. In other words the value of the
integral
around a closed curve which does not include the
origin
vanishes as it should.
Inasmuch as the
origin appears
to be the
point
which
vitiates the results
obtained,
let it be considered as marked
by
an
impassable
barrier.
Any
closed curve which does
not contain the
origin may
be shrunk
up
or
expanded
at will
;
but a closed curve which surrounds the
origin
cannot be
so
distorted
as no
longer
to enclose that
point
without break
ing
its
continuity.
The curve C not
surrounding
the
origin
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
203
may
shrink
up
to
nothing
without a break in its
continuity
;
but C can
only
shrink down and fit closer and closer about
the
origin.
It cannot be shrunk down to
nothing.
It must
always
remain
encircling
the
origin.
The curve C is said to
be reducible
; (7,
irreducible. In case of the function
F, then,
it is true that the
integral
taken around
any
reducible circuit
C
vanishes;
but the
integral
around
any
irreducible circuit C
does not vanish.
Suppose
next that V is
any
function whatsoever. Let all
the
points
at which V fails to be continuous or to have con
tinuous first
partial
derivatives be marked as
impassable
barriers. Then
any
circuit which contains within it no
such
point may
be shrunk
up
to
nothing
and is said to be
reducible;
but a circuit which contains one or more such
points
cannot be so shrunk
up
without
breaking
its
continuity
and it is said to be irreducible. The theorem
may
then be
stated: The line
integral of
the derivative VF"
of anyfunction
V vanishes around
any
reducible circuit C. It
may
or
may
not
vanish around an irreducible circuit In case one irreducible
circuit C
may
be distorted so as to coincide with another
irreducible circuit C without
passing through any
of the
singular points
of V and without
breaking
its
continuity,
the two circuits are said to be reconcilable and the values of
the line
integral
of V F about them are the same.
A
region
such that
any
closed curve C within it
may
be
shrunk
up
to
nothing
without
passing through any singular
point
of V and without
breaking
its
continuity,
that
is,
a
region every
closed curve in which is
reducible*,
is said to be
acyclic.
All other
regions
are
cyclic.
By
means of a
simple
device
any cyclic region may
be ren
dered
acyclic.
Consider,
for
instance,
the
region (Fig. 34)
en
closed between the surface of a
cylinder
and the surface of a
cube which contains the
cylinder
and whose bases coincide
with those of the
cylinder.
Such a
region
is realized in a room
204 VECTOR ANALYSIS
in which a column reaches from the floor to the
ceiling.
It
is evident that this
region
is
cyclic.
A circuit which
passes
around the column is irreducible. It cannot be
contracted to
nothing
without
breaking
its
continuity.
If
~^x /
now a
diaphragm
be inserted
reaching
from
the surface of the
cylinder
or column to the
surface of the cube the
region
thus formed
bounded
by
the surface of the
cylinder,
the
surface of the
cube,
and the two sides
of
the
diaphragm
is
acyclic. Owing
to the inser
tion of the
diaphragm
it is no
longer possible
to draw a circuit which shall
pass completely
around the
cyl
inder the
diaphragm prevents
it. Hence
every
closed cir
cuit which
may
be drawn in the
region
is reducible and the
region
is
acyclic.
In like manner
any region may
be rendered
acyclic by
inserting
a sufficient number of
diaphragms.
The
bounding
surfaces of the new
region
consist of the
bounding
surfaces of
the
given cyclic region
and the two faces of each
diaphragm.
In
acyclic regions
or
regions
rendered
acyclic by
the fore
going
device all the results contained in Arts. 79 et
seq.
hold true. For
cyclic regions they may
or
may
not hold
true. To enter further into these
questions
at this
point
is
unnecessary.
Indeed,
even as much discussion as has been
given
them
already may
be
superfluous.
For
they
are
ques
tions which do not concern vector methods
any
more than the
corresponding
Cartesian ones.
They belong properly
to the
subject
of
integration
itself,
rather than to the
particular
notation which
may
be
employed
in connection with it and
which is the
primary object
of
exposition
here. In this
respect
these
questions
are similar to
questions
of
rigor.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 205
The
Integrating Operators.
The Potential
86.]
Hitherto there have been considered
line,
surface,
and volume
integrals
of functions both scalar and vector.
There
exist, however,
certain
special
volume
integrals
which,
owing
to their intimate connection with the
differentiating
operators
V, V, Vx,
and
owing
to their
especially frequent
occurrence and
great importance
in
physics,
merit
especial
consideration.
Suppose
that
^0** Vv *a)
is a scalar function of the
position
in
space
of the
point
For the sake of definiteness V
may
be
regarded
as the
density
of matter at the
point (#2
,
yv
2
2 ).
In a
homogeneous
body
V is constant. In those
portions
of
space
in
which no
matter exists V is
identically
zero. In
non-homogeneous
dis
tributions of matter V varies from
point
to
point;
but at
each
point
it has a definite value.
The vector
r
2
=
z
2
i
+
y2 j
+
*
2
k,
drawn from
any
assumed
origin, may
be used to
designate
the
point (#2
,
y
2
,
z
2 ).
Let
On yi. *i)
be
any
other fixed
point
of
space, represented by
the vector
drawn from the same
origin.
Then
r
2
-
r
x
=
O2
-
!>!
+
(y
2
-
yi) j
+
(z2
-
*j)
k
is the vector drawn from the
point
(x
v yv Zj)
to the
point
(#2> IJy
2
2)-
AS ^s vec^or occurs a
large
number of times
in the sections
immediately following,
it will be denoted
by
r
i2
=
r
2
~~
r
i-
206
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The
length
of r
12
is then r
12
and will be assumed to be
positive.
-i2
=
V
r
12
r
12
=
V
(*2
-
x^
+
(y2
-
^)
2
+
2
-
^)
2
.
Consider the
triple integral
The
integration
is
performed
with
respect
to the variables
^2> ^2>
^
2
that
is,
with
respect
to the
body
of which V
represents
the
density (Fig.
35).
During
the
integration
the
point (x v
yv z^
re
mains fixed. The
integral
/ has a definite
value at each definite
point (x
v
yv zj.
It is a function of that
point.
The in-
FIG. 3o.
.
terpretation
of this
integral
/ is
easy,
if
the function V be
regarded
as the
density
of matter in
space.
The element of mass dm at
(# 2
,
y2
,
z
2)
is
dm V
(#2
,
y2
,
2!
2) dx^ dyz dz%
=
Vdv.
The
integral
/ is therefore the sum of the elements of mass
in a
body,
each divided
by
its distance from a fixed
point
r
J
dm
This is what is termed the
potential
at the
point (x
v
yv
due to the
body
whose
density
is
The limits of
integration
in the
integral
/
may
be looked at
in either of two
ways.
In the first
place they may
be
regarded
as coincident with the limits of the
body
of which
V is the
density.
This indeed
might
seem the most natural
set of limits. On the other hand the
integral
/
may
be
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
207
regarded
as taken over all
space.
The value of the
integral
is the same in both cases. For when the limits are infinite
the function V vanishes
identically
at
every point (#2
,
y2
,
2
2)
situated outside of the
body
and hence does not
augment
the value of the
integral
at all. It is found most convenient
to consider the limits as infinite and the
integral
as extended
over all
space.
This saves the trouble of
writing
in
special
limits for each
particular
case. The function Vot itself then
practically
determines the limits
owing
to its
vanishing
iden
tically
at all
points unoccupied by
matter.
87.]
The
operation
of
finding
the
potential
is of such
frequent
occurrence that a
special symbol,
Pot,
is used for it.
Pot
r=fff
V
^
y"
*
2>
rf*
2 dy^
dz
y (22)
The
symbol
is read "the
potential
of V." The
potential,
Pot
V,
is a function not of the variables #.
2
,
yv
z
2
with
regard
to which the
integration
is
performed
but of the
point
(x
v y^ Zj)
which is fixed
during
the
integration.
These
variables enter in the
expression
for r
12
. The function V
and Pot V therefore have different sets of variables.
It
may
be
necessary
to note that
although
Vhas hitherto
been
regarded
as the
density
of matter in
space,
such an
interpretation
for V is
entirely
too restricted for convenience.
Whenever it becomes
necessary
to form the
integral
i
" <
22
>
of
any
scalar function
V,
no matter what V
represents,
that
integral
is called the
potential
of V. The reason for
calling
such an
integral
the
potential
even in cases in which it has
np
connection with
physical potential
is that it is formed
according
to the same formal law as the true
potential
and
208 VECTOR ANALYSIS
by
virtue of that formation has certain
simple
rules of
opera
tion which other
types
of
integrals
do not
possess.
Pursuant to this idea the
potential
of a vector function
W
O2
,
y2
,
z
2)
may
be written down.
Pot W
=
W
(
*
2 y*
*
2)
dx, rfy.
rf,
r (23)
In this case the
integral
is the sum of vector
quantities
and is
consequently
itself a vector. Thus the
potential
of a
vector function W is a vector
function,
just
as the
potential
of a scalar function Vwas seen to be a scalar function of
posi
tion in
space.
If
W be resolved into its three
components
W
O2
,
2/2
,
z
2)
=
i X
O2
,
yv
z
2)
+
j
T
<>2
,
yv
z
2)
+
kZ
<>2
,
yv
z
2)
Pot W
= i
Pot X
+
j
Pot
Y+
k Pot Z.
(24)
The
potential
of a vector function W is
equal
to the vector
sum of the
potentials
of its three
components
X, Y,
Z.
The
potential
of a scalar function V exists at a
point
(xv yv
z
p)
when and
only
when the
integral
taken over all
space converges
to a definite value.
If,
for
instance,
V were
everywhere
constant in
space
the in
tegral
would become
greater
and
greater
without limit as
the limits of
integration
were extended farther and farther
out into
space. Evidently
therefore if
Jhe potential
is to exist
F must
approach
zero as its limit as the
point (#2
,
y
v
3
2)
recedes
indefinitely.
A few
important
sufficient conditions
for the
convergence
of the
potential may
be obtained
by
transforming
to
polar
coordinates. Let
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 209
x
=
r sin 6 cos
fa
yr
sin 6 sin
fa
z
=
r cos
0,
dv
=
r
2
sm0 dr dO
d<f>.
Let the
point (x
v yv ^)
which is fixed for the
integration
be chosen at the
origin.
Then
r
i2
=
r
and the
integral
becomes
or
simply
PotF= CCCVrsmff dr d0
dfa
If
the
function
V decrease so
rapidly
that the
product
Vr*
remains
finite
as r increases
indefinitely,
then the
integral
con
verges
as
far
as the distant
regions of
space
are concerned.
For let
r =
00
dr
d0d<f>
r =
00
dr d0
d<f>
=
QO
Hence the
triple integral
taken over all
space
outside of a
sphere
of radius R
(where
R is
supposed
to be a
large quan
tity)
is less than %TT* K
jR,
and
consequently converges
as far
as
regions
distant from the
origin
are concerned.
14
210
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If
the
function
V remain
finite
or
if
it become
infinite
so
weakly
that the
product
Vr
remains
finite
when r
approaches
zero,
then the
integral converges
as
far
as
regions
near to the
origin
are concerned. For let
Vr<K
f CCrrsmddr d0
d<f>
<
C C fadr d0
d<f>.
r =
C C C dO
d<t>
=
Hence the
triple integral
taken over all
space
inside a
sphere
of radius R
(where
R is now
supposed
to be a small
quantity)
is less than 2 Tr
2
KR and
consequently converges
as far as
regions
near to the
origin
which is the
point (xv yv Zj)
are
concerned.
If
at
any point (x
2
,
y2
,
z
2)
not coincident with the
origin,
i. e. the
point (x x
,
yv
z
x),
the
function
V becomes
infinite
so
weakly
that the
product of
the value
0/V
at a
point
near to
(
X
2> J2>
Z
2) ty
the
square of
the distance
of
that
point from
(x2
,
y2
,
z
2)
remains
finite
as that distance
approaches
zero,
then
the
integral converges
as
far
as
regions
near to the
point (x2
,
y2
,
z
2)
are concerned. The
proof
of this statement is like those
given
before. These three conditions for the
convergence
of the
integral
Pot Vare sufficient.
They
are
by
no means neces
sary.
The
integral may converge
when
they
do not hold.
It is however
indispensable
to know whether or not an
integral
under discussion
converges.
Unless the tests
given
above
show the
convergence,
more
stringent
ones must be resorted
to.
Such, however,
will not be discussed here.
They belong
to the
theory
of
integration
in
general
rather than to the
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
211
theory
of the
integrating operator
Pot. The discussion of
the
convergence
of the
potential
of a vector function W re
duces at once to that of its three
components
which are scalar
functions and
may
be treated as above.
88.]
The
potential
is a function of the variables x
v yv
z
l
which are constant with
respect
to the
integration.
Let the
value of the
potential
at the
point
(x
v yv z^
be denoted
by
The first
partial
derivative of the
potential
with
respect
to x
l
is therefore
LIM
^[
The value of this limit
may
be determined
by
a
simple
device
(Fig. 36).
Consider
the
potential
at the
point
due to a certain
body
T. This
is the same as the
potential
at
the
point
FlG- 36-
due to the same
body
T
displaced
in the
negative
direction
by
the amount A x
r
For in
finding
the
potential
at a
point
P
due to a
body
T the absolute
positions
in
space
of the
body
T and the
point
P are immaterial. It is
only
their
positions
relative to each other which determines the value of the
poten
tial. If both
body
and
point
be translated
by
the same
amount in the same direction the value of the
potential
is un
changed.
But now if T be
displaced
in the
negative
direction
by
the amount
A#,
the value of Fat each
point
of
space
is
changed
from
v
C*2> y* **)
to v
0*2
where A#
2
=
A x
r
212 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence
[Pot
V(x
vyvz^+ AX,, yt, *,
=
[Pot F<>2
+
A a;
2,y2
,
Hence
LlM
j
[
Pot
HX. +
A
..,,,
.
t
-
[Pot
A
#!
= /
It will be found convenient to introduce the limits of
integration.
Let the
portion
of
space originally
filled
by
the
body
T be denoted
by
M
;
and let the
portion
filled
by
the
body
after its translation in the
negative
direction
through
the distance A x
l
be denoted
by
M . The
regions
Mand M
1
overlap.
Let the
region
common to both be M
;
and let the
remainder of Mbe
m;
the remainder of M
1
,
m
1
. Then
Pot V
(a,
+
A *
yr
*
2) f
^
d
rrr
J J J m
^
Pot
/// "\F (W (II * *\ /*/*/* 1^ fV tl 9 ^
I I I
r I O/ft t/n
^O/, ill *V*
/
O1 V91
"
<) J 1
=
/
/ /
I
*
y
rft>,+
/ / /
^_Mrf
r2
.
J J J
M
^j2
J J Jm
T
YL
Hence
(25)
becomes,
when A
^j
is
replaced *by
its
equal
Aic
2
,
t As all the
following potentials
are for the
point
ar
lf yi, i
the bracket and
indices have been
dropped.
THE INTEGRAL
CALCULUS OF
VECTORS 213
+
Or,
my(*
C
f
r
J J
J
A
2
,
"
A a;
2
==0
LIM
^,
r
12
v yy
g
2
=
rrr
jJJ j
LIM
(
r
12
^
9 X
when A
^! approaches
zero as its limit the
regions
mand m
;
,
which are at no
point
thicker than A
#,
approach
zero
;
M
and Jf both
approach
-Jf as a limit.
t
There are cases in which this reversal of the order in which the two limits
are taken
gives
incorrect results. This is a
question
of double limits and leads to
the mazes of modern mathematical
rigor.
J
If the derivative of Fis to exist at the surface
bounding
T the values of the
function V must diminish
continuously
to zero
upon
the surface. If
Fchanged
suddenly
from a finite value within the surface to a zero value outside the de
rivative
QVlS^i
would not exist and the
triple integral
would be
meaningless.
For the same reason V is
supposed
to be finite and continuous at
every point
within the
region
T.
214 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Then if it be assumed that the
region
Tis finite
and that V
vanishes
upon
the surface
bounding
T
T/nvr rrr V(Y <>/ z \
i
<t\ jvi I
I
.
I
V \
^o* fo ^9y 7 /\
A^ojjj
OT
riaAa;2
Ji
=
Consequently
the
expression
for the derivative of the
poten
tial reduces to
merely
3 Pot F r r r i 3 F
3
F
=
1/1
dv*
=
Pot
d x
l
J J J M
r
12
3#
2 3^2
^%^
partial
derivative
of
the
potential of
a scalar
function
V
is
equal
to the
potential of
the
partial
derivative
of
V.
The derivative V
of
the
potential ofVis equal
to the
potential
of
the derivative V V.
VPotF=PotVF
(27)
This statement follows
immediately
from the former. As
the V
upon
the left-hand side
applies
to the set of vari
ables x
v y^ Zj,
it
may
be written V
r
In like manner the
V
upon
the
right-hand
side
may
be written V
2
to call atten
tion to the fact that it
applies
to the variables #
2
,
y2
,
z
2
of F.
Then V
a
Pot F= Pot V
2
F
(27)
To demonstrate this
identity
V
may
be
expanded
in terms of
.3
PotF
.3
PotF . 3 PotF
I
i
I lr
*
^
J
* T-
*
^
SV
+jPot
-l-
3
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS
OF VECTORS
215
As
i,
j,
k are constant vectors
they may
be
placed
under
the
sign
of
integration
and the terms
may
be collected.
Then
by
means of
(26)
The curl V X and
divergence
V
of
the
potential of
a vector
function
W
are
equal respectively
to the
potential of
the curl and
divergence
of
that
function.
V, x Pot W
=
Pot V
2
x
W,
(28)
or
curl Pot W
=
Pot curl W
and
Vj
Pot W
=
Pot V
2
W,
or
div Pot W
=
Pot div W.
These relations
may
be
proved
in a manner
analogous
to the
above. It is even
possible
to
go
further and form the dels
of
higher
order
v
v Pot r= Pot v
VF; (30)
Uf>iac<3*
V- V Pot W
=
Pot V V
W, (31)
V V Pot W
=
Pot VV
W, (32)
V x V x Pot W=
Pot V x V x W.
(33)
The dels
upon
the left
might
have a
subscript
1 attached to
show that the differentiations are
performed
with
respect
to
the variables x
v yv
z
v
and for a similar reason the dels
upon
the
right might
have been written with a
subscript
2. The
results of this article
may
be summed
up
as follows:
Theorem: The
differentiating operator
V and the
integrating
operator
Pot are commutative.
*89.]
In the
foregoing
work it has been assumed that the
region
T was finite and that the function Fwas
everywhere
finite and continuous inside of the
region
T and moreover
decreased so as to
approach
zero
continuously
at the surface
bounding
that
region.
These restrictions are inconvenient
216
VECTOR ANALYSIS
and
may
be removed
by making
use of a surface
integral.
The derivative of the
potential
was obtained
(page 213)
in
essentially
the form
otr_
r r r I SV
x
l
J J J
,f
r
12
2x
2
-LJ-LJjl J. *
\^o i
*V
2 ^2
**
2^ 7
a V
2
12
LIM 1
rrr
T
r
(g a>
yff
g
a)
fgr
r
i2
Let d a be a directed element of the surface $
bounding
the
region
J!f. The element of volume dv
z
in the
region
m
r
is
therefore
equal
to
dt?
2
=A#
2
i da.
Hence
-
I I I ,^2^-^2^2112)
L
f f f
2
J J Jm-
=
T
f
V
J J
r
!2
The element of volume d v
2
^n *^e re
gi
n m ^s
equal
to
di,
2
=
-Aa;
2
i.da.
Hence
*
/Tf
J\X^J
J Jm
>
Consequently
i-da.
(34)
^ r
!2
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 217
The volume
integral
is taken
throughout
the
region
Mwith
the
understanding
that the value of the derivative of V at
the surface S shall be
equal
to the limit of the value of that
derivative when the surface is
approached
from the interior
of M. This convention avoids the
difficulty
that arises in
connection with the existence of the derivative at the surface
S where V becomes discontinuous. The surface
integral
is
taken over the surface S which bounds the
region.
Suppose
that the
region
Mbecomes infinite.
By
virtue of
the conditions
imposed upon
V to insure the
convergence
of
the
potential
Vr*
<
K.
Let the
bounding
surface S be a
sphere
of radius
,
a
quan
tity
which is
large.
i d a
<
R
2
d 6
d<f>.
<//*-.
s
The surface
integral
becomes smaller and smaller and
ap
proaches
zero as its limit when the
region
Mbecomes infinite.
Moreover the volume
integral
JLJT^
remains finite as Mbecomes infinite.
Consequently provided
V is such a
function that Pot Vexists as far as the infinite
regions
of
space
are
concerned,
then the
equation
=
holds as far as those
regions
of
space
are concerned.
Suppose
that Vceases to be continuous or becomes infinite
at a
single point (x^ y
v z^)
within the
region
T. Surround
218 VECTOR ANALYSIS
this
point
with a small
sphere
of radius R. Let S denote the
surface of this
sphere
and M all the
region
T not included
within the
sphere.
Then
r r r
i 9V r r v
=JJj^^
dv
*
+
JJ*-^
1
By
the conditions
imposed upon
V
Vr<K
V
.
//>" <//.*
d6 d^
Consequently
when the
sphere
of radius R becomes smaller
and smaller the surface
integral may
or
may
not become zero.
Moreover the volume
integral
1 3V
.
may
or
may
not
approach
a limit when E becomes smaller
and smaller. Hence the
equation
SPotF SV
has not
always
a definite
meaning
at a
point
of the
region
T at which V becomes infinite in such a manner that the
product
Vr remains finite.
If, however,
V remains finite at the
point
in
question
so
that the
product
Vr
approaches
zero,
the constant K is zero
and the surface
integral
becomes smaller and smaller as R
approaches
zero. Moreover the volume
integral
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
219
approaches
a definite limit as R becomes infinitesimal. Con
sequently
the
equation
5 Pot V
_ p
dV
7\
A Ob
holds in the
neighborhood
of all isolated
pointe
at which V
remains finite even
though
it be discontinuous.
Suppose
that V becomes infinite at some
single point
(iC2
,
y2
,
2
2)
not coincident with
(x^ yv z^). According
to the
conditions laid
upon
V
VI*
< K,
where I is the distance of the
point (z2
,
y2
,
z
2
)
from a
point
near to it. Then the surface
integral
V
.
r
!2
need not become zero and
consequently
the
equation
5PotF SV
=
Pot
TT
need not hold for
any point (a?r yv z^)
of the
region.
But
if V becomes infinite at #
2
,
y2
,
z
2
in such a manner that
VI
<K,
then the surface
integral
will
approach
zero as its limit and
the
equation
will hold.
Finally suppose
the function V remains finite
upon
the
surface S
bounding
the
region
jT,
but does not vanish there.
In this case there exists a surface of discontinuities of V.
Within this surface V is finite
; without,
it is zero. The
surface
integral
F.
220 VECTOR ANALYSTS
does not vanish in
general.
Hence the
equation
SPotF 9V
=
---
=
Pot
-^r
dX
1 v%i
cannot hold.
Similar
reasoning may
be
applied
to each of the three
partial
derivatives with
respect
to x
v yv
z
r By combining
the results it is seen that in
general
Vj
PotF= Pot V
2
F+
f f
Z
da.
(35)
Let Fbe
any
function in
space,
and let it be
granted
that
Pot F exists. Surround each
point
of
space
at which V
ceases to be finite
by
a small
sphere.
Let the surface of the
sphere
be denoted
by
S. Draw in
space
all those surfaces
which are surfaces of
discontinuity
of V. Let these sur
faces also be denoted
by
S. Then the formula
(35)
holds
where the surface
integral
is taken over all the surfaces
which have been
designated by
S. If the
integral
taken
over all these surfaces vanishes when the radii of the
spheres
above mentioned become
infinitesimal,
then
^ (27)
This
formula
V
1
PotF=PotV
2
F.
will
surely
hold at a
point (xx
,
yv Zj) if
V remains
always
finite
or becomes
infinite
at a
point (x2
,
y2
,
z
2 )
so that the
product
V1 remains
finite,
and
if
V
possesses
no
surfaces of
discontinuity,
and
iffurthermore
the
product
Vr
3
remains
finite
as r becomes
infinite.
1
In other cases
special
tests must be
applied
to ascertain whether the formula
(27)
can be used
or the more
complicated
one
(35)
must be resorted to.
1
For extensions and modifications of this
theorem,
see exercises.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
221
The relation
(27)
is so
simple
and so amenable to trans
formation that V will in
general
be assumed to be such a
function that
(27)
holds. In cases in which V
possesses
a
surface S of
discontinuity
it is
frequently
found convenient
to consider V as
replaced by
another function V which has
in
general
the same values as Fbut which instead of
possess
ing
a
discontinuity
at S
merely changes very rapidly
from
one value to another as the
point (#2
,
y2
,
2
2) passes
from one
side of S to the other. Such a device renders the
potential
of V
simpler
to treat
analytically
and
probably
conforms to
actual
physical
states more
closely
than the more exact
conception
of a surface of
discontinuity.
This device
prac
tically
amounts to
including
the surface
integral
in the
symbol
Pot VF:
In fact from the
standpoint
of
pure
mathematics it is
better to state that where there exist surfaces at which the
function V becomes
discontinuous,
the full value of Pot V V
should
always
be understood as
including
the surface
integral
//.
in addition to the volume
integral
>VF
SSSr-
U *J *J 10
2
12
In like manner Pot V
W,
Pot V X
W,
New V W and other
similar
expressions
to be met in the future must be
regarded
as
consisting
not
only
of a volume
integral
but of a surface
integral
in
addition,
whenever the vector function W
possesses
a surface of discontinuities.
It is
precisely
this convention in the
interpretation
of
formulae which
permits
such
simple
formulae as
(27)
to hold
in
general,
and which
gives
to the treatment of the
integrat
ing operators
an
elegance
of treatment otherwise unobtainable.
222 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The
irregularities
which
may
arise are thrown into the inter
pretation,
not into the
analytic appearance
of the
formulse.
This is the essence of Professor Gibbs s method of
treatment.
90.]
The first
partial
derivatives of the
potential
may
also
be obtained
by differentiating
under the
sign
of
integration.
1
Q2
>
3/21*2)
_
, , ,
CCC
=
JjJ
*>-
^ rrr
(*,-*!> r^y,,*,)
i
"^^^
V[(*a
-*
1 )H(y2
^1)
2
+(v-^)T
8
(
3
7)
In like manner for a vector function W
S Pot W /* /* /* *, ~ .. ~ ~
p ^
""I I
/
. /r/- \9 i /.. .. \2 i /^. ~ \2^ia
2 y!
Or
and
^!W= / / / *"-,-
"
"
d,
r (38)
12
But
2 -! 2
-
x 2
-
!
=
12
.
1
If an
attempt
were made to obtain the second
partial
derivatives in the same
manner,
it would be seen that the volume
integrals
no
longer converged.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 223
Hence VPot F
=
///^f-
d v
r (39)
In like manner
^,, (40)
and V Pot W
=
^ *
=
fff
These three
integrals
obtained from the
potential by
the
differentiating operators
are of
great importance
in mathe
matical
physics.
Each has its own
interpretation.
Conse
quently although
obtained so
simply
from the
potential
each
is
given
a
separate
name. Moreover inasmuch as these
integrals may
exist even when the
potential
is
divergent,
they
must be considered
independent
of it.
They
are to
be looked
upon
as three new
integrating operators
defined
each
upon
its own merits as the
potential
was defined.
Let, therefore,
(42)
12
12
.3
r
12
=
Max W.
(44)
If
the
potential
exists,
then
V Pot F= New F
VxPotW
=
LapW (45)
V-PotW
=
MaxW.
The first is written New V and read The Newtonian of V!
9
224
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The reason for
calling
this
integral
the Newtonian is that if
V
represent
the
density
of a
body
the
integral gives
the
force,
of
attraction at the
point (x^ yv Zj)
due to the
body.
This
will be
proved
later. The second is written
Lap
W and
read "the
Laplacian
of W." This
integral
was used to a
considerable extent
by Laplace.
It is of
frequent
occurrence
in
electricity
and
magnetism.
If W
represent
the current
C in
space
the
Laplacian
of C
gives
the
magnetic force
at the
point (x
v yv zj
due to the current. The third is written
Max W and read
"
the Maxwellian of W." This
integral
was
used
by
Maxwell.
It, too,
occurs
frequently
in
electricity
and
magnetism.
For instance if W
represent
the
intensity
of
magnetization
I,
the Maxwellian of I
gives
the
magnetic
potential
at the
point (x^ yv z^)
due to the
magnetization.
To show that the Newtonian
gives
the force of attraction
according
to the law of the inverse
square
of the distance.
Let
dm<i
be
any
element of mass situated at the
point
f rce at
(
x
v Vv
z
i)
due to dm is
equal
to
in
magnitude
and has the direction of the vector r
12
from the
point (x
v
y
v zj
to the
point (#2
,
y2
,
z
2).
Hence the force is
Integrating
over the entire
body,
or over all
space according
to the convention here
adopted,
the total force is
where V denotes the
density
of matter.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 225
The
integral may
be
expanded
in terms of
i, j, k,
12
The three
components may
be
expressed
in terms of the
po
tential
(if
it
exists)
as
12
(42)
It is in this form that the Newtonian is
generally
found in
books.
To show that the
Laplacian gives
the
magnetic
force
per
unit
positive pole
at the
point (x
v yv z^)
due to a distribution
W
(#2
,
y<p
z
2
)
f electric flux. The
magnetic
force at
(xv yv x )
due to an element of current d C
2
is
equal
in
magnitude
to
the
magnitude
d
C%
of that element of current divided
by
the
square
of the distance r
12
;
that is
dC*
*2
T
12
The direction of the force is
perpendicular
both to the vector
element of current dC
2
and to the line r
12 joining
the
points.
The direction of the force is therefore the direction of the
vector
product
of r
12
and dC
2
. The force is therefore
3
12
r
T
15
226 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Integrating
over all
space,
the total
magnetic
force
acting
at
the
point (x^
yv z^) upon
a unit
positive pole
is
c r r
r
i2
x d C
2 r r r*
x w
7
///
J
V
J
-JJJ
^
".-
This
integral may
be
expanded
in terms of
i,
j,
k. Let
W
(x
v y
v
*
2 )
=
i
X(x
v
y
v z^
+
j
Y
(x^ yv z^)
4-
k^O2
,
y
v z%).
r
i2=(^2 -^i) i+(y-yi)J+ (a-*i)k-
The
i, j,
k
components
of
Lap
W are
respectively
C.-^^
(43)
In terms of the
potential (if
one
exists)
this
may
be written
3 Pot Z S Pot Y
i
Lap
W
=
g g
r=
lP^_a|2t^
(43)
,,
To show that if I be the
intensity
of
magnetization
at the
point (xv %>*2)>
that
is,
if I be a vector whose
magnitude
is
equal
to the
magnetic
moment
per
unit volume and whose
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 227
direction is the direction of
magnetization
of the element d
v%
from south
pole
to north
pole,
then the Maxwellian of I is the
magnetic potential
due to the distribution of
magnetization.
The
magnetic
moment of the element of volume d t>
2
is I d
v%.
The
potential
at
(x v
y
v 24)
due to this element is
equal
to its
magnetic
moment divided
by
the
square
of the distance r
12
and
multiplied by
the cosine of the
angle
between the direc
tion of
magnetization
I and the vector r
12
. The
potential
is
therefore
r
12
I
dv%
Integrating,
the total
magnetic potential
is seen to be
12
This
integral may
also be written out in terms of
x,
y,
z.
Let-
*ia
I
=
O
a
-
x
i)
A
+
(y a
~
Vi)
B
+
(*2
-
*i)
&
If instead of x
v y v
z
l
the variables
x^
y,
z;
and instead of
x
v y&
z
z
^e variables
%,
?;, f
be used
1
the
expression
takes
oq
the form
given by
Maxwell.
According
to the notation
employed
for the
Laplacian
Max w
-fff
(*.-i
(44)
1
Maxwell :
Electricity
and
Magnetism,
Vol. II.
p.
9.
228 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The Maxwellian of a vector function is a scalar
quantity.
It
may
be written in terms of the
potential (if
it
exists)
as
SPotF
Max W
=
-=
--
+
=
-
+ =
--
(44)"
dx
l
3yl
9z
l
This form of
expression
is much used in
ordinary
treatises
upon
mathematical
physics.
The
Newtonian,
Laplacian,
and
Maxwellian, however,
should
not be associated
indissolubly
with the
particular
physical
interpretations given
to them above.
They
should be looked
upon
as
integrating operators
which
may
be
applied,
as the
potential
is,
to
any
functions of
position
in
space.
The New
tonian is
applied
to a scalar function and
yields
a vector
function. The
Laplacian
is
applied
to a vector function
and
yields
a function of the same sort. The Maxwellian
is
applied
to a vector function and
yields
a scalar function.
Moreover,
these
integrals
should not be looked
upon
as the
derivatives of the
potential.
If the
potential
exists
they
are its derivatives.
But
they frequently
exist when the
potential
fails to
converge.
91.]
Let V and W be such functions that their
potentials
exist and have in
general
definite values. Then
by (27)
and
(29)
V V PotF= V Pot VF
=
Pot V VF.
But
by (45)
V Pot V
=
New
F,
and V.Pot VF=Max VF.
Hence V. V PotF= V. NewF= Max VF
=
PotV.VF
(46)
By (27)
and
(29)
VV Pot W
=
VPot V. W=Pot VV W.
But
by (45)
V Pot W
=
Max
W,
and
by (45)
V Pot V W
=
New V. W.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
229
Hence
V V
Pot W
=
V
Max W
=
New
V
W
=
Pot VV.W
(47)
By (28)
V x
V x Pot W
=
V x Pot V x W
=
Pot V x V x W.
But
by (45)
V x Pot
W
=
Lap
W,
and V x Pot V x W
=
Lap
V x W.
Hence V x V x Pot W
=
V x
Lap
W
=
Lap
V x W
=
Pot V x V x W.
(48)
By (56), Chap.
III. V
-
V x Pot W
=
0,
or
V Pot V x W
=
0.
Hence V
Lap
W
=
Max V x W
=
0.
(49)
And
by (52), Chap.
III. V x V PotF=
0,
or VxPotVF=0.
Hence V x New V
=
Lap
VV
=
0.
(50)
And
by (58), Chap.
III. V x V x W
=
VV
W
-
V V
W,
V.VW
=
VV-W VxVxW.
Hence
V V
Pot W
New
V
W
Lap
V X W, (51)
or
V V
Pot W
=
V
Max W
V X
Lap
W.
These formulae
may
be written out in
terms of curl and
div if desired. Thus
div New V
=
Max V
F,
(46)
V Max
W
=
New div W
(47)
curl
Lap
W
=
Lap
curl
W
(48)
div
Lap
W
=
Max curl W
=
(49)
curl NewV
=
Lap
VF
=
(50)
V V
Pot W
=
New div W
Lap
curl W.
(51)
230 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Poisson s
Equation
92.]
Let V "be
any function
in
space
such that the
potential
PotF
has in
general
a
definite
value. Then
V V PotF=
-
4
TrF,
(52)
c>
2
PotF 3
2
PotF 3
2
PotF
This
equation
is known as Poisson s
Equation.
The
integral
which has been defined as the
potential
is a
solution of Poisson s
Equation.
The
proof
is as follows.
V
x
.
V
x
Pot r=
Vj
.
NewF= Max V
2
r=T
f
C
*
^*
V
dv
v
The
subscripts
1 and ^ have been attached to
designate
clearly
what are variables with
respect
to which the differen
tiations are
performed.
V
1
.V
1
PotF=V
1
.NewF=ff
TVJ--.
V
2
Fdv
a
.
But
Vj
=
-
V
2
r
vt
r
u
and V
2
(v
V
2
^
=
V
2
V
2
F+
V V
a
.
V
a
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 231
Hence
-
V
2
-
V
2
V
=
V V
2
V
2
-
V
2
.
(
V V
2
\
r
!2
r
!2
\
r
!2/
m v, .v.r=rv.
.
v
2
+
v..(V
v V
y
13
r
!2
\
W
Integrate
:
But
V
2
V
2
=
0.
That is to
say
satisfies
Laplace
s
Equation.
And
by (8)
Hence
Vj
V
x
Pot V
=
f f f
V
x
- -
V
2
Vdv
2 (53)
=rr
^ v
t
.rfa.
J J
s
7*12
The surface
integral
is taken over the surface which bounds
the
region
of
integration
of the volume
integral.
This is
taken
"
over all
space."
Hence the surface
integral
must be
taken over a
sphere
of radius
R,
a
large quantity,
and R must
be allowed to increase without limit. At the
point (xr y^z^)^
however,
the
integrand
of the surface
integral
becomes in
finite
owing
to the
presence
of the term
232 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence the surface S must include not
only
the surface of the
sphere
of radius
J2,
but also the surface of a
sphere
of radius
R
,
a small
quantity, surrounding
the
point (x^y^z^)
and B
f
must be allowed to
approach
zero as its limit.
As it has been assumed that the
potential
of V
exists,
it is
assumed that the conditions
given (Art. 87)
for the existence
of the
potential
hold.
That is
<
-fiT,
when r is
large
Vr <
K,
when r is small.
Introduce
polar
coordinates
with the
origin
at the
point
(#i> #i i)
Then r
12
becomes
simply
r
and V
x
=
-
V
a
=
-^
*
l
ii
12
**
Then for the
large sphere
of radius R
1 r
V,
.
da
=
r r
2
sm0 d0 dd>.
*3
!2
4*3
Hence the surface
integral
over that
sphere approaches
zero
as its limit. For
Hence when -R becomes infinite the surface
integral
over the
large sphere approaches
zero as its limit.
For the small
sphere
1 r
V
t
d a
=
--
5
r
2
sin d d 6.
<r 7*v
r
!2
Hence the
integral
over that
sphere
becomes
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 233
Let V be
supposed
to be finite and continuous at the
point
(
x
vl/v
z
i)
which has been selected as
origin.
Then for the
surface
integral
V is
practically
constant and
equal
to its
value
V
(*ii Vv *i)
at the
point
in
question.
sintf d f fs
-
f /Vsi Hence
-
sintf d8 d<
=
-
when the radius R
f
of the
sphere
of
integration approaches
zero as its limit. Hence
v
>
v
-
ff,
rv
-
<
=-
4 * F
<68)1
and V- VPotF=-47rF.
(52)
In like manner if W is a vector function which has in
general
a definite
potential,
then that
potential
satisfies Pois-
son s
Equation.
V V Pot W
=
-
4 TT
W.
(52)
The
proof
of this consists in
resolving
W into its three com
ponents.
For each
component
the
equation
holds. Let
v-
V. VPotF=-47r
F,
V V Pot Z
=
4 TT Z.
Consequently
V V Pot
(JTi
+
Fj
+ Zk)
=
-
4 TT
(JTi
+
Fj
+
234 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Theorem :
If
V and W are such
functions of position
in
space
that their
potentials
exist in
general,
then
for
all
points
at which
V and W are
finite
and continuous those
potentials satisfy
Poisson s
Equation,
V- VPot
r=-4irF;
(52)
V V Pot W
=
-
4 TT W.
(52)
The modifications in this theorem which are to be made at
points
at which V and W become discontinuous will not be
taken
up
here.
93.]
It was seen
(46)
Art. 91 that
V VPotF
=
V- NewT=Max VF1
Hence V New V
=
-
4 TT V
(53)
or Max VF=-47rF.
In a similar manner it was seen
(51)
Art. 91 that
V V Pot W
=
V Max W
V x
Lap
W
=
New V W
Lap
V x W.
Hence V Max W
-
V x
Lap
W
=
-
4 TT
W,
(54)
or New V
.
W
-
Lap
V x W
=
-
4-rr
W.
(54)
By
virtue of this
equality
W
is divided into two
parts.
W
=
-7 Lap
V x W
7
New V-
W.
(55)
4-7T
4?T
Let W
=
W!
+
W
2
,
where W
t
=
-r
Lap
V x W
=
-
Lap
curl W
(56)
4-rr 4?r
-: NewV- W
=
7
4-7T 4-7T
and W
=
-: NewV- W
=
7
Newdiv W.
(57)
- -
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
235
Equation (55)
states that
any
vector function W
multiplied
by
4 TT is
equal
to the difference of the
Laplacian
of its curl
and the Newtonian of its
divergence.
Furthermore
V W,
=
V
Lap
V x W
=
-7 V- V x
Lap
W
r
4?r 4-7T
But the
divergence
of the curl of a vector function is zero.
Hence V.W
1
=
divW
1
=
(58)
V x W
2
=
-
j
Vx New V W
2
=
-
VxVMax W
2
.
But the curl of the derivative of a scalar function is zero.
Hence V x W
2
=
curl W
2
=
0.
(59)
Consequently any
vector function W which has a
potential
may
be divided into two
parts
of which one has no
divergence
and of which the other has no curl. This division of W into
two such
parts
is
unique.
In case a vector function has no
potential
but both its curl
and
divergence possess potentials,
the vector function
may
be
divided into three
parts
of which the first has no
divergence
;
the
second,
no
curl;
the
third,
neither
divergence
nor curl.
Let W
=
Lap
V x W
-
New V W +
W.
(55)
4 7T 4 7T
As before
V
Lap
V x W
=
T V V x Pot V x W
=
4?r 4-7T
1 1
and
-
V x New V W
-
VxV Pot V W
=
0.
4-7T 4 7T
The
divergence
of the first
part
and the curl of the second
part
of W are therefore zero.
236 VECTOR ANALYSIS
V x
Lap
VxW
=
VxVxPotVxW
4?r
4-7T
=
VV Pot V x W
- ~
V V Pot V X W.
4 7T 4?T
--
VV Pot V x W
=
--
V Pot V V x W
=
,
4?r
for V V x W
=
0.
Hence
^
V VPot V x W
=
V x W.
4-7T
Hence V x
Lap
VxW
=
VxW
=
VxW
l
.
4?r
The curl of W is
equal
to the curl of the first
part
-r
Lap
V
x W
47T
into which W is divided. Hence as the second
part
has no
curl,
the third
part
can have none. Moreover
-
V
New
V
W
=
V
W
V
W
2
.
T: 7T
Thus the
divergence
of W is
equal
to the
divergence
of
the second
part
-
New V W.
4?r
into which W is
divided.
Hence as the first
part
has no
divergence
the third can have none.
Consequently
the third
part
W
3
has neither curl nor
divergence.
This
proves
the
statement.
By
means of Art. 96 it
may
be seen that
any
function W
3
which
possesses
neither curl nor
divergence,
must either
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
237
vanish
throughout
all
space
or must not become zero at
infinity.
In
physics
functions
generally
vanish at
infinity.
Hence functions which
represent
actual
phenomena may
be
divided into two
parts,
of which one has no
divergence
and
the other no curl.
94.]
Definition
: A vector function the
divergence
of which
vanishes at
every point
of
space
is said to be solenoidal. A
vector function the curl of which vanishes at
every point
of
space
is said to be irrotational.
In
general
a vector function is neither solenoidal nor irrota
tional. But it has been shown that
any
vector function which
possesses
a
potential may
be divided in one and
only
one
way
into two
parts
W
v
W
2
of which one is solenoidal and
the other irrotational. The
following
theorems
may
be stated.
They
have all been
proved
in the
foregoing
sections.
With
respect
to a solenoidal
function
W
v
the
operators
Lap
and V X or curl
4?r
are inverse
operators.
That is
Lap
V x Wi
=
V x
-j Lap
Wi
=
W
r (60)
4?r 4-rr
Applied
to an irrotational
function
W
2
either
of
these
opera
tors
gives
zero. That is
Lap
W
2
=
,
V x W
2
=
0.
(61)
With
respect
to an irrotational
function
W
2
,
the
operators
-
New and
v
or div
4?r
are inverse
operators.
That is
_ _L
New V
W
2
=
-
V
-i-
New W
2
=
W
2
.
(62)
4 7T 4 7T
238 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
With
respect
to a scalar
function
V the
operators
V or div and
-
New,
4-7T
and also -= Max and V
4?r
are inverse
operators.
That is
-V.-i NewF= V
(63)
4 7T
and ~--Max VF= V.
4?r
TFttA
respect
to a solenoidal
function
W
x
the
operators
-
Pot and V x V x or curl curl
47T
are inverse
operators.
That is
Pot V x V x W
x
=
V x V x Pot Wi
=
W
r (64)
4?r
4?r
With
respect
to an irrotational
function
W
2
the
operators
Pot and VV
4?r
are inverse
operators.
That is
_ _L
Pot VV
.
W
2
=
-
VV
.
-L
Pot W
2
=
W
2
.
(65)
With
respect
to
any
scalar or vector
function
V,
W
the
operators
Pot and V V
4-7T
are inverse
operator*.
That is
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
239
_ JL
Pot v v v=
-
v v
-i-
Pot F= v
4?r
4?r
and
-
,
Pot V V
W
=
-
V V
-^-
Pot W
=
W.
(66)
4?r
4?r
With
respect
to a solenoidal
function
W
x
the
differentiating
operators of
the second order
V V and V X V x
are
equivalent
-
V V W
x
=
V x V x W
r
(67)
With
respect
to an irrotational
function
W
2
the
differentiat
ing operators of
the second order
V V and V V
are
equivalent
That is
V- VW
2
=
V V-W
2
.
(68)
By integrating
the
equations
4^^=- V.NewF
and 4 TT W
=
V x
Lap
W
-
V Max W
by
means of the
potential integral
Pot
4<7rPotF=:-Pot V New F=
-
Max New F
(69)
4 TT Pot W
=
Pot V x
Lap
W
-
Pot V Max W
4 TT Pot W
=
Lap Lap
W
-
New Max W.
(70)
Hence
for
scalar
functions
and irrotational vector
functions
-
New Max
47T
is an
operator
which is
equivalent
to Pot. For solenoidal
vector
functions
the
operator
^
-
Lap Lap
240 VECTOR ANALYSIS
gives
the
potential.
For
any
vector
function
the
first operator
gives
the
potential of
the irrotational
part;
the
second^
the
potential
of
the solenoidal
part.
*95.]
There are a number of double volume
integrals
which
are of such
frequent
occurrence in
mathematical
physics
as
to merit a
passing
mention,
although
the
theory
of them will
not be
developed
to
any
considerable extent. These double
integrals
are all scalar
quantities. They
are not scalar func
tions of
position
in
space. They
have but a
single
value.
The
integrations
in the
expressions may
be considered for
convenience as extended over all
space.
The functions
by
vanishing identically
outside of certain finite limits deter
mine for all
practical purposes
the limits of
integration
in
case
they
are finite.
Given two scalar functions
Z7,
V of
position
in
space.
The mutual
potential
or
potential product,
as it
may
be
called,
of the two functions is the
sextuple integral
Pot
(71)
One of the
integrations may
be
performed
,
yi,^) PotVdv,
(
*
2 y*
*
2>
Pot Ud
** (T2)
In a similar manner the mutual
potential
or
potential product
of two vector functions
W,
W" is
(71)
This is also a scalar
quantity.
One
integration may
be car
ried out
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
241
Pot
(W, W")
=w
(xv yv ,)
.
Pot W" dv
t
The mutual
Laplacian
or
Laplacian product
of two
vector functions W
,
W"
of
position
in
space
is the
sextuple
integral
Lap(W ,W")
=ffffff
w
(*! yi *i)
;nr
x w
"
(** y* *)
<*i
<*"
2
-
(73)
One
integration may
be
performed.
Lap (W, W")
=
f (
f
W"
(^ 2
,
ya
,
*
2
)
Lap
Wrf v
a
(T4)
v yi *i)
La
P
w
"
d
r
The Newtonian
product
of a scalar function
F,
and a vector
function W of
position
in
space
is the
sextuple integral
rf*
2
.
(75)
By performing
one
integration
New
( F,
W)
=///W
(*
2
,
y2
,
*
2
)
New Frf t,
a
.
(76)
In like manner the Maxwellian
product
of a vector function
W and a scalar
function F of
position
in
space
is the
integral
Max
(W,F)
=/////JV(*i^*i) J-
W0r2,2/2
,*
2
)rf
W
(77)
16
242 VECTOR ANALYSIS
One
integration yields
Max
(W, F)
=fff
V(x
v yv zj
Max Wd v
1
=
-
New
(
F,
W).
(78)
By (53)
Art. 93.
4?r UPotr
=
-
(V
New
CO
PotF.
V
[New
U Pot
F]
=
(V
New
V)
Pot F
+
(New IT)
V Pot F.
-(V.NewOPotF=-V.[NewPTotF]+NewtT.NewF
Integrate
:
47r f f
|VpotFdi>=-
f f fv.
[Ne
+
C
f
CtfewU- NewFdv.
4-Tr Pot
IT,
F)=
f NewT. NewFdv
,
F)=
f f f
-
T f Pot F New Z7 rf a.
(79)
The surface
integral
is to be taken over the entire surface S
bounding
the
region
of
integration
of the volume
integral.
As this
region
of
integration
is
"
all
space,"
the surface S
may
be looked
upon
as the surface of a
large sphere
of radius R.
If the functions U and Fvanish
identically
for all
points
out
side of certain finite
limits,
the surface
integral
must vanish.
Hence
4 TT Pot
(
U,
F)
=
f f fNew U New Vdv.
(79)
By (54)
Art.
93,
47rW". PotW
=
V x
Lap
W" Pot W
-
V Max
W"
Pot W
.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
243
But V
.
[Lap
W" x Pot W
]
=
Pot W V x
Lap
W"
-
Lap
W" V x Pot W
,
and V
[Max
W" Pot
W]
=
Pot W V Max W"
+
Max W" V Pot W.
Hence V x
Lap
W" Pot W
=
V
[Lap
W" x Pot
W]
+
Lap
W"
Lap
W
,
and V Max W" Pot W
=
V
-
[Max
W" Pot
W]
-
Max W" Max W.
Hence
substituting:
4 ?r W" Pot W
=
Lap
W
Lap
W
+
Max W Max W"
+
V
[Lap
W" X Pot W
]
-V
[Max
W" Pot W
].
Integrating
.-
4 TT Pot
(W,
W")
=
ff
fLap
W
Lap
W"dv
r c r
+ / /
I Max W Max W d v
(80)
J J J
I I
PotW x
Lap
W" da / / Max
W"PotWWa.
If now
W
and W" exist
only
in finite
space
these surface
integrals
taken over a
large sphere
of radius B must vanish
and then
4 TT Pot
(W,W")
=
f f
fLap
W
Lap
W"
d v
+
11 fMax
W Max W" d v.
(80)
J J J
*
96.]
There are a number of useful theorems of a function-
theoretic nature which
may perhaps
be mentioned here
owing
244 VECTOR ANALYSIS
to their intimate connection with the
integral
calculus of
vectors.
The
proofs
of them will in some instances be
given
and in some not. The theorems are often useful in
practical
applications
of vector
analysis
to
physics
as well as in
purely
mathematical work.
Theorem : If V
(#, y, z)
be a scalar function of
position
in
space
which
possesses
in
general
a definite derivative VV
and if in
any portion
of
space,
finite or infinite but
necessarily
continuous,
that derivative
vanishes,
then the function V is
constant
throughout
that
portion
of
space.
Given VF=0.
To show F= const.
Choose a fixed
point (#
15 y
v zj
in the
region. By (2) page
180
y>
*
VF. d
r =
V(x,
y,z)-V(xv yv zj.
u ft* *i
But
fvr.dr =f<)
.
dr
=
0.
Hence
F(#, y,
z)
=
V
(xv yv zj
=
const.
Theorem : If F"
(#, y, 2;)
be a scalar function of
position
in
space
which
possesses
in
general
a definite derivative VV
;
if the
divergence
of that derivative exists and is zero
through
out
any region
of
space,
1
finite or infinite but
necessarily
continuous
;
and if furthermore the derivative VV vanishes
at
every point
of
any
finite volume or of
any
finite
portion
of
surface in that
region
or
bounding
it,
then the derivative
vanishes
throughout
all that
region
and the function Vre
duces to a constant
by
the
preceding
theorem.
1
The term
throughout any region of space
must be
regarded
as
including
the
boundaries of the
region
as well as the
region
itself.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 245
Given V V V= for a
region
T,
and V F= for a finite
portion
of surface S.
To show J^= const.
Since V Evanishes for the
portion
of surface
S,
Vis
certainly
constant in S.
Suppose
that,
upon
one side of S and in the
region
T,
V
were not constant. The derivative V V
upon
this side of S has in the main the direction of the normal to
the surface S. Consider a
sphere
which lies for the most
part upon
the outer side of S but which
projects
a little
through
the surface S. The surface
integral
of VF over
the small
portion
of the
sphere
which
projects through
the
surface S cannot be zero.
For,
as V V is in the main normal
to S
9
it must be
nearly parallel
to the normal to the
portion
of
spherical
surface under consideration. Hence the terms
VT- da,
in the surface
integral
all have the same
sign
and cannot
cancel each other out. The surface
integral
of V V over
that
portion
of S which is
intercepted by
the
spherical
sur
face vanishes because V Vis zero.
Consequently
the surface
integral
of V Vtaken over the entire surface of the
spherical
segment
which
projects through
S is not zero.
But f r vr-da= f r fv. vrd*=o.
Hence f /Vr da
=
0.
It therefore
appears
that the
supposition
that V is not
constant
upon
one side of S leads to results which contradict
the
given
relation V VV 0. The
supposition
must there
fore have been incorrect and V must be constant not
only
in
S but in all
portions
of
space
near to $ in the
region
T.
By
246
VECTOR ANALYSIS
an extension of the
reasoning
V is seen to be constant
throughout
the entire
region
T.
Theorem : If V
(x,
y, z)
be a scalar function of
position
in
space possessing
in
general
a derivative V V and if
through
out a certain
region
1
T of
space,
finite or
infinite,
continuous
or
discontinuous,
the
divergence
V V V of that derivative
exists and is
zero,
and if furthermore the function V
possesses
a constant value c in all the surfaces
bounding
the
region
and V
(x,
y, z) approaches
c as a limit when the
point
(x,
y, z)
recedes to
infinity,
then
throughout
the entire
region
T the
function V has the same constant value c and the derivative
Wvanishes.
The
proof
does not differ
essentially
from the one
given
in the case of the last theorem. The theorem
may
be
gen
eralized as follows :
Theorem: If
V(x,y, z)
be
any
scalar function of
position
in
space possessing
in
general
a derivative
W;
if U
(x, y, z)
be
any
other scalar function of
position
which is either
posi
tive or
negative throughout
and
upon
the boundaries of a
region
T,
finite or
infinite,
continuous or
discontinuous;
if
the
divergence
V
[
U V
V~\
of the
product
of U and VV
exists and is zero
throughout
and
upon
the boundaries of T
and at
infinity
;
and if furthermore V be constant and
equal
to c
upon
all the boundaries of T and at
infinity
;
then the
function V is constant
throughout
the entire
region
T and
is
equal
to c.
Theorem : If V
(#, y, z)
be
any
scalar function of
position
in
space possessing
in
general
a derivative VV
;
if
through
out
any region
T of
space,
finite or
infinite,
continuous or
discontinuous,
the
divergence
V V V of this derivative exists
and is zero
;
and if in all the
bounding
surfaces of the
region
T the normal
component
of the derivative VF" vanishes and
at infinite distances in T
(if
such there
be)
the
product
1
The
region
includes its boundaries.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 247
r
2
9
Vj
3 r
vanishes,
where r denotes the distance measured
from
any
fixed
origin
;
then
throughout
the entire
region
T
the derivative V Evanishes and in each continuous
portion
of T V is
constant,
although
for different continuous
portions
this constant
may
not be the same.
This theorem
may
be
generalized
as the
preceding
one
was
by
the substitution of the relation V
(
UV
F)
=
for
V-VF=Oand
Ur*3V/3r
=
for
r^SV/Sr
=
0.
As corollaries of the
foregoing
theorems the
following
statements
may
be made. The
language
is not so
precise
as in the theorems
themselves,
but will
perhaps
be under
stood when
they
are borne in mind.
If V U
=
V
V,
then U and V differ at most
by
a
constant.
If V-V7=V.VF and if VZ7
=
VF in
any
finite
portion
of surface
S,
then V U
=
V V at all
points
and V
differs from V
only by
a constant at most.
If V.VJ7= V- VF and if V= V in all the
bounding
surfaces of the
region
and at
infinity (if
the
region
extend
thereto),
then at all
points
7 and Fare
equal.
If V V 7
=
V V F and if in all the
bounding
surfaces
of the
region
the normal
components
of VZ7 and VFare
equal
and if at infinite distances r
2
(3 U/Sr
9
F/5r)
is
zero,
then V ?7and V Fare
equal
at all
points
of the
region
and Udiffers from F
only by
a constant.
Theorem : If
W
and W" are two vector functions of
position
in
space
which in
general possess
curls and
divergences
;
if
for
any region
I
7
,
finite or infinite but
necessarily
continuous,
the curl of W is
equal
to the curl of W" and the
divergence
of
W is
equal
to the
divergence
of
W";
and if moreover
the two functions W and
W" are
equal
to each other at
every point
of
any
finite volume in T or of
any
finite surface
in Tor
bounding
it;
then W is
equal
to W" at
every point
of the
region
T.
248
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Since V x W
=
V x
W",
V x
(W
-
W")
=
0. A vec
tor function whose curl vanishes is
equal
to the derivative
*
of a scalar function V
(page
197).
Let
VF=W W".
Then V V V=
owing
to the
equality
of the
divergences.
The theorem therefore becomes a
corollary
of a
preceding
one.
Theorem : If W and W" are two vector functions of
posi
tion which in
general possess
definite curls and
divergences
;
if
throughout any aperiphractic* region
T,
finite but not
necessarily
continuous,
the curl of W is
equal
to the curl of
W" and the
divergence
of W is
equal
to the
divergence
of
W";
and if furthermore in all the
bounding
surfaces of the
region
T the
tangential components
W
7
and W" are
equal;
then W
;
is
equal
to W"
throughout
the
aperiphractic region
T.
Theorem: If W and
W" are two vector functions of
posi
tion in
space
which in
general possess
definite curls and
divergences
;
if
throughout any acyclic region
T,
finite but not
necessarily
continuous,
the curl of
W is
equal
to the curl
W"
and the
divergence
of W is
equal
to the
divergence
of
W";
and if in all the
bounding
surfaces of the
region
T the
normal
components
of W
and W" are
equal
;
then the func
tions W
and W" are
equal throughout
the
region acyclic
T.
The
proofs
of these two theorems are carried out
by
means
of the device
suggested
before.
Theorem: If W
and W" are two vector functions such
that V V W
and V V W"
have in
general
definite values
in a certain
region
T,
finite or
infinite,
continuous or discon
tinuous
;
and if in all the
bounding
surfaces of the
region
and at
infinity
the functions W
and W" are
equal
;
then W
is
equal
to W"
throughout
the entire
region
T.
The
proof
is
given by treating separately
the three com
ponents
of W
and W".
1
The
region
T
may
have to be made
acyclic by
the insertion of
diaphragms.
2
A
region
which encloses within itself another
region
is said to be
periphrac-
tic. If it encloses no
region
it is
aperiphractic.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
249
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER IV
The line
integral
of a vector function W
along
a curve C is
defined as
f
Wdr=f
[Widx
+
W^dy
+
W.dz]. (1)
J c J c
The line
integral
of the derivative V V of a scalar function
V
along
a curve C from r to r is
equal
to the difference
between the values of V at the
points
r and r and hence the
line
integral
taken around a closed curve is zero
;
and con
versely
if the line
integral
of a vector function W taken
around
any
closed curve
vanishes,
then W is the derivative
V V of some scalar function V.
f
ri
/ TO
f
J
(2)
(3)
and if C W dr
=
0,
then
W
=
VF.
Jo
Illustration of the theorem
by application
to mechanics.
The surface
integral
of a vector function W over a surface
S is defined as
=
ff
Gauss s
Theorem|
: The surface
integral
of a vector func-
tiorTtaken over a closed surface is
equal
to the volume
integral
of the
divergence
of that function taken
throughout
the volume enclosed
by
that surface
250 VECTOR ANALYSIS
=
f f
{Xdydz+
Ydz dx
+
Zdxdy], (8)
if
X,
I
7
,
Z be the three
components
of the vector function W.
Stokes s Theorem: The surface
integral
of the curl of a
vector function taken over
any
surface is
equal
to the line
integral
of the function taken around the line
bounding
the
surface. And
conversely
if the surface
integral
of a vector
function TJ taken over
any
surface is
equal
to the line
integral
of a function W taken around the
boundary,
then U is the
curl of W.
//,VxW.*.=/
o
W.*r,
(11)
and if
ffjj
da
=f
W
rfr,
then TI
=
V x W.
(12)
Application
of the theorem of Stokes to
deducing
the
equations
of the
electro-magnetic
field from two
experimental
facts due to
Faraday. Application
of the theorems of Stokes
and Gauss to the
proof
that the
divergence
of the curl of
a vector function is zero and the curl of the derivative of
a scalar function is zero.
Formulae
analogous
to
integration by parts
I w V v di
=
\u v~]
T
/ v V u rf
r,
(14)
f f r r r
J J 8 t/O J J S
cc ^ c r
I t vwXv
/
yaa=i
o
i6v yar
=
I v V u a
r, (16)
*/ */ 8 */ t/O
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 251
I
C CuV *vdv
=
I I
uv d&- ii f
V
u*vdv,
(17)
/Y vu x v
.
da=- r r A/!*
.
v x * dv.
(i8>
Green s
Theorerii:
/ / I V u V v dv
=
/ f ttV-y -da f T TwV -V v dv
=
if
v V ^ d a I I I vV *V
udv, (19)
.Vi;-i;V.Vw)rfi;=
f C
(uVv
t?Vw).rfa. (20)
__
-
Kelvin s
generalization:
i I Tw^7u^vdv= I I w^Vv-rfa
// /
^
=
/ / i? w V i^ da T T TV V
[w
V
w]
rf v.
(21)
The
integrating operator
known as the
potential
is defined
by
the
equation
Pot r=
V(xyv
Z
^
dxt dy2
dz
y (22)
Pot w
=*?
yy *
^^2 ^y2 ^^- (23)
VPot
T=PotVF;
(27)
V x Pot W
=
Pot V x
W,
(28)
V Pot W
=
Pot V
W,
(29)
V V Pot F= Pot V
VF, (30)
252
VECTOR ANALYSIS
V V Pot W
=
Pot V V
W,
(31)
VV Pot W
=
Pot
VV
W,
(32)
V x V x Pot W
=
Pot V x V x W.
(33)
The
integrating operator
Pot and the
differentiating operator
V are commutative.
The three additional
integrating operators
known as the
Newtonian,
the
Laplacian,
and the Maxwellian.
__ __ f
f *19 \
Ay*
fO? ^9 / ^ / i ***.
New T= / / /
-^
^-
^-^-
rf^
2 dy2
dz
2
.
(42)
f* f* f* Y ^ \XT ^7* ?y 2 ^
Lap
W
=
I I
/
o
2 2 2
^^
2 ^2/2
dz
v (
43
)
j J J r
12
Max W= I I I
q
2> 2
*
2
rf^
2 rfy
d^
2
.
If the
potential
exists these
integrals
are related to it as fol
lows:
V Pot F= New
V,
V x Pot W
=
Lap
W,
(45)
The
interpretation
of the
physical meaning
of the Newtonian
on the
assumption
that V is the
density
of an
attracting
body,
of the
Laplacian
on the
assumption
that W is electric
flux,
of the Maxwellian on the
assumption
that
W is the
intensity
of
magnetization.
The
expression
of these
integrals
or their
components
in terms of
a?,
y,
%
;
formulae
(42)
,
(43)
,
(44)
and
(42)", (43)", (44)".
V New F= Max V
F,
(46)
V Max W
=
New V
W,
(47)
V x
Lap
W
=
Lap
V x
W,
(48)
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
253
V
Lap
W
=
Max V x W
=
0,
(49)
V x New V
=
Lap
V V=
0,
(50)
V V
Pot W
=
New
V
W
Lap V X
W
=
V Max W
-
V x
Lap
W.
(51)
The
potential
is a solution of Poisson s
Equation.
That
is,
V. VPotF
=
-47rF;
(52)
and V. VPotF=-47rW.
(52)
F=
V.NewF,
(53)
W
=
-
A Lap
V x W
-
New V W.
(55)
4-7T 4 7T
Hence W is divided into two
parts
of which one is
solenoidal and the other
irrotational,
provided
the
potential
exists. In case the
potential
does not exist a third term W
3
must be added of which both the
divergence
and the curl
vanish. A list of theorems which follow
immediately
from
equations (52), (52)
,
(53), (55)
and which state that certain
integrating operators
are inverse to certain
differentiating
operators.
Let V be a scalar
function,
W
x
a solenoidal vector
function,
and W
2
an irrotational vector function. Then
Lap
V x
Wj
=
V x
Lap
W
l
=
W
r (60)
47T 4 7T
Lap
W
2
=
0,
V x W
2
=
(61)
4 7T
--
New V.
W,
=
-
V New W
2
=
W
2
.
(62)
47T
4?T
254
VECTOR ANALYSIS
f_V-
-
A
-NewF
=
V
l
(63)
-
Max VF= V.
4 7T
-
Pot V x V x W
t
=
V x V x Pot W
x
=
W,
(64)
47T
--
1
-
Pot VV W
2
=
-
V V
- -
Pot W
2
=
W
2
.
(65)
4 7T 4 7T
(66)
[---
Pot v. vr=- v-v
-
4?r 4?r
1
!
L-
-r
-
Pot V
.
V W
=
-
V V Pot W
=
W.
4?r 4?r
-V-VWj^VxVxWj (67)
V V W
2
=
VV
.
W
2 (68)
4 TT Pot V
=
-
Max New V
(69)
4 TT Pot W
=
Lap Lap
W
-
New Max W.
(70)
Mutual
potentials
Newtonians,
Laplacians,
and Maxwellians
may
be formed.
They
are
sextuple integrals.
The
integra
tions cannot all be
performed immediately
;
but the first three
may
be. Formulae
(71)
to
(80)
inclusive deal with these inte
grals.
The
chapter
closes with the enunciation of a number
of theorems of a function-theoretic nature.
By
means of
these theorems certain facts
concerning
functions
may
be
inferred from the conditions that
they satisfy Laplace
s
equa
tion and have certain
boundary
conditions.
Among
the exercises number 6 is
worthy
of
especial
atten
tion. The work done in the text has
for
the most
part
assumed
that the
potential
exists. But
many of
the
formulce connecting
Newtonians,
Laplacians,
and Maxwellians hold when the
poten
tial does not exist. These are taken
up
in Exercise 6 referred to.
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 255
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IV
I.
1
If V is a scalar function of
position
in
space
the line
integral
is a vector
quantity.
Show that
That is
;
the line
integral
of a scalar function around a
closed curve is
equal
to the skew surface
integral
of the deriv
ative of the function taken over
any
surface
spanned
into
the contour of the curve. Show further that if V is constant
the
integral
around
any
closed curve is zero and
conversely
if the
integral
around
any
closed curve is zero the function V
is constant.
Hint : Instead of
treating
the
integral
as it stands
multiply
it
(with
a
dot) by
an
arbitrary
constant unit vector and thus
reduce it to the line
integral
of a vector function.
2. If
W is a vector function the line
integral
=/w
J c
x dr
is a vector
quantity.
It
may
be called the skew line
integral
of the function W. If c is
any
constant
vector,
show that if
the
integral
be taken around a closed curve
H c
=
/ / (cVW cVW)
da
=
c/
Wxdr,
1
The first four exercises are taken from
Foppl
s
Einfiihrung
in die Max-
well sche Theorie der Electricitat where
they
are worked out.
256 VECTOR ANALYSIS
and H-c
=
c.
]JJ
8
V Wda-
JJ
s
V
(W
d
a)
j
In case the
integral
is taken over a
plane
curve and
the
surface S is the
portion
of
plane
included
by
the curve
Show that the
integral
taken over a
plane
curve vanishes
when W is constant and
conversely
if the
integral
over
any
plane
curve vanishes W must be constant.
3. The surface
integral
of a scalar function Vis
This is a vector
quantity.
Show that the surface
integral
of V taken over
any
closed surface is
equal
to the volume
integral
of Wtaken
throughout
the volume bounded
by
that surface. That is
Hence conclude that the surface
integral
over a closed sur
face vanishes if V be constant and
conversely
if the surface
integral
over
any
closed surface vanishes the function V must
be constant.
4.
If
W be a vector
function,
the surface
integral
T=
f
C d&x W
may
be called the skew surface
integral.
It is a vector
quantity.
Show that the skew surface
integral
of a vector
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS 257
function taken over a closed surface is
equal
to the volume
integral
of the vector function taken
throughout
the volume
bounded
by
the surface. That is
Hence conclude that the skew surface
integral
taken over
any
surface in
space
vanishes when and
only
when
W is an
irrotational function. That
is,
when and
only
when the line
integral
of W for
every
closed circuit vanishes.
5. Obtain some formulae for these
integrals
which are
analogous
to
integrating by parts.
6. The work in the text assumes for the most
part
that the
potentials
of Fand W exist.
Many
of the
relations, however,
may
be demonstrated without that
assumption.
Assume that
the
Newtonian,
the
Laplacian,
the Maxwellian exist. For
simplicity
in
writing
let
Then New V
=
V
t Pn V(xv y
y
*
2
)
d t>
2
,
(81)
Lap
W
=i^12
X W
(x
v yv 2
)
dv
v (82)
Max W
=fffv
i pu
W
(z2
,
y
v z^dvv (83)
(84)
c c r
-JJJr^rdvr
17
258 VECTOR ANALYSIS
By
exercise
(
3
)///
V
2 (Pit
v
)
d
v*
It can be shown that if V is such a function that New V
exists,
then this surface
integral
taken over a
large sphere
of
radius R and a small
sphere
of radius R*
approaches
zero
when R becomes
indefinitely great;
and R
f
,
indefinitely
small. Hence
or NewF=PotVF.
(85)
Prove in a similar manner that
Lap
W
=
Pot V x
W,
(86)
Max
W
=
Pot V W.
(87)
By
means of
(85), (86), (87)
it is
possible
to
prove
that
V x
Lap
W
=
Lap
V x
W,
V-New F=Max
VF,
V Max
W
=
New V W.
Then
prove
/*/*/* f* f* f*
VxLapW=i
/
I^12
VV-W di?
2
I l
f^12
V-VWdi
%} <J *J *J J *J
and V Max W
=
f/JJPii
V V W d v
v
Hence V x
Lap
W
-
V Max W
=
-ffffv
V VW d v
Hence V x
Lap
W
-
V Max W
=
4 TT W.
(88)
7. An
integral
used
by
Helmholtz is
THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF VECTORS
259
or if W be a vector function
H
(W)
=///
W d
"2"
<
9
)
Show that the
integral converges
if V diminishes so
rapidly
that
K
when r becomes
indefinitely great.
Vtf(F)
=
#(VF)
=
New(r
2
F), (91)
V #
(W)
=
#
(V W)
=
Max
(r
2
W), (92)
V x H
(W)
=
5"
(V
x
W)
=
Lap (r
2
W), (93)
=Jff
(V. VP)
=
Max(r
2
VF)
=
2 Pot F
(94)
.
(95)
H
( F)
=
- -L
Pot Pot PI
(96)
J 7T
^
(W)
=
- -?-
Pot Pot W.
(97)
2 7T
~2W
=
VxVx^T(W)
+
VV.^r
(W). (98)
8. Give a
proof
of Gauss s Theorem which does not
depend
upon
the
physical interpretation
of a function as the flux of a
fluid. The
reasoning
is similar to that
employed
in Art. 51
and in the first
proof
of Stokes s Theorem.
9. Show that the division of W into two
parts, page
235,
is
unique.
10.
Treat,
in a manner
analogous
to that
upon page
220,
the case in which V has curves of discontinuities.
CHAPTER V
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
97.]
AFTER the definitions of
products
had been laid down
and
applied,
two
paths
of advance were
open.
One was
differential and
integral
calculus
;
the
other,
higher algebra
in the sense of the
theory
of linear
homogeneous
substitutions.
The treatment of the first of these
topics
led to new ideas
and new
symbols
to the
derivative,
divergence,
curl,
scalar
and vector
potential,
that
is,
to
V, V, Vx,
and Pot with the
auxiliaries,
the
Newtonian,
the
Laplacian,
and the Maxwellian.
The treatment of the second
topic
will likewise introduce
novelty
both in
concept
and in notation the linear vector
function,
the
dyad,
and the
dyadic
with their
appropriate
symbolization.
The
simplest example
of a linear vector function is the
product
of a scalar constant and a vector. The vector r
T
=
CT
(1)
is a linear function of r. A more
general
linear function
may
be obtained
by considering
the
components
of
r
individ
ually.
Let
i, j,
k be a
system
of axes. The
components
of
r are
i
r, j
r,
k r.
Let each of these be
multiplied by
a scalar constant which
may
be different for the different
components.
c
l
i
r,
c
2
j
r,
c
3
k r.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 261
Take these as the
components
of a new vector r
r
=
i
(Cji-^
+
j (c a
j-r)
+
k
(c 8
k-r). (2)
The vector r is then a linear function of r. Its
components
are
always equal
to the
corresponding components
of r each
multiplied by
a definite scalar constant.
Such a linear function has numerous
applications
in
geom
etry
and
physics.
If,
for
instance, i,
j,
k be the axes of a
homogeneous
strain and c
v
c
2
,
c
3
,
the
elongations along
these
axes,
a
point
r
=
ix
+
j y
+
bz
becomes r
=
i c
l
x
-f
j
c
2 y
+
k c
3
z,
or r
=
i c
l
i r
+
j
<?
2 j
r
+
k c
3
k r.
This sort of linear function occurs in the
theory
of
elasticity
and in
hydrodynamics.
In the
theory
of
electricity
and
magnetism,
the electric force E is a linear function of the
electric
displacement
D in a dielectric. For
isotropic
bodies
the function becomes
merely
a constant
But in case the
body
be
non-isotropic,
the
components
of the
force
along
the different axes will be
multiplied by
different
constants k
v
&
2
,
&
3
. Thus
E
=
i%
1
i*D
+
j
2
j
.D
+
k&gk-D.
The linear vector function is
indispensable
in
dealing
with
the
phenomena
of
electricity, magnetism,
and
optics
in non-
isotropic
bodies.
98.]
It is
possible
to define a linear vector
function,
as has
been done
above,
by
means of the
components
of a vector.
The most
general
definition would be
262
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Definition
: A vector
r
is said to be a linear vector func
tion of another vector
r
when the
components
of r
along
three
non-coplanar
vectors are
expressible linearly
with scalar
coefficients in terms of the
components
of r
along
those same
vectors.
If r
=
XB,
+
yb
+ zc,
where
[abc]
^
0,
and r
=
# a
+
y
b
+
z
c,
and if x
f
=
a
l
x
+
b
l y
+
c
l
z
f
y
r
=
a^x
+
6
2 y
+
c
2
z,
(3)
z
f
=
a
z
x
+
l
z y
+
c
3
z,
then r is a linear function of r.
(The
constants
a^
l
v
c
v
etc.,
have no connection with the
components
of
a, b,
c
par
allel to
i,
j, k.)
Another definition however is found to be
more convenient and from it the
foregoing may
be deduced.
Definition
: A continuous vector function of a vector is
said to be a linear vector function when the function of the
sum of
any
two vectors is the sum of the functions of those
vectors. That
is,
the function
/is
linear if
/(r1
+
r
2 )=/(r1 )+/(ra ). (4)
Theorem : If a be
any positive
or
negative
scalar and if
/
be a linear
function,
then the function of a times
r
is a times
the function of r.
/0r)
=
a/(r), (5)
And hence
/(a1
r
1
+
a
2
r
2
+
a
3
r
3
+
.-)
=
i f<Ji)
+
<**f (r a
)+
8 /(*8)
+
(5)
The
proof
of this theorem which
appears
more or less
obvious is a trifle
long.
It
depends upon making repeated
use of relation
(4).
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 263
Hence
/(2r)
=
2/(r).
In like manner
/ (n r)
=
nf (r)
where n is
any positive integer.
Let m be
any
other
positive integer.
Then
by
the relation
just
obtained
Hence
/
(.i) =/(
i
r
)=-?./
(,).
\
w
/
\
m
/
m
That
is,
equation (5)
has been
proved
in case the constant a
is a rational
positive
number.
To show the relation for
negative
numbers note that
/(0)=/(0
+
0)
=
2/(0).
Hence
/(0)
=
0.
But
/(O) =/(r-r) =/(
r
+(-r)) =/(r)
Hence r=
To
prove (5)
for incommensurable values of the constant
a,
it becomes
necessary
to make use of the
continuity
of the
function
/.
That is
Let x
approach
the incommensurable number a
by passing
through
a suite of commensurable values. Then
Hence
*****. +
( xi}
=
a
x = a
J v
~
264
VECTOR ANALYSIS
LlM
(ar)=ar.
#
=
a
v
Hence
/(")
=
/ 00
which
proves
the theorem.
Theorem: A linear vector function
/(r)
is
entirely
deter
mined when its values for three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c
are
known.
Let
l=/(a),
m=/(b),
n=/(c).
Since r is
any
vector
whatsoever,
it
may
be
expressed
as
r
=
#a
+
yb
+
3C.
Hence
/ (r)
=
x 1
+
y
m
+
z n.
99.]
In Art. 97 a
particular
case of a linear function was
expressed
as
r =
i c
l
i r
+
j
c
2
j
r
+
k c
3
k
r.
For the sake of
brevity
and to save
repeating
the vector
r
which occurs in each of these terms in the same
way
this
may
be written in the
symbolic
form
In like manner if a
p
a
2
,
a
8
be
any given
vectors,
and b
p
b
2
,
b
3
,
another set
equal
in
number,
the
expression
r
=
a!
b
x
r
+
a
2
b
2
r
+
a
3
b
3
r
+
-
(6)
is a linear vector function of
r
;
for
owing
to the distributive
character of the scalar
product
this function of
r
satisfies
relation
(4).
For the sake of
brevity
r
may
be written
sym
bolically
in the form
r
=
(ai
b
x
+
a
a
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
.)
r.
(6)
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
265
No
particular physical
or
geometrical significance
is to be
attributed at
present
to the
expression
(a^
+
a^
+
agbg
+
.) (7)
It should be
regarded
as an
operator
or
symbol
which -con
verts the vector r into the vector r and which
merely
affords a convenient and
quick way
of
writing
the relation
(6).
Definition
: An
expression
a b
formed
by
the
juxtaposition
of two vectors without the intervention of a dot or a cross is
called a
dyad.
The
symbolic
sum of two
dyads
is called a
dyadic
binomial
;
of
three,
a
dyadic
trinomial
;
of
any
num
ber,
a
dyadic polynomial.
For the
sake
of
brevity dyadic
binomials, trinomials,
and
polynomials
will be called
simply
dyadics.
The first vector in a
dyad
is called the antecedent
;
and the second
vector,
the
consequent.
The antecedents of a
dyadic
are the vectors which are the antecedents of the
individual
dyads
of which the
dyadic
is
composed.
In like
manner the
consequents
of a
dyadic
are the
consequents
of
the individual
dyads.
Thus in the
dyadic (7)
a
p
a
2
,
a
3
are
the antecedents and b
r
b
2
,
b
3
-
the
consequents.
Dyadics
will be
represented symbolically by
the
capital
Greek letters. When
only
one
dyadic
is
present
the letter
will
generally
be used. In case several are under consid
eration other Greek
capitals
will be
employed
also. With
this notation
(7)
becomes
and
(6) may
now be written
briefly
in the form
r
=
d> r.
(8)
By
definition r
=
aj
b
x
r
+
a
2
b
2
r
+
a
3
b
3
r
+
The
symbol
<P-r is read dot r. It is called the direct
product
of into r because the
consequents bj,
b
2
,
b
3
-
are
266
VECTOR ANALYSIS
multiplied
into
r
by
direct or scalar
multiplication.
The
order of the factors and r is
important.
The direct
product
of r into is
r <P
=
r
.
(aa ^
+ a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
.
)
=
r
.
a
x bj
+
r a
2
b
2
+
r
-
a
3
b
3
+
. . .
(9)
Evidently
the vectors r and r
are in
general
different.
Definition
: When the
dyadic
is
multiplied
into r
as
r,
is said to be a
pref
actor to r. When
r
is
multiplied
in as
r
<#,
is said to be a
post/actor
to r.
A
dyadic
used either as a
pref
actor or as a
postf
actor to a
vector r determines a linear vector
function of
r. The two linear
vector functions thus obtained are in
general
different from
one another.
They
are called
conjugate
linear vector func
tions. The two
dyadics
^ajbj
+
ajbg
+
agbg
+
...
and
=
b
x
a
x
+
b
2
a
2
+
b
3
a
3
+ ,
each of which
may
be obtained from the other
by
inter
changing
the antecedents and
consequents,
are called
conjitr
gate dyadics.
The fact that one
dyadic
is the
conjugate
of
another is denoted
by affixing
a
subscript
C to either.
Thus
=
C
=
c
.
Theorem: A
dyadic
used as a
postf
actor
gives
the same
result as its
conjugate
used as a
prefactor.
That is
r =
C
r.
(9)
100.] Definition
:
Any
two
dyadics
and W are said to
be
equal
when r
=
W r for all values of
r,
or when r
=
r W for all values of
r,
(10)
or when B r
=
B W r for all values of s and r.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 267
The third relation is
equivalent
to the first.
For,
if the
vectors
r and W r are
equal,
the scalar
products
of
any
vector s into them must be
equal.
And
conversely
if the
scalar
product
of
any
and
every
vector s into the vectors r
and *T are
equal,
then those vectors must be
equal.
In
like manner it
may
be shown that the third relation is
equiva
lent to the second. Hence all three are
equivalent.
Theorem : A
dyadic
is
completely
determined when the
values
0.a,
0.b, 0.c,
where
a, b,
c are
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors,
are known.
This follows
immediately
from the fact that a
dyadic
defines
a linear vector function. If
.
r
=
0.(#a
+
2/b
+
zc)==#
a
+ ?/*b-Mc,
Consequently
two
dyadics
and W are
equal provided equa
tions
(10)
hold for three
non-coplanar
vectors
r and three
non-coplanar
vectors s.
Theorem :
Any
linear vector function
/ may
be
represented
by
a
dyadic
to be used as a
prefactor
and
by
a
dyadic
,
which is the
conjugate
of
0,
to be used as a
postfactor.
The linear vector function is
completely
determined when
its values for three
non-coplanar
vectors
(say
i,
j, k)
are
known
(page
264).
Let
/
Then the linear function
/
is
equivalent
to the
dyadic
to be used as a
postfactor;
and to the
dyadic
=
<P
(7
=
ia
+
jb
+
kc,
to be used as a
prefactor.
268 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The
study
of linear vector functions therefore is identical
with the
study
of
dyadics.
Definition
: A
dyad
a b is said to be
multiplied by
a scalar
a when the antecedent or the
consequent
is
multiplied by
that
scalar,
or when a is distributed in
any
manner between
the antecedent and the
consequent.
If a
=
a a
11
a
(ab)
=
(a a)
b
=
a
(a
b)
=
(a a) (a" b).
A
dyadic
is said to be
multiplied by
the scalar a when
each of its
dyads
is
multiplied by
that scalar. The
product
is written
a or <Pa.
The
dyadic
a $
applied
to a vector r either as a
prefactor
or
as a
postfactor yields
a vector
equal
to a times the vector
obtained
by applying
to r that is
(a
0)
r
=
a
(0 r).
Theorem : The combination of vectors in a
dyad
is distrib
utive. That is
(a
+
b)
c
=
a c
+
b c
...
and a
(b
+
c)
=
ab
+
ac.
This follows
immediately
from the definition of
equality
of
dyadics (10).
For
[(a
+
b) c]
r
=
(a
+
b)
c r
=
a c r
+
b c r
=
(a
c
+
b
c)
r
and
[a(b
+
c)]
r
=
a
(b
+
c)
r
=
ab -r
+
ac- r
=
(ab
+
ac)
r.
Hence it follows that a
dyad
which consists of two
factors,
each of which is the sum of a number of
vectors,
may
be
multiplied
out
according
to the law of
ordinary algebra
except
that the order
of
the
factors
in the
dyads
must be
maintained.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
269
bn+
...
(11)
+ cl-f cm-f cn+
The
dyad
therefore
appears
as a
product
of the two vectors of
which it is
composed,
inasmuch as it
obeys
the characteris
tic law of
products
the distributive law. This is a
justifi
cation for
writing
a
dyad
with the antecedent and conse
quent
in
juxtaposition
as is
customary
in the case of
products
in
ordinary algebra.
The Nonion Form
of
a
Dyadic
10L]
From the three unit vectors
i, j,
k
nine
dyads may
be obtained
by combining
two at a time. These are
ii, ij, ik,
ji, jj, jk,
(12)
ki,
kj,
kk.
If all the antecedents and
consequents
in a
dyadic
be ex
pressed
in terms of
i, j, k,
and if the
resulting expression
be
simplified by performing
the
multiplications
according
to the
distributive law
(11)
and if the terms be
collected,
the
dyadic
may
be reduced to the sum of nine
dyads
each of which is
a scalar
multiple
of one of the nine fundamental
dyads given
above.
=
a
n
ii
+
a
12
ij
+
a
13
ik
+
2iJi
+a
22
jj
+
a23
jk (13)
+
a
31
ki
+
a
32
kj
+
a
33
kk.
This is called the nonion form of 0.
Theorem : The
necessary
and sufficient condition that two
dyadics
4> and W be
equal
is
that,
when
expressed
in nonion
270
VECTOR ANALYSIS
form,
the scalar coefficients of the
corresponding dyads
be
equal.
If the coefficients be
equal,
then
obviously
<P. r= W
.
r
for
any
value of r and the
dyadics by (10)
must be
equal.
Conversely,
if the
dyadics
and W are
equal,
then
by (10)
s r =
s W r
for all values of s and r. Let s and r each take on the values
i,j,k.
Then
(14)
i
.
d>
.
i
=
i
-
i,
i
. .
j
=
i
.
W
j,
i k
=
i iT k
j
.
0.i=j.
W.i,
j. </.j =j.
.
j, j.
<P.k
=
j.
?T.k
k. <P-i
=
k.
?F.i,
k- 0-
j
=
k-
?F.j,
k 0- k
=
k r.k.
But these
quantities
are
precisely
the nine coefficients in the
expansion
of the
dyadics
and W.
Hence the
corresponding
coefficients are
equal
and the theorem is
proved.
1
This
analytic
statement of the
equality
of two
dyadics
can some
times be used to
greater advantage
than the more fundamental
definition
(10)
based
upon
the
conception
of the
dyadic
as
defining
a linear vector function.
Theorem : A
dyadic may
be
expressed
as the sum of nine
dyads
of which the antecedents are
any
three
given
non-
coplanar
vectors, a, b,
c and the
consequents any
three
given
non-coplanar
vectors
1, m,
n.
Every
antecedent
may
be
expressed
in terms of
a, b,
c
;
and
every consequent,
in terms of
1, m,
n. The
dyadic may
then be reduced to the form
=
a
n
al
+
&
12
am
+
a
13
an
+
a
21
bl
+
22
bin
+
a
23
bn
(15)
-f-
fflai
c 1
+
a
32
c m
+
^33
c n.
1
As a
corollary
of the theorem it is evident that the nine
dyads (12)
are in
dependent.
None of them
may
be
expressed linearly
in terms of the others.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
271
This
expression
of <P is more
general
than that
given
in
(13).
It reduces to that
expression
when each set of vectors
a,
b,
c and
1, m,
n coincides with
i,
j,
k.
Theorem :
Any dyadic
<#
may
be reduced to the sum of
three
dyads
of which either the antecedents or the
consequents,
but not
both,
may
be
arbitrarily
chosen
provided they
be non-
coplanar.
Let it be
required
to
express
4> as the sum of three
dyads
of which
a, b,
c are the antecedents. Let
1, m,
n be
any
other
three
non-coplanar
vectors.
may
then be
expressed
as in
(15).
Hence
=
a
(a
n
1
+
12
m
+
a
13 n)
+
b
(a 21
1
+
22
m
+
23 n)
+
c
Osi
1
+
32
m
+
a
32 n),
or <P
=
aA
+
bB
+
cC.
(16)
In like manner if it be
required
to
express
$ as the sum of
three
dyads
of which the three
non-coplanar
vectors
1, m,
n are
the
consequents
=
Ll
+
Mm
+
Nn,
(16)
where L
=
a
n
a
+
a
2l
b
+
a
31
c,
M
=
a
12
a
+
22
b
+
a
32
c
>
N
=
a
lB
a
+
a
23
b
+
a
ZB
c.
The
expressions (15), (16),
(16)
for are
unique.
Two
equal
dyadics
which have the same three
non-coplanar
ante
cedents, a, b, c,
have the same
consequents
A, B,
C
- -
these
however need not be
non-coplanar.
And two
equal dyadics
which have the same three
non-coplanar consequents
1, m, n,
have the same three antecedents.
102.
]
Definition:
The
symbolic product
formed
by
the
juxta
position
of two vectors
a,
b without the intervention of a dot
or a cross is called the indeterminate
product
of the two vectors
a and b.
272 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The reason for the term
indeterminate is this. The two
products
a b and a x b have definite
meanings.
One is a
certain
scalar,
the other a certain vector. On the other hand
the
product
ab is neither vector nor scalar it is
purely
symbolic
and
acquires
a determinate
physical meaning only
when used as an
operator.
The
product
a b
does not
obey
the commutative law. It does however
obey
the distributive
law
(11)
and the associative law as far as scalar
multiplication
is concerned
(Art 100).
TJieorem : The indeterminate
product
a b of two vectors is
the most
general product
in which scalar
multiplication
is
associative.
The most
general product
conceivable
ought
to have the
property
that when the
product
is known the two factors are
also known.
Certainly
no
product
could be more
general.
Inasmuch as scalar
multiplication
is to be
associative,
that is
a
(ab)
=
(a
a)
b
=
a
(a b)
=
(a*
a) (a"b),
it will be
impossible
to
completely
determine the vectors a
and
b
when their
product
a b is
given. Any
scalar factor
may
be transferred from one vector to the other.
Apart
from
this
possible
transference of a scalar
factor,
the vectors com
posing
the
product
are known when the
product
is known. In
other words
Theorem : If the two indeterminate
products
a b and a b
are
equal,
the vectors a and a
,
b and b must be collinear and
the
product
of the
lengths
of a and b
(taking
into account the
positive
or
negative sign according
as a and b have
respec
tively equal
or
opposite
directions to a and b
)
is
equal
to the
product
of the
lengths
of a and b .
Let a
=
a
l
i
+
&
2
j
+
a
3
k,
b
=
l
l
i
+
&
2
j
+
6
3
k,
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
273
a
=
a
1
i
+
a
2
j
+
a
3
k,
v
=
Vi
+
yj
+
&,
*
Then &b
=
a
1
b
1
ii
+
a^^
ij
+
a
1
b
3
ik
a
2
&
3 jj
+
a
2
6
3 jk
a,&, kj
+
a
3
6
3
kk.
and a V
=
, &/
ii
+
a/V
ij
+
aj
6
3
ik
+
<V ji
+
, &,
jj
+
a
2
6
3 jk
+
o
8 6j
ki
+
o,
6
t kj
+
a
3
&
3
kk.
Since ab
=
a b
corresponding
coefficients are
equal.
Hence
a
1
:a
2
:a
s
=
a
1
:a
2
:a
3
,
which shows that the vectors a and a are collinear.
And &
1 :,:68
=
V-
/
-
V.
which shows that the vectors b and V are collinear.
But a
l
b
l
=
a/ &/.
This shows that the
product
of the
lengths (including sign)
are
equal
and the theorem is
proved.
The
proof may
be carried out
geometrically
as follows.
Since ab is
equal
to a V
ab r
=
a b r
for all values of r. Let r be
perpendicular
to b. Then
b r
vanishes and
consequently
Vr also vanishes. This is true
for
any
vector r in the
plane perpendicular
to b. Hence b and
b
are
perpendicular
to the same
plane
and are collinear. In
like manner
by using
a b
as a
postf
actor a and a are seen
to be
parallel.
Also
ab-b
=
a b
-b,
which shows that the
products
of the
lengths
are the same.
18
274 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The indeterminate
product
ab
imposes Jive
conditions
upon
the vectors a and b. The directions of a and b are fixed and
likewise the
product
of their
lengths.
The scalar
product
a
b,
being
a scalar
quantity, imposes only
one condition
upon
a and b. The vector
product
a x
b,
being
a vector
quantity,
imposes
three conditions. The normal to the
plane
of a and
b is fixed and also the area of the
parallelogram
of which
they
are the side. The nine indeterminate
products (12)
of
i,j,
k
into themselves are
independent.
The nine scalar
products
are not
independent. Only
two of them are different.
and
i.j=j.i=j.k
=
kj=ki
=
ik
=
0.
The nine vector
products
are mot
independent
either;
for
ixi
=
jxj
=
kxk
=
0,
and
ixj
=
jxi, jxk=
kxj,
kxi ixk.
The two
products
a b and a
x
b
obtained
respectively
from
the indeterminate
product by inserting
a dot and a cross be
tween the factors are functions of the indeterminate
product.
That is to
say,
when ab is
given,
a b and a x b are determined.
For these
products depend solely upon
the directions of a and b
and
upon
the
product
of the
length
of a and
b,
all of which
are known when ab is known. That is
if ab
=
a b
,
a
b =
a b and a x
b =
a x
b
.
(17)
It does not hold
conversely
that if a b and a
x
b
are known
a b is fixed
;
for taken
together
a b and a X b
impose upon
the
vectors
only
four
conditions,
whereas a b
imposes
five. Hence
a b
appears
not
only
as the most
general product
but as the
most fundamental
product.
The others are
merely
functions
of it. Their functional nature is
brought
out
clearly by
the
notation of the dot and the cross.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 275
Definition:
A scalar known as the scalar
of may
be ob
tained
by inserting
a dot between the antecedent and conse
quent
of each
dyad
in a
dyadic.
This scalar will be denoted
by
a
subscript
S attached to 0.
l
If <P
=
a
1
b
1
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
...
8
=
&1
b
x
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
.
b
3
+
. .
(18)
In like manner a vector known as the vector
of may
be
obtained
by inserting
a cross between the antecedent and con
sequent
of each
dyad
in 0. This vector will be denoted
by
attaching
a
subscript
cross to 0.
X
=
aj
x b
x
+
a
2
x b
2
+
a
3
x b
3
+
. -
(19)
If be
expanded
in nonion form in terms of
i,
j,
k,
s
=
a
n
+
a^
+
a
BZ
,
(20)
#x
=
(
28
-
a
32)
*
+
0*31
-
a
! 3
) J
+
(^12
-
a
2l)
k
-
(
21
)
Or
S
=
i- 0-i
+
j- <Pj
+
k.
(?-k,
(20)
<?
x =(j
.
(P-k-k*
^.j)
i+
(k-
(P-i-i.
(P.k) j
+
(i- 0-j-j.0.i)k. (21)
In
equations (20)
and
(21)
the scalar and vector of are
expressed
in terms of the coefficients of when
expanded
in the nonion form. Hence if and W are two
equal
dyadics,
the scalar of is
equal
to the scalar of and the
vector of is
equal
to the vector of .
If
=
W,
S
=
s
and
X
=
y
x
.
(22)
From this it
appears
that
S
and
X
are functions of
uniquely
determined when is
given. They may
sometimes
be obtained more
conveniently
from
(20)
and
(21)
than from
(18)
and
(19),
and sometimes not.
1
A
subscript
dot
might
be used for the scalar of * if it were
sufficiently
distinct
and free from
liability
to
misinterpretation.
276
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Products
of Dyddics
103.]
In
giving
the definitions and
proving
the theorems
concerning products
of
dyadics,
the
dyad
is made the under
lying principle.
What is true for the
dyad
is true for the
dyadic
in
general owing
to the fact that
dyads
and
dyadics
obey
the distributive law of
multiplication.
Definition:
The direct
product
of the
dyad
ab into the
dyad
c d is written ,
,
x ,
,.
(ab) (cd)
and is
by
definition
equal
to the
dyad (b c)
a d,
(ab)-(cd)
=
a(b.c)d
=
b-c ad.
1
(23)
That
is,
the antecedent of the first and the
consequent
of the
second
dyad
are taken for the antecedent and
consequent
respectively
of the
product
and the whole is
multiplied by
the scalar
product
of the
consequent
of the first and the
antecedent of the second.
Thus the two vectors which stand
together
in the
product
(ab). (cd)
are
multiplied
as
they
stand. The other two are left to form
a new
dyad.
The direct
product
of two
dyadics may
be
defined as the formal
expansion (according
to the distributive
law)
of the
product
into a sum of
products
of
dyads.
Thus
*=(a1
b
1
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
...)
and
r^CCjdj
+
c
2
d
2
+
c
3
d
3
+
-..)
d>.
?T=(a1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
)
(c^j
+
c
2
d
2
+ C
3
d
3 +)
=
a
1
b
1
c
1
d
1
+
a
1
b
1
*e
2
d
a
+
a
x
b
x
C
3
d
3
+
+
a
2
b
2
-c
1
d
1
+a
2
b
2
.c
2
d
2
+
a
2
b
2
C
3
d
3
+
(23)
+
agbg-c^
+
a
3
b
3
-c
2
d
2
+
a
3
b
3
c
3
d
3
H
+
1
The
parentheses may
be omitted in each of these three
expressions.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
277
x ajdj
+
bj
c
2
a
x
d
2
-f
b
x
c
3
a
x
d
3
+
l
a
2
d
x
+
b
2
-c
2
a
2
d
2
+
b
2
c
3 a^j
d
3
-f-
b
3
.c
2
a
3
d
2
+
b
3
-c
3
a
3
d
3
(23)"
The
product
of two
dyadics
and W is a
dyadic
W.
Theorem : The
product
W of two
dyadics
(P and W when
regarded
as an
operator
to be used as a
prefactor
is
equiva
lent to the
operator
W followed
by
the
operator
0.
Let =&..
To show Q r
=
d>
(
W
r),
or
((? W)*T
=
0-
(^ 0- (24)
Let ab be
any dyad
of <? and c d
any dyad
of W.
(ab cd)
r
=
b c
(ad r)
=
(b c) (d r)
a,
ab
(c
d
r)
=
a b c
(d r)
=
(b c) (d r)
a,
Hence
(a
b c
d)
r
=
a b
(c
d
r).
The theorem is true for
dyads. Consequently by
virtue of
the distributive law it holds true for
dyadics
in
general.
If r denote the
position
vector drawn from an assumed
origin
to a
point
P in
space,
r
=
W r will be the
position
vector of
another
point
P
,
and r"
=
(^(3
r
r)
will be the
position
vector of a third
point
P
n
. That is to
say,
W defines a trans
formation of
space
such that the
points
P
go
over into the
points
P
f
. defines a transformation of
space
such that the
points
P
f
go
over into the
points
P". Hence W followed
by
carries P into P
ff
. The
single operation
W also carries
PintoP".
Theorem: Direct
multiplication
of
dyadics obeys
the dis*
tributive law. That is
278
VECTOR ANALYSIS
(
+
f
)
= .
W
+
.
and
(0
f
+
0)
W
=
f
.
+
.
W.
(25)
Hence in
general
the
product
(4>+
4>
+
4>"
+
...).(
W+ +
?F"+...)
may
be
expanded
formally according
to the distributive law.
Theorem : The
product
of three
dyadics
<P, W,
Q is associa-
tive. Thatis
( t.r).
o= t.
(ma> (26)
and
consequently
either
product may
be written without
parentheses,
as
.
V
.
Q,
(26)
The
proof
consists in the demonstration of the theorem for
three
dyads
ab, cd,
ef taken
respectively
from the three
dyadics
4>, ,
Q.
(abcd)
ef
=
(bc)
ad ef
=
(bc)
(d- e) af,
ab
(cdef)
=
(d^e)
ab -cf
=
(d e) (b c)
af.
The
proof may
also be
given by considering
0, W,
and Q
as
operators
Let
Let
Again {^.(f. J)}
.
r
=
*.
[(f. J2).r].
Hence
{(* F) Q\
-r
=
{(?
(V
T)\
r
for all values of r.
Consequently
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 279
The theorem
may
be extended
by
mathematical induction
to the case of
any
number of
dyadics.
The direct
product
of
any
number of
dyadics
is associative. Parentheses
may
be inserted or omitted at
pleasure
without
altering
the result.
It was shown above
(24)
that
(<P T)
r = .
(
-
r)
=
<P V r.
(24)
Hence the
product
of two
dyadics
and a vector is associative.
The theorem is true in case the vector
precedes
the
dyadics
and also when the number of
dyadics
is
greater
than two.
But the theorem is untrue when the vector occurs between
the
dyadics.
The
product
of a
dyadic,
a
vector,
and another
dyadic
is not associative.
(#.r).
V
0.(r- ). (27)
Let ab be a
dyad
of
$,
and c d a
dyad
of .
(a
b
r)
c d
=
b r
(a
c
d)
=
(b r) (a c)
d,
ab
(r
c
d)
=
ab d
(r c)
=
b d
(r c)
a
Hence
(ab r)
c d ab
(r cd).
The results of this article
may
be summed
up
as follows :
Theorem: The direct
product
of
any
number of
dyadics
or of
any
number of
dyadics
with a vector factor at either
end or at both ends
obeys
the distributive and associative
laws of
multiplication parentheses may
be inserted or
omitted at
pleasure.
But the direct
product
of
any
number
of
dyadics
with a vector factor at some other
position
than at
either end is not associative
parentheses
are
necessary
to
give
the
expression
a definite
meaning.
Later it will be seen that
by making
use of the
conjugate
dyadics
a vector factor which occurs between other
dyadics
may
be
placed
at the end and hence the
product may
be
made to assume a form in which it is associative.
280 VECTOR ANALYSIS
104.]
Definition:
The skew
products
of a
dyad
ab into
a vector
r and of a vector r into a
dyad
ab are defined
respectively by
the
equations
(ab)
x r
=
a(b
x
r),
rx(ab)
=
(r
x
a)b.
The skew
product
of a
dyad
and a vector at either end is a
dyad.
The obvious extension
to
dyadics
is
rrrajbj
x r
+
a
2
b
2
xr
+
a
3
b
3
x r
+
...
r x
=
r
x
(a a
b
a
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
. .
.) (28)
=
r x
ajbj
+
r x a
2
b
2
+
r x a
3
b
3
+
...
Theorem: The direct
product
of
any
number of
dyadics
multiplied
at either end or at both ends
by
a vector whether
the
multiplication
be
performed
with a cross or a dot is
associative. But in case the vector occurs at
any
other
position
than the end the
product
is not associative. That
is,
(rx <P)
Sr
=
rx(0.y)=rx
<P
,
(<P ?F) xr=(P.(?P xr)
=
<P.?
r
xr,
(r
x
#)
s
=
r x
( s)
=
r x <P
s, (29)
r
.
(0
x
s)
=
(r </>)
x s
=
r <P x
s,
rx($xs)
=
(rx $)xs
=
rx
$xs,
but
!P
(rX^)^(S
jr
-r) X*.
Furthermore the
expressions
s r x <P and <P x r s
can have no other
meaning
than
s r x <P
=
s
(r
x
<P),
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 281
since the
product
of a
dyadic
with a cross into a scalar s r
is
meaningless.
Moreover since the dot and the cross
may
be
interchanged
in the scalar
triple product
of three vectors
it
appears
that
s r x ^ =
(s
x
r) 0,
<p x r s
=
4>
(r
x
s),
(31)
and
0-(r
x
5F)
=
(</>
x
r)
V.
The
parentheses
in the
following expressions
cannot be
omitted without
incurring ambiguity.
<p.(r
x
s) (0-r)
x
s,
(sx
r). 0*sx(r-0), (31)
(0-r)
x
*
x(r. >).
The formal skew
product
of two
dyads
a b and c d would be
(ab)
x
(cd)
=
a(b
x
c)d.
In this
expression
three vectors
a,
b x
c,
d are
placed
side
by
side with no
sign
of
multiplication uniting
them. Such
an
expression
rst
(32)
is called a triad
;
and a sum of such
expressions,
a triadic.
The
theory
of triadics is
intimately
connected with the
theory
of linear
dyadic
functions of a
vector,
just
as the
theory
of
dyadics
is connected with the
theory
of linear vector functions
of a vector. In a similar manner
by going
a
step higher
tetrads and tetradics
may
be
formed,
and
finally polyads
and
polyadics.
But the
theory
of these
higher
combinations of
vectors will not be taken
up
in this book. The
dyadic
furnishes about as
great
a
generality
as is ever called for in
practical applications
of vector methods.
282
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Degrees of Nullity of Dyadics
105.]
It was shown
(Art. 101)
that a
dyadic
could
always
be reduced to a sum of three terms at
most,
and this reduction
can be
accomplished
in
only
one
way
when the antecedents
or the
consequents
are
specified.
In
particular
cases it
may
be
possible
to reduce the
dyadic
further to a sum of two
terms or to a
single
term or to zero. Thus let
<P
=
al
+
bm
+
cn.
If
1, m,
n are
coplanar
one of the three
may
be
expressed
in terms of the other two as
1
=
x m
+
y
n.
Then $
=
a#m
+
ayn
+
bm
+
cn,
=
(a#
+
b)m
+
(ay
+
c)n.
The
dyadic
has been reduced to two terms. If
1, m,
n were
all collinear the
dyadic
would reduce to a
single
term and if
they
all vanished the
dyadic
would vanish.
Theorem : If a
dyadic
be
expressed
as the sum of three
terms
<p
=
al
+
bm
+
en
of which the antecedents
a, b,
c are known to be
non-coplanar,
then the
dyadic may
be reduced to the sum of two
dyads
when and
only
when the
consequents
are
coplanar.
The
proof
of the first
part
of the theorem has
just
been
given.
To
prove
the second
part suppose
that the
dyadic
could be reduced to a sum of two terms
$
=
dp
+
eq
and that the
consequents
1, m,
n of were
non-coplanar.
This
supposition
leads to a contradiction. For let 1
,
m
,
n
be the
system reciprocal
to
1, m,
n. That
is,
mx n n x 1 1 x m
_
=
[Tmn]
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 283
The vectors
1
,
m
f
,
n exist and are
non-coplanar
because
1, m,
n have been assumed to be
non-coplanar. Any
vector r
may
be
expressed
in terms of them as
r
=
xl
f
+
ym
+ zn/
<p.r
=
(al
+
bm
+
en) (xl
1
+
ym
+
zn
).
But 1 1
=
m m
=
n n
=
1,
and 1 m
=
1 m
=
m n
=
m n
=
n 1
=
n 1
=
0.
Hence
$ r
=
x a
+
y
b
+ z,e.
By giving
to
r a suitable value the vector d> r
may
be made
equal
to
any
vector in
space.
But r
=
(dp
+
e
q)
-
r
=
d
(p r)
+
e
(q r).
This shows that r must be
coplanar
with d and e. Hence
r can take on
only
those vector values which lie in the
plane
of d and e. Thus the
assumption
that
1, m,
n are non-
coplanar
leads to a contradiction. Hence
1, m,
n must be
coplanar
and the theorem is
proved.
Theorem : If a
dyadic
be
expressed
as the sum of three
terms
of which the antecedents
a, b,
c are known to be
non-coplanar,
the
dyadic
can be reduced to a
single dyad
when and
only
when the
consequents
1, m,
n are collinear.
The
proof
of the first
part
was
given
above. To
prove
the second
part suppose
<P could be
expressed
as
Let
284 VECTOR ANALYSIS
From the second
equation
it is evident that W used as a
postfactor
for
any
vector
r
=
x a
+
y
b
+
zc
,
where a
, V,
c is the
reciprocal system
to
a, b,
c
gives
From the first
expression
r
=
0.
Hence
#lxp+ymxp
+
znxp
must be zero for
every
value of
r,
that
is,
for
every
value of
x,
y,
z. Hence
1 x
p
=
0,
mxp
=
0,
nxp
=
0.
Hence
1, m,
and n are all
parallel
to
p
and the theorem has
been demonstrated.
If the three
consequents
1, m,
n had been known to be non-
coplanar
instead of the three
antecedents,
the statement of
the theorems would have to be altered
by interchanging
the
words antecedent and
consequent throughout.
There is a fur
ther theorem
dealing
with the case in which both antecedents
and
consequents
of are
coplanar.
Then is reducible to
the sum of two
dyads.
106.]
Definition:
A
dyadic
which cannot be reduced to
the sum of fewer than three
dyads
is said to be
complete.
A
dyadic
which
may
be reduced to the sum of two
dyads,
but
cannot be reduced to a
single dyad
is said to be
planar.
In
case the
plane
of the antecedents and the
plane
of the con
sequents
coincide when the
dyadic
is
expressed
as the sum of
two
dyads,
the
dyadic
is said to be
uniplanar.
A
dyadic
which
may
be reduced to a
single dyad
is said to be linear.
In case the antecedent and
consequent
of that
dyad
are col-
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 285
linear,
the
dyadic
is said to be unilinear. If a
dyadic may
be
so
expressed
that all of its terms vanish the
dyadic
is said to
be zero. In this case the nine coefficients of the
dyadic
as
expressed
in nonion form must vanish.
The
properties
of
complete, planar, uniplanar,
linear,
and
unilinear
dyadics
when
regarded
as
operators
are as follows.
Let
s
=
r and t
=
r <P.
If
is
complete
s and t
may
be made to take on
any
desired
value
by giving
r a suitable value.
As is
complete
1, m,
n are
non-coplanar
and hence have a
reciprocal system
l
f
,
m
,
n .
s
= .
(xl
f
+
ym
f
+
zn
)
=#a
+
yb
+ zc.
In like manner
a, b,
c
possess
a
system
of
reciprocals
a
, V,
c .
yb
+
zc
)
=
xl
+
ym
+
zn.
A
complete dyadic applied
to a vector
r
cannot
give
zero
unless the vector r itself is zero.
If
is
planar
the vector s
may
take on
any
value in the
plane
of
the antecedents and t
any
value in the
plane of
the
consequents
of
;
but no values out
of
those
planes.
The
dyadic
when
used as a
prefactor
reduces
every
vector
r in
space
to a vector
in the
plane
of the antecedents. In
particular any
vector r
perpendicular
to the
plane
of the
consequents
of is reduced
to zero. The
dyadic
used as a
postfactor
reduces
every
vector r in
space
to a vector in the
plane
of the
consequents
of <P. In
particular
a vector
perpendicular
to the
plane
of
the antecedents of is reduced to zero. In case the
dyadic
is
uniplanar
the same statements hold.
If
is linear the vector s
may
take on
any
value collinear
with the antecedent
of
and t
any
value collinear with the con-
286 VECTOR ANALYSIS
sequent of ;
but no other values. The
dyadic
used as a
prefactor
reduces
any
vector
r to the line of the
antecedent
of 0. In
particular any
vectors
perpendicular
to the con
sequent
of are reduced to zero. The
dyadic
used as a
postfactor
reduces
any
vector r to the line of the
consequent
of 0.
In
particular any
vectors
perpendicular
to the ante
cedent of are thus reduced to zero.
If
is a zero
dyadic
the vectors s and t are loth zero no
matter what the value
of
r
may
be.
Definition
: A
planar dyadic
is said to
possess
one
degree of
nullity.
A linear
dyadic
is said to
possess
two
degrees of
nullity.
A zero
dyadic
is said to
possess
three
degrees of
nul
lity
or
complete nullity.
107.]
Theorem : The direct
product
of two
complete dyadics
is
complete;
of a
complete dyadic
and a
planar dyadic,
planar
;
of a
complete dyadic
and a linear
dyadic,
linear.
Theorem: The
product
of two
planar dyadics
is
planar
except
when the
plane
of the
consequent
of the first
dyadic
in the
product
is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of the antece
dent of the second
dyadic.
In this case the
product
reduces
to a linear
dyadic
and
only
in this case.
Let B,
I
\)
I
+
a
2
b
2
,
Q
= .
W.
The vector s
=
W r takes on all values in the
plane
of
Cj
and c
2
The vector s
f
=
s takes on the values
g
= .
s
=
x
(b
x
c
x
)
a
x
+
y (b x
c
2 )
a
x
+
x
(
b
2
C
l)
a
2
+
y 0>2
C
)
E
2>
s =
\x (bj
c
x)
+
y (bj
c
2)}
a
x
+
{x (b2
c
x)
+
y (b 2
c
2)}
a
2
.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 287
Let s
=
x
&i
+
y
a
2
,
where x
1
=
x
(b x Cj)
+
y (b
l
c
2
),
and
y
1
x
(b
2 Cj)
4-
y (b
2
c
2).
These
equations may always
be solved for x and
y
when
any
desired values x
1
and
y
are
given
that
is,
when s has
any
desired value in the
plane
of
EJ
and a
2
unless the
determinant
V^ bj-c,
b
2
c
x
b
2
c
2
But
by (25), Chap.
II.,
this is
merely
the
product
0>i
x t>
2 ) (
c
i
x C
2)
= -
The vector
\
x b
2
is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of the con
sequents
of
<P;
and c
l
x c
2
,
to the
plane
of the antecedents of
. Their scalar
product
vanishes when and
only
when the
vectors are
perpendicular
that
is,
when the
planes
are
per
pendicular. Consequently
s
may
take on
any
value in
the
plane
of a
x
and a
2
and is therefore a
planar dyadic
unless the
planes
of b
x
and b
2
,
c
x
and c
2
are
perpendicular.
If however b
x
and b
2
,
Cj
and c
2
are
perpendicular
s
f
can take
on
only
values in a certain line of the
plane
of a
x
and
a^
and
hence <P W is linear. The theorem is therefore
proved.
Theorem : The
product
of two linear
dyadics
is linear
except
when the
consequent
of the first factor is
perpen
dicular to the antecedent of the second. In this case the
product
is zero and
only
in this case.
Theorem : The
product
of a
planar dyadic
into a linear is
linear
except
when the
plane
of the
consequents
of the
planar dyadic
is
perpendicular
to the antecedent of the linear
dyadic.
In this case the
product
is zero and
only
in this
case.
Theorem: The
product
of a linear
dyadic
into a
planar
dyadic
is linear
except
when the
consequent
of the linear
288 VECTOR ANALYSIS
dyadic
is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of the antecedents of
the
planar dyadic.
In this case the
product
is zero and
only
in this case.
It is
immediately
evident that in the cases mentioned the
products
do reduce to zero. It is not
quite
so
apparent
that
they
can reduce to zero in
only
those cases. The
proofs
are
similar to the one
given
above in the case of two
planar
dyadics. They
are left to the reader. The
proof
of the
first theorem
stated,
page
286,
is also left to the reader.
The
Idemfactor;
1
Reciprocals
and
Conjugates of Dyadics
108.]
Definition
: If a
dyadic applied
as a
pre
factor or as
a
postf
actor to
any
vector
always yields
that vector the
dyadic
is said to be an
idemf
actor. That is
if r
=
r for all values of
r,
or if r
=
r for all values of
r,
then is an idemfactor. The
capital
I is used as the
sym
bol for an idemfactor. The idemfactor is a
complete dyadic.
For there can be no direction in which I r vanishes.
Theorem : When
expressed
in nonion form the idemfactor is
I
=
ii
+
jj
+
kk.
(33)
Hence all idemfactors are
equal.
To
prove
that the idemfactor takes the form
(33)
it is
merely necessary
to
apply
the idemfactor I to the vectors
i, j,
k
respectively.
Let
1
= a
n
ii+
12
ij
+
a
13
ik
ki
+
a
32
kj +
a
33
kk.
1
In the
theory
of
dyadics
the idemfactor I
plays
a role
analogous
to
unity
in
ordinary algebra.
The notation is intended to
suggest
this
analogy.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 289
I
.
i
=
a
n
i
+
a
21
j
4-
a
31
k.
If
I-i
=
i,
a
n
=
1 and a
21
=
a
31
=
0.
In like manner it
may
be shown that all the coefficients
vanish
except
a
n
,
a
22
,
a
33
all of which are
unity.
Hence
I
=
ii
+
jj
+
kk.
(33)
Theorem : The direct
product
of
any dyadic
and the idem-
factor is that
dyadic.
That
is,
I
=
and 1-0
=
0.
For
(0 I)
r
=
(I r)
=
r,
no matter what the value of r
may
be.
Hence,
page
266,
In like manner it
may
be shown that I
=
0.
Theorem: If a
, V,
c and
a, b,
c be two
reciprocal systems
of vectors the
expressions
I
=
aa
+
bb
+
cc
,
(34)
I
=
a a
+
b b
+
c c
are idemfactors.
For
by (30)
and
(31) Chap.
II.,
r =
raa
+
r*bb
+
r cc
,
and r
=
ra a
+
r b b
+
r.c c.
Hence the
expressions
must be idemfactors
by
definition.
Theorem :
Conversely
if the
expression
=
al
+
bm
+
en
is an idemfactor
1, m,
n must be the
reciprocal system
of
a, b,
c.
19
290 VECTOR ANALYSIS
In the first
place
since (P is the
idemfactor,
it is a
complete
dyadic.
Hence the antecedents
a, b,
c are
non-coplanar
and
possess
a set of
reciprocals
a
,
b
,
c . Let
r
=
#a
+
y
V
+
20 .
By hypothesis
r $
=
r.
Then r <P
=
xl
+ ym-\-zn
=
xsi
+ y
b
+
zc
for all values of
r,
that
is,
for all values of
x,
y,
z.
Hence the
corresponding
coefficients must be
equal.
That
is,
Theorem : If (Pand be
any
two
dyadics,
and if the
product
<? W is
equal
to the idemfactor
;
l
then the
product
W
0,
when the factors are taken in the reversed
order,
is also
equal
to the idemfactor.
Let V
=
L
To show W
=
L
r
.
(0
.
W)
- =
(r 0) (
W
(?)
=
r 0.
This relation holds for all values of r. As is
complete
r
must take on all desired values. Hence
by
definition
W
=
I.
If the
product
of two
dyadics
is an
idemfactor,
that
product
may
be taken in either order.
109.]
Definition:
When two
dyadics
are so related that
their
product
is
equal
to the
idemfactor,
they
are said to be
1
This necessitates both the
dyadics
* and V to be
complete.
For the
product
of two
incomplete dyadics
is
incomplete
and hence could not be
equal
to the
idemfactor.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 291
reciprocals.
1
The notation used for
reciprocals
in
ordinary
algebra
is
employed
to denote
reciprocal
dyadics.
That
is,
if
0.y=I,
=
?F-i
=
1
and 5T= 0-i=L
(35)
W
Theorem:
Reciprocals
of the same or
equal dyadics
are
equal.
Let and W be two
given equal dyadics,
<J>~
1
and JT"
1
their
reciprocals
as defined above.
By hypothesis
0=
W,
and W.
~i
=
l.
To show 0-
1
=
~i.
0. 0-1
=
1= -1.
As
0=, 0.0~i=0.-\
0-1.0
=
I,
I.0-i
=
0-i
=
I. W~i
=
-1.
Hence 0-i
=
~\
The
reciprocal
of is the
dyadic
whose antecedents are the
reciprocal system
to the
consequents
of and whose conse
quents
are the
reciprocal system
to the antecedents of 0.
If a
complete dyadic
be written in the form
=
al
+
bm
+ en,
its
reciprocal
is 0"
1
=
1 a
+
m V
+
n c .
(36)
For
(al
+
bm
+
cn) (1
a
+
n V
+
n c
)
=aa
+
bV
+
ce .
Theorem : If the direct
products
of a
complete dyadic
into two
dyadics
W and Q are
equal
as
dyadics
then W and Q
1
An
incomplete dyadic
has no
(finite) reciprocal.
292
VECTOR ANALYSIS
are
equal.
If the
product
of a
dyadic
into two vectors
r and s
(whether
the
multiplication
be
performed
with a dot
or a
cross)
are
equal,
then the vectors r and s are
equal.
That
is,
if
- =
d>
J2,
then
=
Q,
and if r
=
s,
then r
=
s,
(37)
and if x r
=
x
s,
then r
=
s.
This
may
be seen
by multiplying
each of the
equations
through by
the
reciprocal
of
0,
0-1.0. W
= =
0-i Q
=
,
0-i
. .
r
=
r
=
0~! s
=
s,
0-1. 0xr
=
IXr=0"
1
-
0X8
=
1X8.
To reduce the last
equation proceed
as follows. Let t be
any
vector,
tIxr
=
tIxs,
t I
=
t.
Hence t x r
=
t x s.
As t is
any
vector,
r
is
equal
to s.
Equations (37) give
what is
equivalent
to the law of can-
celation for
complete dyadics. Complete dyadics may
be
canceled from either end of an
expression just
as if
they
were scalar
quantities.
The cancelation of an
incomplete
dyadic
is not admissible. It
corresponds
to the cancelation
of a zero factor in
ordinary algebra.
110.]
Theorem: The
reciprocal
of the
product
of
any
number of
dyadics
is
equal
to the
product
of the
reciprocals
taken in the
opposite
order.
It will be sufficient to
give
the
proof
for the case in
which
the
product
consists of two
dyadics.
To show
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
293
.
V 5F-
1
0~
l
=
(
?F y-
1
}
.
0~
l
=
0. 0-
l
=
I.
Hence
(0 ?F) (
JF-
1
0-
1
)
=
I.
Hence
?T and W~
l
(P"
1
must be
reciprocals.
That
is,
The
proof
for
any
number of
dyadics may
be
given
in the
same manner or obtained
by
mathematical induction.
Definition
: The
products
of a
dyadic
<P,
taken
any
number
of
times,
by
itself are called
powers
of and are denoted in
the
customary
manner.
. =
0*,
. . = .
02
0^
and so forth.
Theorem : The
reciprocal
of a
power
of <P is the
power
of
the
reciprocal
of <P.
(0)-i
=
(0-
1
)"
=
0-
(37)
The
proof
follows
immediately
as a
corollary
of the
preced
ing
theorem. The
symbol
<P"
n
may
be
interpreted
as the
nth
power
of the
reciprocal
of or as the
reciprocal
of
the nth
power
of 0.
If be
interpreted
as an
operator determining
a trans
formation of
space,
the
positive powers
of
correspond
to
repetitions
of the transformation. The
negative powers
of
correspond
to the inverse transformations. The idemfactor
corresponds
to the identical transformation that
is,
no trans
formation at all. The fractional and irrational
powers
of CP
will not be defined.
They
are seldom used and are not
single-valued.
For instance the idemfactor I has the two
square
roots 1. But in addition to these it has a
doubly
infinite
system
of
square
roots of the form
<P
=
-ii
+
jj
+
kk.
294
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Geometrically
the transformation
is a reflection of
space
in the
j k-plane.
This transformation
replaces
each
figure by
a
symmetrical figure, symmetrically
situated
upon
the
opposite
side of the
j
k-plane.
The trans
formation is sometimes called
perversion.
The idemfactor
has also a
doubly
infinite
system
of
square
roots of the form
Geometrically
the transformation
r
=
V.T
is a reflection in the i-axis. This transformation
replaces
each
figure by
its
equal
rotated about the i-axis
through
an
angle
of 180. The idemfactor thus
possesses
not
only
two
square
roots
;
but in addition two
doubly
infinite
systems
of
square
roots
;
and.
it will be seen
(Art. 129)
that these are
by
no
means all.
111.]
The
conjugate
of a
dyadic
has been defined
(Art. 99)
as the
dyadic
obtained
by interchanging
the antecedents and
consequents
of a
given dyadic
and the notation of a
subscript
C has been
employed.
The
equation
r
. =
4> r
(9)
has been demonstrated. The
following
theorems
concerning
conjugates
are useful.
Theorem : The
conjugate
of the sum or difference of two
dyadics
is
equal
to the sum or difference of the
conjugates,
(d> T)
=0
C
W
c
.
Theorem : The
conjugate
of a
product
of
dyadics
is
equal
to the
product
of the
conjugates
taken in the
opposite
order.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
295
It will be sufficient to demonstrate the theorem in case
the
product
contains
two factors. To show
(d>.T)c
=W
c
.0
Ct (40)
(0
.
W)c
.
r
=
r
(0 W)
=
(r 4>)
5F,
r
. =
<P
C
.
r,
(r
.
<P)
.
W
=
V
c
.
(r <P)
=
^ <^.
r.
Hence
(4> V) c
=
c
.4>
c
.
Theorem : The
conjugate
of the
power
of a
dyadic
is the
power
of the
conjugate
of the
dyadic.
This is a
corollary
of the
foregoing
theorem. The
expression
n
c
may
be
interpreted
in either of two
equal ways.
Theorem
: The
conjugate
of the
reciprocal
of a
dyadic
is
equal
to the
reciprocal
of the
conjugate
of the
dyadic.
=
^
(42)
For
(@~
l
)c c
=
(&
0~
1
)c
=
Ic
=
I-
The idemfactor is its own
conjugate
as
may
be seen from
the nonion form.
I
=
ii
+
j j
+
kk
Hence
(^c)"
1
*c
Hence
C^)
1
=
(*"%
The
expression
^
c
-1
may
therefore be
interpreted
in either
of two
equivalent ways
as the
reciprocal
of the
conjugate
or as the
conjugate
of the
reciprocal.
Definition:
If a
dyadic
is
equal
to its
conjugate,
it is said
to be
self-conjugate.
If it is
equal
to the
negative
of its con-
296
VECTOR ANALYSIS
jugate,
it is said to be
anti-self-conjugate.
For
se//-conjugate
dyadics.
r
=
r,
=
C
.
For
anti-self-conjugate dyadics
r
=
r,
=
00.
Theorem :
Any dyadic may
be divided in one and
only
one
way
into two
parts
of which one is
self-conjugate
and the
other
anti-self-conjugate.
For
0=5(0+0,)
+
2
(0-0c).
(43)
But
(&
+
c) c
=
c
+<p
cc
=:
4>
c
+
d>,
and
(0
-
0<,) c
=
$
-
<P
CC
=
0<,
_
0.
Hence the
part |(0
+
&c)
is
self-conjugate;
and the
part
|(^~
4>
c), anti-self-conjugate.
Thus the division has been
accomplished
in one
way.
Let
and
Suppose
it were
possible
to
decompose
in another
way
into a
self-conjugate
and an
anti-self-conjugate part.
Let
then
=
(0
+
J2)
+
(0"-).
Where
(0
+
0)
=
(0
+
),
= +
c
=
f
+ ^
Hence if
(0
;
-f
J2)
is
self-conjugate,
fi is
self-conjugate.
Hence if
(0" J2)
is
anti-self-conjugate
is anti-self-
conjugate.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 297
Any dyadic
which is both
self-conjugate
and
anti-self-conju
gate
is
equal
to its
negative
and
consequently
vanishes.
Hence Q is zero and the division of into two
parts
is
unique.
Anti-self-conjugate Dyadics.
The Vector Product
112.]
In case is
any dyadic
the
expression
gives
the
anti-self-conjugate part
of 0. If should be en
tirely
antinself-con
jugate
is
equal
to 0". Let therefore
n
be
any anti-self-conjugate dyadic,
Suppose
<P
=
al-hbm-fcn,
$
c
=
al la
+
bm mb
+
cn
nc,
20" r
=
a 1 r
lar-hbmr mbr
+ cnr n c r.
But a 1 r 1 a r
=
(a
x
1)
x
r,
bm r mb r
=
(b
x
m)
x
r,
c n r n c r
=
(cxn)xr.
Hence 0" r
=
~
(a
x 1
+
b x m
4-
c x
n)
x r.
But
by
definition <P
x
=
axl-fbxm4-cxn.
Hence
0" r
=
- ~
X
x
r,
r 0"
=
0"
c
.
r
=
-
0" r
=
I0
X
x r
=
-
\
r x
X
.
The results
may
be stated in a
theorem as follows.
Theorem : The direct
product
of
any
anti-self-conjugate
dyadic
and the vector r is
equal
to the vector
product
of
minus one half the vector of that
dyadic
and the vector r.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Theorem :
Any anti-self-conjugate dyadic
<P
!f
possesses
one
degree
of
nullity.
It is a
uniplanar dyadic
the
plane
of
whose
consequents
and antecedents is
perpendicular
to <P
X",
the vector of <P.
This theorem follows as a
corollary
from
equations (44).
Theorem :
Any dyadic may
be broken
up
into two
parts
of which one is
self-conjugate
and the other
equivalent
to
minus one half the vector of used in cross
multiplication.
<p
.
r =
<P
r
r
^
<P
X
x
r,
or
symbolically
$
=
\
#
x
X.
(45)
113.] Any
vector c used in vector
multiplication
defines a
linear vector function. For
cx(r
+
s)=cxr
+
cxs.
Hence it must be
possible
to
represent
the
operator
c
x as a
dyadic.
This
dyadic
will be
uniplanar
with
plane
of its
antecedents and
consequents perpendicular
to
c,
so that it
will reduce all vectors
parallel
to c to zero. The
dyadic may
be found as follows
By (31)
I-
(c
x
!)
=
(!
x
c)
-
1,
(I
x
c)
r
=
\ (I
x
c)
I
}
r
=
{I
-
(c
x
I)}
r
=
I
(c
x
I)
r =
(c
x
I)
r.
Hence c x r
=
(I
x
c)
r
=
(e
x
I)
r,
and r x c
=
r
(I
x
c)
=
r
(c
x
I). (46)
This
may
be stated in words.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 299
Theorem : The vector c used in vector
multiplication
with
a vector
r
is
equal
to the
dyadic
I x c or c X I used in direct
multiplication
with r. If c
precedes
r
the
dyadics
are to be
used as
prefactors
;
if c follows
r,
as
postfactors.
The
dyadics
I X c and c X I are
anti-self-conjugate.
In case the vector c is a unit vector the
application
of the
operator
c X to
any
vector r in a
plane perpendicular
to c is
equivalent
to
turning
r
through
a
positive right angle
about
the axis c. The
dyadic
c X I or I x c where c is a unit vector
therefore turns
any
vector r
perpendicular
to c
through
a
right angle
about the line
c
as an axis. If r were a vector
lying
out of a
plane perpendicular
to c the effect of the
dyadic
I X c or c x I would be to annihilate that
component
of r which
is
parallel
to c and turn that
component
of r which is
perpen
dicular to c
through
a
right angle
about c as axis.
If the
dyadic
be
applied
twice the vectors
perpendicular
to
r are rotated
through
two
right angles. They
are reversed in
direction. If it be
applied
three times
they
are turned
through
three
right angles. Applying
the
operator
I x c or c X I four
times
brings
a vector
perpendicular
to c back to its
original
position.
The
powers
of the
dyadic
are therefore
(I
x
c)
2
=
(c
x
I)
2
=
-
(I
-
cc),
(I
x
c)
3
=
(c
x
I)
3
=
-
I x c
=
-
c x
I,
(47)
(I
x c
)
4
=
(c
x
I)
4
=
I
-
c
c,
(I
x
c)
5
=
(c
x
I)
6
=
I x
c
=
c x I.
It thus
appears
that the
dyadic
I x c or c
x I
obeys
the same
law as far as its
powers
are concerned as the scalar
imaginary
V
1 in
algebra.
The
dyadic
Ixc orcxlisa
quadrantal
versor
only
for
vectors
perpendicular
to c. For vectors
parallel
to c it acts
as an annihilator. To avoid this effect and obtain a true
300 VECTOR ANALYSIS
quadrantal
versor for all vectors r in
space
it is
merely
neces
sary
to add the
dyad
c c to the
dyadic
I X c or c X I.
If X
=
Ixc
+
cc
=
cxI
+ cc,
X
2
=
I
+ 2cc,
X
3
=
iXc + cc,
(48)
The
dyadic
X therefore
appears
as a fourth root of the
idemfactor. The
quadrantal
versor X is
analogous
to the
imaginary
V
1 of a scalar
algebra.
The
dyadic
X is com
plete
and consists of two
parts
of which I x c is anti-self-
conjugate
;
and c
c,
self-conjugate.
114.]
If
i,
j,
k are three
perpendicular
unit vectors
Ixi
=
ixl
=
kj jk,
I
xj-j
x I
=
ik-ki,
(49)
Ixk=k x
I=ji ij,
as
may
be seen
by multiplying
the idemfactor
into
i,
j,
and
k
successively.
These
expressions represent
quadrantal
versors about the axis
i,j,
k
respectively
combined
with annihilators
along
those axes.
They
are
equivalent,
when used in direct
multiplication,
to i
x,
jx,
k X
respectively,
jj,
The
expression (I
x
k)
4
is an idemfactor for the
plane
of
i and
j,
but an annihilator for the direction k. In a similar man
ner the
dyad
k k is an idemfactor for the direction
k,
but an
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 301
annihilate! for the
plane perpendicular
to k. These
partial
idemfactors
are
frequently
useful.
If
a, b,
c are
any
three vectors and a
, V,
c the
reciprocal
system,
aa
+
bb
used as a
prefactor
is an idemfactor for all vectors in the
plane
of a and
b,
but an annihilator for vectors in the direc
tion c. Used as a
postfactor
it is an idemfactor for all
vectors,
in the
plane
of a and
V,
but an annihilator for vectors in the
direction c . In like manner the
expression
cc
used as a
prefactor
is an idemfactor for vectors in the direction
c,
but for vectors in the
plane
of a and b it is an annihilator.
Used as a
postfactor
it is an idemfactor for vectors in the
direction c
,
but an annihilator for vectors in the
plane
of a
and
V,
that
is,
for vectors
perpendicular
of c.
If a and b are
any
two vectors
(a
x
b)
x I
=
I x
(a
x
b)
=
ba
-
ab.
(50)
For
{(a
x
b)
x
I}r
=
(a
x
b)
x r
=
bar ab T
=
(ba ab>r.
The vector a x b in cross
multiplication
is therefore
equal
to
the
dyadic (b
a a
b)
in direct
multiplication.
If the vector
is used as a
prefactor
the
dyadic
must be so used.
(a xb)
x r
=
(b
a a
b)
r,
r
x
(a
x
b)
=
r
-
(ba
-
ab). (51)
This is a
symmetrical
and
easy
form in which to remember
the formula for
expanding
a
triple
vector
product.
302 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Reduction
of Dyadics
to Normal Form
115.]
Let be
any complete dyadic
and let r be a unit
vector.
Then the vector r
is a linear function of r. When r takes on all values consis
tent with its
being
a unit vector that
is,
when the terminus
of r describes the surface of a unit
sphere,
the vector r
varies
continuously
and its terminus describes a surface. This
surface is closed. It is in fact an
ellipsoid.
1
Theorem : It is
always possible
to reduce a
complete dyadic
to a sum of three terms of which the antecedents
among
themselves and the
consequents among
themselves are mutu
ally perpendicular.
This is called the normal
form
of 0.
<P
=
ai i
+
bj j
+
ck k.
To demonstrate the theorem consider the surface described
by
r
=
0-r.
As this is a closed surface there must be some direction of r
which makes r a maximum or at
any
rate
gives
r as
great
a value as it is
possible
for r to take on. Let this direction
of r be called
i,
and let the
corresponding
direction of r
the direction in which r takes on a value at least as
great
as
any
be called a. Consider next all the values of r which
lie in a
plane perpendicular
to i. The
corresponding
values
of
r
lie in a
plane owing
to a fact that (P r is a linear vector
1
This
may
be
proved
as follows :
r
=
*
r,
r^*-
1 -
r
/
= r
l
.*
c
-
1
.
Hence r .r=l=: r
.
(*
e
-i.*
-
1
)-
r
=
r V r .
By expressing
in nonion
form,
the
equation
r r = 1 is seen to be ofthe second
degree.
Hence r describes a
quadric
surface. The
only
closed
quadric
surface
is the
ellipsoid.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 303
function. Of these values of
r
one must be at least as
great
as
any
other. Call this b and let the
corresponding
direction
of r be called
j. Finally
choose k
perpendicular
to i and
j
upon
the
positive
side of
plane
of i and
j.
Let c be the
value of r which
corresponds
to r
=
k. Since the
dyadic
changes
i, j,
k into
a, b,
c it
may
be
expressed
in the form
<P
=
ai
+
bj
+ ck.
It remains to show that the vectors
a, b,
c as determined
above are
mutually perpendicular.
r =
(ai
+
bj
+
ck)-r,
dr
f
=
(ai
-f-
bj
+
ck) -dr,
r dr
r
=
r ai di
+
r
bj
di
+
r
-
ck- dr.
When r is
parallel
to
i,
r is a maximum and hence must be
perpendicular
to di
r
. Since r is a unit vector di is
always
perpendicular
to r. Hence when
r is
parallel
to i
r b
j-dr
+
r c kdr
=
0.
If further dr is
perpendicular
to
j,
r c
vanishes,
and if
dr is
perpendicular
to
k,
r b vanishes. Hence when r is
parallel
to
i,
r is
perpendicular
to both b and c. But when
r is
parallel
to
i,
r is
parallel
to a. Hence a is
perpendicular
to b and c. Consider next the
plane
of
j
and k and the
plane
of b and c. Let r be
any
vector in the
plane
of
j
and k.
r
=
(bj
+
ck)r,
dr
r
=
(bj
+
ck)
dr,
r -dr
=
r -b
j
dr
-f
r c k-dr.
When r takes the value
j,
r is a maximum in this
plane
and
hence is
perpendicular
to dr
f
. Since
r is a unit vector it is
304 VECTOR ANALYSIS
perpendicular
to dr. Hence when r is
parallel
to
j,
dr
is
perpendicular
to
j,
and
Hence r c is zero. But when r is
parallel
to
j,
r takes the
value b.
Consequently
b
is
perpendicular
to c.
It has therefore been shown that a is
perpendicular
to b and
c,
and that
b is
perpendicular
to c.
Consequently
the three
antecedents of are
mutually perpendicular. They may
be
denoted
by
i
,
j
,
k . Then the
dyadic
$ takes the form
4>
=
ai i
+bj j
+ck k,
(52)
where
a,
J,
c are scalar constants
positive
or
negative.
116.]
Theorem: The
complete dyadic
<?
may always
be
reduced to a sum of three
dyads
whose antecedents and
whose
consequents
form a
right-handed rectangular system
of unit vectors and whose scalar coefficients are either all
positive
or all
negative.
&
=
(ai
i
+
fcj j
+
ck
k). (53)
The
proof
of the theorem
depends upon
the statements
made on
page
20 that if one or three vectors of a
right-handed
system
be reversed the
resulting system
is
left-handed,
but
if two be reversed the
system
remains
right-handed.
If then
one of the coefficients in
(52)
is
negative,
the directions of the
other two axes
may
be reversed. Then all the coefficients
are
negative.
If two of the coefficients in
(52)
are
negative,
the directions of the two vectors to which
they belong may
be reversed and then the coefficients in are all
positive.
Hence in
any
case the reduction to the form in which all
the coefficients are
positive
or all are
negative
has been
performed.
As a
limiting
case between that in which the coefficients
are all
positive
and that in which
they
are all
negative
comes
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 305
the case in which one of them is zero. The
dyadic
then
takes the form
<P
=
ai i
+&j j
(54)
and is
planar.
The coefficients a and b
may always
be taken
positive. By
a
proof
similar to the one
given
above it is
possible
to show that
any planar dyadic may
be reduced to
this form. The vectors i
andj
are
perpendicular,
and the
vectors i and
j
are likewise
perpendicular.
It
might
be added that in case the three coefficients
a, &,
c
in the reduction
(53)
are all different the reduction can be
performed
in
only
one
way.
If two of the coefficients
(say
a and
6)
are
equal
the reduction
may
be
accomplished
in an
infinite number of
ways
in which the third vector
k is
always
the
same,
but the two vectors
i
,
j
to which the
equal
coeffi
cients
belong may
be
any
two vectors in the
plane per
pendicular
to k. In all these reductions the three scalar
coefficients will have the same values as in
any
one of them.
If the three coefficients
a, 6,
c are all
equal
when $ is reduced
to the normal form
(53),
the reduction
may
be
accomplished
in a
doubly
infinite number of
ways.
The three vectors
i
,
j
,
k
may
be
any right-handed rectangular system
in
space.
In all of these reductions the three scalar coefficients
are the same as in
any
one of them. These statements will
not be
proved. They correspond
to the fact that the
ellipsoid
which is the locus of the terminus of r
may
have three
different
principal
axes or it
maybe
an
ellipsoid
of
revolution,
or
finally
a
sphere.
Theorem :
Any
self-con
jugate dyadic may
be
expressed
in
the form
=
aii
+
&jj
+
ckk
(55)
where
a, &,
and c are
scalars,
positive
or
negative.
Let <P
=
ai i
-f
Jj j
+ck
k,
(52)
+
6jj
+
ckk
,
20
306
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
0.0
c
=a*i i
f
+
&
2
j j
+c
a
k k
jj
+
c
2
kk.
Since =
0^
0*
C
=
C
.
0= 0*.
I * *
+ j j +
kk n
+ j j
If i and i were not
parallel (&
2
a
2
!)
would annihilate
two vectors i and i and hence
every
vector in their
plane.
(0*
a
2
I)
would therefore
possess
two
degrees
of
nullity
and be linear. But it is
apparent
that if
a, 6,
c are different
this
dyadic
is not linear. It is
planar.
Hence
i
and i must
be
parallel.
In like manner- it
may
be shown that
j
and
j ,
k and k are
parallel.
The
dyadic
therefore takes the form
0= aii
+
bjj
+
ckk
where
a, J,
c are
positive
or
negative
scalar constants.
Double
Multiplication
*
117.] Definition
: The double dot
product
of two
dyads
is
the scalar
quantity
obtained
by multiplying
the scalar
product
of the antecedents
by
the scalar
product
of the
consequents.
The
product
is denoted
by inserting
two dots between the
ab:cd
=
a-c bd.
(56)
This
product evidently obeys
the commutative law
ab:cd
=
cd:ab,
1
The researches of Professor Gibbs
upon
Double
Multiplication
are here
printed
for the first time.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
307
and the distributive law both with
regard
to the
dyads
and
with
regard
to the vectors in the
dyads.
The double dot
product
of two
dyadics
is obtained
by multiplying
the
prod
uct out
formally according
to the distributive law into the
sum of a number of double dot
products
of
dyads.
If <p
=
*
l
}>
l
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
...
and W
=
G!
d
x
+
c
2
d
2
+
c
8
d
3
+
=
a
1
b
1
:o
1
d
1
4-
a
1
b
1
:c
2
d
2
+
a
1
b
1
:c
3
d
3
+
+
aab^Cjdj
+
a
2
b
2
:c
2
d
2
+
a
2
b
2
:c
3
d
3
+
(56)
+
a
3
b
3
:c
1
d
1
+
a
3
b
3
:c
2
d
2
+
a
3
b
3
:c
3
d
s
+
. .
+
a
a
c
1 bg-d!
-f
d
2
c
2
b
2
d
2
+
a
2
-c
3
b
2
d
3
+
+
a
3
-c
1 bg.djH-a3.C2
b
3
-d
2
+
a
3
.c
3
b
3
.d
3
+
---
+
...............
(66)"
Definition:
The double cross
product
of two
dyads
is the
dyad
of which the antecedent is the vector
product
of the
antecedents of the two
dyads
and of which the
consequent
is
the vector
product
of the
consequent
of the two
dyads.
The
product
is denoted
by inserting
two crosses
between the
dyads
abcd
=
axc b x d.
(57)
This
product
also
evidently obeys
the commutative law
ab cd
=
cd
*
ab,
308 VECTOR
ANALYSIS
and the distributive law both with
regard
to the
dyads
and
with
regard
to the vectors of which the
dyads
are
composed.
The double cross
product
of two
dyadics
is therefore defined
as the formal
expansion
of the
product according
to the
distributive law into a sum of double cross
products
of
dyads.
If <P
=
a
1
b
1
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
...
and *F
=
c
l
&
1
+
c
2
d
2
+
C
3
d
3
+
*
y
=
(a^
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
) x
(c^
+
C
2
d
2
+ c
3
a
3
+
...)
=
a
1
b
1
*
Ojdj
+
a
x
b
x
*
c
2
d
2
+
ajbj
*
c
3
d
3
+
+
a
2
b
2
*
cjdj
+
a
2
b
2
c
2
d
2
+
a
2
b
2
*
c
3
d
3
+
...
(57)
+
a
a
b
3
x
M!
+
a
3
b
3
*
c
2
d
2
+
a
3
b
3
^
c
3
d
3
+
c!
b
2
xd
1
-fa
2
xc
2
b
2
xd
2
+
a
2
xc
3
b
a
+
a
3
xc
3
b
3
xd
x
+a
3
xc
2 bgXdj
+a
3
xc
3
b
3
+ ............ ...
(57)"
Theorem : The double dot and double cross
products
of
two
dyadics obey
the commutative and distributive laws of
multiplication.
But the double
products
of more than two
dyadics (whenever they
have
any meaning)
do not
obey
the
associative law.
d> : W
:0
$>*=*$
(58)
(<P
*
T) I
Q
*
I (^x)-
The theorem is
sufficiently
evident without demonstration.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
309
Theorem : The double dot
product
of two fundamental
dyads
is
equal
to
unity
or to zero
according
as the two
dyads
are
equal
or different.
ij:ki
=
i-k
j
i
=
0.
Theorem: The double cross
product
of two fundamental
dyads (12)
is
equal
to zero if either the antecedents or the
consequents
are
equal.
But if neither antecedents nor con
sequents
are
equal
the
product
is
equal
to one of the funda
mental
dyads
taken with a
positive
or a
negative sign.
That is
ij
*ik =ix i
j
x k
=
ij
*ki =i x k
j
x i
=
+jk.
There exists a scalar
triple product
of three
dyads
in
which the
multiplications
are double. Let
<P, 5T,
Q be
any
three
dyadics.
The
expression
*
WiQ
is a scalar
quantity.
The
multiplication
with the double
cross must be
performed
first. This
product
is
entirely
in
dependent
of the order in which the factors are
arranged
or
the
position
of the dot and crosses. Let
ab, cd,
and ef be
three
dyads,
ab*cd:ef=[ace] [bdf]. (59)
That
is,
the
product
of three
dyads
united
by
a double cross
and a double dot is
equal
to the
product
of the scalar
triple
product
of the three antecedents
by
the scalar
triple product
of the three
consequents.
From this the statement made
above follows. For if the dots and crosses be
interchanged
or if the order of the factors be
permuted cyclicly
the two
scalar
triple products
are not altered. If the
cyclic
order of
310 VECTOR ANALYSIS
the factors is reversed each scalar
triple product
changes
sign.
Their
product
therefore is not altered.
118.]
A
dyadic may
be
multiplied by
itself with double
cross. Let
<P
=
al
+
bm
+
en
*
=
(al
+
bm
+
en)
*
(al-f
bm
+
en)
ss=
a x a 1 x 1
+
a x b Ixm
+
axc Ixn
i
+bxa mxl+bxb
m x m
+
b
x
c
mxn
+
cxa nxl
+
cxb n x m
+
c x c n x n.
The
products
in the main
diagonal
vanish. The others are
equal
in
pairs.
Hence
0<P
=
2(bxc
mxn+cxa nxl-faxb
Ixm). (60)
If
a, b,
c and
1, m,
n are
non-coplanar
this
may
be written
+
b/m
+
c n
> (60)
The
product
fl> $ is a
species
of
power
of 0. It
may
be re
garded
as a
square
of The notation $
2
will be
employed
to
represent
this
product
after the scalar factor 2 has been
stricken out.
0*0
2
=
^
=
(bxc
mxn
+
cxa nxl
+
axb
Ixm) (61).
J
The
triple product
of a
dyadic expressed
as the sum of
three
dyads
with itself twice
repeated
is
</>*$:
=
2 $
2
: <P
<P
2
:0=(bxc
mxn-fexa
nxl
+
axb
Ixm)
:
(al
+
bm
+
en).
In
expanding
this
product every
term in which a letter is
repeated
vanishes. For a scalar
triple product
of three vec-
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 311
tors two of which are
equal
is zero. Hence the
product
reduces to three terms
only
2 :0=[bca] [mnl]
+
[cab] [nlm]
+
[abc] [linn]
or
2
:
=
3
[a
b
c] [Imn]
0*0:0
=
6
[abc] pmn].
The
triple product
of a
dyadic by
itself twice
repeated
is
equal
to six times the scalar
triple product
of its antecedents
multiplied by
the scalar
triple product
of its
consequents.
The
product
is a
species
of cube. It will be denoted
by 8
after the scalar factor 6 has been stricken out.
0*0:0
(62)
119.]
If
2
be called the second of
;
and
8
,
the third of
0,
the
following
theorems
may
be stated
concerning
the
seconds and thirds of
conjugates, reciprocals,
and
products.
Theorem : The second of the
conjugate
of a
dyadic
is
equal
to the
conjugate
of the second of that
dyadic.
The third of
the
conjugate
is
equal
to the third of the
dyadic.
<*,).= <.),
Theorem: The second and third of the
reciprocal
of a
dyadic
are
equal respectively
to the
reciprocals
of the second
and third.
<*-
),
=
(*,)-!=*,*
(f
1
).
=
(*,)->-*.-
Let
=
al
+
bm
+
cn
<p-
1
=
l a
+
m
b
+
n c
(36)
a l
+
b m
+
c n
n
]
812 VECTOR ANALYSTS
(*)
-
1
[a
b c
] [!
m n
] (1
a
+
mb
+
n
c)
[a
b
c] [1
m
n]
But
[a
b c
] [a be]
=
1 and
[1
m n
] [Imn]
=
1.
Hence
(0,)-*
=
(0-
1
).,
=
0,-*.
8 =[abc] [Imn],
[abc] [Imn]
C^-Oa
=
IX W] [1
m n
].
Hence
(0,)-
1
=
(*-),
=
0,-*.
Theorem: The second and third of a
product
are
equal
respectively
to the
product
of the seconds and the
product
of
the thirds.
(f.f),
=
*,.*,
(0. *),= *, ^3-
Choose
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors
1, m,
n as
consequents
of and let 1
,
m
,
n be the antecedents of W.
<P
=
al
+
b m
+
en,
?T
=
l d
+
m e
+
n
f,
r
=
ad
+
be
+ cf,
(
.
W\
=bxc exf
+
cxa fxd
+
axb
dxe,
<P
2
=
bxc
mxn-fcxa
nxl
+
axb
Ixm,
?T
2
=
m x n e x f
+
n x 1 f x d
+
1 x m dxe.
Hence
2
5P*
2
=
bxc exf
+
cxa fxd
+
axb dxe.
Hence
(# 5T)2
=
<?
2
?F
2
.
(^. JT) 8
=
[abc] [def]
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
313
8
=
[abc] [Imn],
r
g
=
P
m n
] [defj.
Hence
8 z
=
[a be] [def].
Hence
(0.F),= 8 y,.
Theorem : The second and third of a
power
of a
dyadic
are
equal respectively
to the
powers
of the second and third of
the
dyadic.
(*"),
=
W=0,"
(0 )8
=
W
=
03
B
Theorem : The second of the idemfactor is the idemfactor.
The third of the idemfactor is
unity.
I
=
I
1=1
(6T)
lg
1.
Theorem: The
product
of the second and
conjugate
of
a
dyadic
is
equal
to the
product
of the third and the
idemfactor.
a
.
0,=
8
I,
(68)
<P
2
=
b x c mxn
+
cxa nxl
+
axb
Ixm,
C
;=
la
+
mb
+ nc,
<P
2
$<,
=
[1
m
n]
(b
x c a
+
c x a b
+
a x b
c).
The antecedents
a, b,
c of the
dyadic may
be assumed to
be
non-coplanar.
Then
(b
x c a
+
c x a b
+
a x b
c)
=
[ab c] (a
a
+
V b
+
c
c)
=
[abc]
I.
Hence
2
<&
c
=
^>
3
1 .
120.]
Let a
dyadic
be
given.
Let it be reduced to the
sum of three
dyads
of which the three antecedents are
non-coplanar.
314 VECTOR ANALYSIS
=
al
+
b m
+
cn,
2
=
b x c mxn
+
cxa nxl
+
axb 1 x
m,
[Imn].
Theorem: The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
dyadic
be
complete
is that the third of be different from
zero.
For it was shown
(Art. 106)
that both the antecedents and
the
consequents
of a
complete dyadic
are
non-coplanar.
Hence the two scalar
triple products
which occur in
8
cannot vanish.
Theorem: The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
dyadic
$ be
planar
is that the third of shall vanish but the
second of <P shall not vanish.
It was shown
(Art. 106)
that if a
dyadic
be
planar
its con
sequents
1, m,
n must be
planar
and
conversely
if the conse
quents
be
coplanar
the
dyadic
is
planar.
Hence for a
planar
dyadic
<P
8
must vanish. But $
2
cannot vanish. Since
a,
b,
c have been assumed
non-coplanar,
the vectors b x
c,
c x
a,
a x b are
non-coplanar.
Hence if
2
vanishes each of the
vectors
mxn, nxl,
Ixm vanishes that
is, 1, m,
n are col-
linear. But this is
impossible
since the
dyadic
is
planar
and not linear.
Theorem: The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
non-vanishing dyadic
be linear is that the second of
0,
and
consequently
the third of
0,
vanishes.
For if be linear the
consequents
1, m, n,
are collinear.
Hence their vector
products
vanish and the
consequents
of
<P
2
vanish. If
conversely
<P
2
vanishes,
each of its
consequents
must be zero and hence these
consequents
of are collinear.
The
vanishing
of the
third,
unaccompanied by
the vanish
ing
of the second of a
dyadic, implies
one
degree
of
nullity.
The
vanishing
of the second
implies
two
degrees
of
nullity.
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 315
The
vanishing
of the
dyadic
itself is
complete nullity.
The
results
may
be
put
in tabular form.
8
^0,
is
complete.
<P
3
=
0,
#
2
*
0,
is
planar.
(69)
8
=
0,
</>
2
=
0,
<P
*
0,
is linear.
It follows
immediately
that the third of
any anti-self-conjugate
dyadic
vanishes;
but the second does not. For
any
such
dyadic
is
planar
but cannot be linear.
Nonion Form. Determinants.
1
Invariants
of
a
Dyadic
121.]
If be
expressed
in nonion form
=
a
u
ii
+
a
12
i
j
+
a
18
ik
(13)
+
a
81
ki
+
a
32
kj
+
a
33
kk.
The
conjugate
of <P has the same scalar coefficients as
0,
but
they
are
arranged symmetrically
with
respect
to the main
diagonal.
Thus
(
70
)
The second of $
may
be
computed.
Take,
for
instance,
one
term. Let it be
required
to find the coefficient of
ij
in C?
2
.
What terms in can
yield
a double cross
product equal
to
ij?
The vector
product
of the antecedents must be i and
the vector
product
of the
consequents
must be
j.
Hence the
antecedents must be
j
and k
;
and the
consequents,
k and i.
These terms are
021J
1
x33
kk
=
-
a
2l
a
33
i
J
a
31
k i
J
a
23
j
k
=
a
31
a
23
i
j.
1
The results hold
only
for determinants of the third order. The extension to
determinants of
higher
orders is
through Multiple Algebra.
316
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Hence the term in i
j
in $
2
is
This is the first minor of a
19
in the determinant
a
t
*12
a
i
a*
This minor is taken with the
negative sign.
That
is,
the
coefficient of i
j
in
2
is what is termed the
cof
actor of the
coefficient of i
j
in the determinant. The cofactor is
merely
the first minor taken with the
positive
or
negative sign
according
as the sum of the
subscripts
of the term
whose
first minor is under consideration is even or odd. The co
efficient of
any dyad
in
2
is
easily
seen to be the cofactor of
the
corresponding
term in $. The cofactors are denoted
generally by large
letters.
is the cofactor of a*
33
n
is the cofactor of a
12
.
is the cofactor of a
32
.
With this notation the second of becomes
ik
kk
(71)
The value of the third of <P
may
be obtained
by writing
as the sum of three
dyads
=
(an
i
+
a
21
j
+
a
sl k)
i
+
(a
12
i
+
a
22
j
+
a
32
k) j
+
(a13
i
+
a
23
j
+
a
33 k)k
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
317
^3
=
[Oil
i
+
21
J
+
"31
k
) (21
*
+
22 J
+
a
33
k
)
This is
easily
seen to be
equal
to the determinant
a
1
2
a
Q
a
i
a
z
a*
(72)
For this reason
3
is
frequently
called the determinant of
and is written
<P
3
=
I I
(72)
The idea of the determinant is
very
natural when is
regarded
as
expressed
in nonion form. On the other hand
unless be
expressed
in that form the
conception
of $
3
,
the third of
$,
is more natural.
The
reciprocal
of a
dyadic
in nonion form
may
be found
most
easily by making
use of the
identity
2
.</>
c
=0
3
I
(68)
or
or
Hence 0"
1
=
(73)
318
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If the determinant be denoted
by
D
(73)
,
If is a second
dyadic given
in nonion form as
+
6
31
ki
+
&
32 kj
+
&
33
kk,
the
product
W of the two
dyadics may readily
be found
by actually performing
the
multiplication
. =
O
n
6
U
+
a
12
6
21
+
a
18
6
81
)
ii
+
(a
u
6
12
+
a
la
6
22
+
6 i
J
+
a 6
+
a 6
+
ik
6
32)
k
J
+
(
a
31
6
12
+
a
32
6
23
+
a
33
&
33>
k k
:
W
=
a
n
i
n
+
a
12
6
12
+
o
18
J
18
6
21
31
Since the third or determinant of a
product
is
equal
to the
product
of the
determinants,
the law of
multiplication
of
determinants follows from
(65)
and
(74).
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 319
"11
"21
a.
i
a
22
a
23
Ojrtn dinn
a
n
6
19
+ io &,
"12 22
a
32
6
22
"11
"31
23
&12 13
&22
6
23
&
32
6
33
!3
"11 "13
*21
&
13
K
31
6
13
"21
^31^
a
*32
(
4-
a
33
12
22
32
!3
23 (76)
The rule
may
be stated in words. To
multiply
two deter
minants form the determinant of which the element in the
mth row and nth column is the sum of the
products
of the
elements in the rath row of the first determinant and nth
column of the second.
If
=
al
<?
2
=
bxc mxn
+
cxa nxl +
axb Ixm.
Then
I
2
I
=(^2
)3
=
[bxc
cxa
axb] [mxn
nxl
Ixm]
Hence I <P
2
I
=
(<P2)3
=
[a
b
c]
2
[1
m
n]
2
=
<P
3
2
.
Hence
n
22
33
*ia
"22
a
2
a
(77)
The determinant of the cofactors of a
given
determinant of
the third order is
equal
to the
square
of the
given
determinant.
122.]
A
dyadic
has three scalar invariants that is
three scalar
quantities
which are
independent
of the form in
which ^ is
expressed.
These are
the scalar of
<P,
the scalar of the second of
<P,
and the third
or determinant of 0. If be
expressed
in nonion form these
quantities
are
320
VECTOR ANALYSIS
(78)
*11
hi
32
*18
33
No matter in terms of what
right-handed rectangular system
of these unit vectors
may
be
expressed
these
quantities
are
the same. The scalar of is the sum of the three coefficients
in the main
diagonal.
The scalar of the second of is the
sum of the first minors or cofactors of the terms in the
main
diagonal.
The third of is the determinant of the
coefficients. These three invariants are
by
far the most
important
that a
dyadic possesses.
Theorem :
Any dyadic
satisfies a cubic
equation
of which
the three invariants
S,
0%&
(P
3
are the coefficients.
By (68)
(0-xI\*(0-xY)
c
=
(0-xl\
#n
x a
12
a
13
21 #22
X
#23
#31 #32 #33
X
Hence
(#
x
I)3
=
Z
x
2S
+
x
2
S
x*
as
may
be seen
by actually performing
the
expansion.
(<p
__
x
i)2
.
f<p
_
x
!)<;
=
Z
x
0^
+
x
2
S
x*.
This
equation
is an
identity holding
for all values of the
scalar x. It therefore
holds,
if in
place
of the scalar
x,
the
dyadic
which
depends upon
nine scalars be substituted.
That is
But the terms
upon
the left are
identically
zero. Hence
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
321
This
equation may
be called the
Hamilton-Cayley equation.
Hamilton showed that a
quaternion
satisfied an
equation
analogous
to this one and
Cayley gave
the
generalization
to
matrices. A matrix of the Tith order satisfies an
algebraic
equation
of the nth
degree.
The
analogy
between the
theory
of
dyadics
and the
theory
of matrices is
very
close.
In
fact,
a
dyadic may
be
regarded
as a matrix of the third order and
conversely
a matrix of the third order
may
be looked
upon
as
a
dyadic.
The addition and
multiplication
of matrices and
dyadics
are then
performed according
to the same laws. A
generalization
of the idea of a
dyadic
to
spaces
of
higher
dimensions than the third leads to
Multiple Algebra
and the
theory
of matrices of orders
higher
than the third.
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER V
A vector r is said to be a linear function of a vector r
when the
components
of r are linear
homogeneous
functions
of the
components
of r. Or a function of r is said to be a
linear vector function of r when the function of the sum of
two vectors is the sum of the functions of those vectors.
(ri
+
r
a)=f(r1)
+
f(r
a
). (4)
These two ideas of a linear vector function are
equivalent.
A sum of a number of
symbolic products
of two
vectors,
which are obtained
by placing
the vectors
in
juxtaposition
without intervention of a dot or cross and which are called
dyads,
is called a
dyadic
and is
represented
by
a Greek
capital.
A
dyadic
determines
a linear vector function of
a vector
by
direct
multiplication
with that vector
=
&1
b
x
+
a
2
b
2
+
a
3
b
3
+
-
(7)
-
r
=
a
x bj
r
+
a
2
b
2
r
+
a
3
b
3
r
H
(8)
21
322
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Two
dyadics
are
equal
when
they
are
equal
as
operators
upon
all vectors or
upon
three
non-coplanar
vectors. That
is,
when
<P i
=
W r for all values or for three non-
coplanar
values of
r,
(10)
or r
=
r for all values or for three non-
coplanar
values of
r,
or s r
=
s W r for all values or for three non-
coplanar
values of r and s.
Any
linear vector function
may
be
represented by
a
dyadic.
Dyads obey
the distributive law of
multiplication
with
regard
to the two vectors
composing
the
dyad
(a
+
b
+ c+
) (1
+
m
+
n
+
...)
=
al
+
am
+ an+
+
bl
+
bm
+
bn +
+
cl
+
cm
+
en
+
(11)
Multiplication by
a scalar is associative.
In virtue of these
two laws a
dyadic may
be
expanded
into a sum of nine terms
by
means of the fundamental
dyads,
ii, ij, ik,
ji, Jj, Jk,
(12)
ki, kj, kk,
as
=
a
n
ii
+
a
12
i
j
+
a
18
ik,
=
ai
J
*
+
<*22 J J
+
<*23
J
k
(
13
)
=
a
31
k i
+
a
82
k
j
+
a
33
k k.
If two
dyadics
are
equal
the
corresponding
coefficients in
their
expansions
into nonion form are
equal
and
conversely
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 323
Any dyadic
may
be
expressed
as the sura of three
dyads
of
which the antecedents or the
consequents
are
any
three
given
non-coplanar
vectors. This
expression
of the
dyadic
is
unique.
The
symbolic product
ab known as a
dyad
is the most
general product
of two vectors in which
multiplication by
a
scalar is associative. It is called the indeterminate
product.
The
product imposes
five conditions
upon
the vectors a and
b. Their directions and the
product
of their
lengths
are
determined
by
the
product.
The scalar and vector
products
are functions of the indeterminate
product.
A scalar and
a vector
may
be obtained from
any dyadic by inserting
a dot
and a cross between the vectors in each
dyad.
This scalar
and vector are functions of the
dyadic.
0*
=
i *!
+
a
a
b
a
+
a
8
b
8
+
(18)
X
=
&1
x
bj
+
a
2
x b
2
+
a
3
x b
3
+
(19)
0,
=
i-0.i
+
j*0-j
+
k 0*k
(20)
=
a
n
-f
a
22
+
#339
X
=
(j
. .
k
-
k
j)
i
+
(k
i
-
i
k) j
+
(i- 0-j -j 0i)
k
(21)
The direct
product
of two
dyads
is the
dyad
whose ante
cedent and
consequent
are
respectively
the antecedent of the
first
dyad
and the
consequent
of the second
multiplied by
the scalar
product
of the
consequent
of the first
dyad
and
the antecedent of the second.
JL
(ab) (c d)
=
(b
.
c)
a/
*T
(23)
The direct
product
of two
dyadics
is the formal
expansion,
according
to the distributive
law,
of the
product
into the
324 VECTOR ANALYSIS
sum of
products
of
dyads.
Direct
multiplication
of
dyadics
or of
dyadics
and a vector at either end or at both ends
obeys
the distributive and associative laws of
multiplication.
Con
sequently
such
expressions
as
Q.W.T,
s.0-?
7
*, s.^.^.r,
$>.W.Q
(24)-(26)
may
be written without
parentheses;
for
parentheses may
be inserted at
pleasure
without
altering
the value of the
product.
In case the vector occurs at other
positions
than
at the end the
product
is no
longer
associative.
The skew
product
of a
dyad
and a vector
may
be defined
by
the
equation
(ab)
x r
=
a b x
r,
r x
(ab)
=
r x a b.
(28)
The skew
product
of a
dyadic
and a vector is
equal
to the
formal
expansion
of that
product
into a sum of
products
of
dyads
and that vector. The statement made
concerning
the
associative law for direct
products
holds when the vector is
connected with the
dyadics
in skew
multiplication.
The
expressions
r x
?F,
^ x
r,
r x $
s,
r $ x
s,
r x <P x s
(29)
may
be written without
parentheses
and
parentheses may
be
inserted
at
pleasure
without
altering
the value of the
product.
Moreover
s
(r
x
<P)
=
(s
x
r)
-
<P,
(<P
x
r)
s
=
(r
x
s),
<p.(rx ?P)
=
(0
x
r)
W.
(31)
But the
parentheses
cannot be omitted.
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
dyadic may
be reduced to the sum of two
dyads
or to a
single dyad
or
to zero is
that,
when
expressed
as the sum of three
dyads
of which the antecedents
(or consequents)
are known
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS
325
to be
non-coplanar,
the
consequents (or
antecedents)
shall
be
respectively coplanar
or collinear or zero. A
complete
dyadic
is one which cannot be reduced to a sum of fewer
than three
dyads.
A
planar dyadic
is one which can be
reduced to a sum of
just
two
dyads.
A linear
dyadic
is one
which can be reduced to a
single dyad.
A
complete dyadic possesses
no
degree
of
nullity.
There
is no direction in
space
-
for which it is an
annihilator. A
planar dyadic possesses
one
degree
of
nullity.
There is one
direction in
space
for which it is an annihilator when used as
a
prefactor
and one when used as a
postfactor.
A linear
dyadic possesses
two
degrees
of
nuljity.
There are two
independent
directions in
space
for which it is an annihilator
when used as a
prefactor
and two directions when used as a
postfactor.
A zero
dyadic possesses
three
degrees
of
nullity
or
complete nullity.
It annihilates
every
vector in
space.
The
products
of a
complete dyadic
and a
complete, planar,
or linear
dyadic
are
respectively complete, planar,
or linear.
The
products
of a
planar dyadic
with a
planar
or linear
dyadic
are
respectively planar
or
linear, except
in certain cases where
relations of
perpendicularity
between the
consequents
of the
first
dyadic
and the antecedents of the second introduce one
more
degree
of
nullity
into the
product.
The
product
of a
linear
dyadic by
a linear
dyadic
is in
general
linear
;
but in
case the
consequent
of the first is
perpendicular
to the ante
cedent of the second the
product
vanishes. The
product
of
any dyadic by
a zero
dyadic
is zero.
A
dyadic
which when
applied
to
any
vector in
space
re
produces
that vector is called an idemfactor. All idemfactors
are
equal
and reducible to the form
I
=
ii
+
jj
+
kk.
(33)
Or I
=
aa
+
bb
+
cc .
(34)
The
product
of
any dyadic
and an idemfactor is that
dyadic.
326 VECTOR ANALYSIS
If the
product
of two
complete dyadics
is
equal
to the idem-
factor the
dyadics
are commutative and either is called
the
reciprocal
of the other. A
complete dyadic may
be
canceled from either end of a
product
of
dyadics
and vectors
as in
ordinary algebra
;
for the cancelation is
equivalent
to
multiplication by
the
reciprocal
of that
dyadic. Incomplete
dyadics possess
no
reciprocals. They correspond
to zero in
ordinary algebra.
The
reciprocal
of a
product
is
equal
to the
product
of the
reciprocals
taken in inverse order.
(0. 5F)-
1
=
5F-
1
0-i.
(38)
The
conjugate
of a
dyadic
is the
dyadic
obtained
by
inter
changing
the order of the antecedents and
consequents.
The
conjugate
of a
product
is
equal
to the
product
of the con
jugates
taken in the
opposite
order.
(0. 9%=
W
c
.
C
.
(40)
The
conjugate
of the
reciprocal
is
equal
to the
reciprocal
of
the
conjugate.
A
dyadic may
be divided in one and
only
one
way
into the sum of two
parts
of which one is self-
conjugate
and the other
anti-self-conjugate.
Any anti-self-conjugate dyadic
or the
anti-self-conjugate
part
of
any dyadic,
used in direct
multiplication,
is
equivalent
to minus one-half the vector of that
dyadic
used in skew
multiplication.
T=-j0
x
xr,
(44)
A
dyadic
of the form c X I or I x c is
anti-self-conjugate
and
used in direct
multiplication
is
equivalent
to the vector
o
used in skew
multiplication.
LINEAR VECTOR
FUNCTIONS 327
Also c
x r
=
(I
x
c)
r
=
(c
x
I)
r,
(46)
c
x <P
=
(I
x
c)
=
(c
x
I)
0.
The
dyadic
c X I or I x
c,
where c is a unit vector is a
quad-
rantal versor for vectors
perpendicular
to c and an
annihilator
for vectors
parallel
to c. The
dyadic
Ixc
+ ccisa true
quadrantal
versor for all vectors. The
powers
of these
dyadics
behave like the
powers
of the
imaginary
unit
V^l,
as ma
y
be seen from the
geometric interpretation.
Applied
to the
unit vectors
i,
j,
k
I x i
=
i x I
=
kj
-
j k,
etc.
(49)
The vector a x b in skew
multiplication
is
equivalent
to
(a
x
b)
X I in direct
multiplication.
(ax
b)
x 1
=
1 x
(ax b)=ba-ab (50)
(a
x
b)
x r
=
(b
a a
b)
r
r x
(a
x
b)
=
r
(b
a
-
ab). (51)
A
complete dyadic may
be reduced to a sum of three
dyads
of which the antecedents
among
themselves and the
consequents among
themselves each form a
right-handed
rectangular system
of three unit vectors and of which the
scalar coefficients are all
positive
or all
negative.
0=
(ai
i
+
ftj j
+
ck
k). (53)
This is called the normal form of the
dyadic.
An incom
plete dyadic may
be reduced to this form but one or more of
the coefficients are zero. The reduction is
unique
in case
the constants
a, 6,
c are different. In case
they
are not
different the reduction
may
be
accomplished
in more than
one
way. Any self-conjugate dyadic may
be reduced to
the normal form
4>
=
aii
+
6jj
+ ckk, (55)
in which the constants
a,
S,
c are not
necessarily positive.
328 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The double dot and double cross
multiplication
of
dyads
is defined
by
the
equations
ab:cd
=
ac
b.d,
(56)
abcd
=
axc bxd.
(57)
The double dot and double cross
multiplication
of
dyadics
is obtained
by expanding
the
product formally, according
to
the distributive
law,
into a sum of
products
of
dyads.
The
double dot and double cross
multiplication
of
dyadics
is com
mutative but not associative.
One-half the double cross
product
of a
dyadic by
itself
is called the second of 0. If
<P
2
=i
<Px <P
=
b xc mxn
+
cxa
nxl+axb
Ixm.
(61)
One-third of the double dot
product
of the second of and
is called the third of and is
equal
to the
product
of the
scalar
triple product
of the antecedents of and the scalar
triple product
of the
consequent
of 0.
0a
=
\0$
0:
<P=[abc] [Imn]. (62)
The second of the
conjugate
is the
conjugate
of the second.
The third of the
conjugate
is
equal
to the third of the
original dyadic.
The second and third of the
reciprocal
are
the
reciprocals
of the second and third of the second and
third of a
dyadic.
The second and third of a
product
are the
products
of the seconds and thirds.
(*c\
=
(*.)*
(65)
LINEAR VECTOR
FUNCTIONS 329
The
product
of the second and
conjugate
of a
dyadic
is
equal
to the
product
of the third and the
idemfactor.
^^c=^
1
(68)
The conditions for the various
degrees
of
nullity may
be
expressed
in terms of the second and third of 0.
4>
3
*
0,
is
complete
8
=
0,
<P
2
*
0,
is
planar
(69)
<P
3
=
0,
$
2
=
0, *
0,
is linear.
The
closing
sections of the
chapter
contain the
expressions
(70)-(78)
of a number of the results in nonion form and the
deduction therefrom of a number of theorems
concerning
determinants.
They
also contain the cubic
equation
which is
satisfied
by
a
dyadic
4>.
03
_
Q
a
02
+
0^
03
+
^
[
_
(79)
This is called the
Hamilton-Cayley equation.
The coeffi
cients
S
,
<P<i
S
,
and
3
are the three fundamental scalar in
variants of <P.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER V
1. Show that the two definitions
given
in Art. 98 for
a linear vector function are
equivalent
2. Show that the reduction of a
dyadic
as in
(15)
can be
accomplished
in
only
one
way
if
a, b, c, 1, m, n,
are
given.
3. Show
(<P
x
a) c
=
-
a x (1>
C
.
4. Show that if <Pxr= XT for
any
value of r different
from
zero,
then must
equal
?P unless both and are
linear and the line of their
consequents
is
parallel
to r.
5. Show that if r
=
for
any
three
non-coplanar
values
of
r,
then
=
0.
330
VECTOR ANALYSIS
6. Prove the statements made in Art. 106 and the con
verse of the statements.
7. Show that if Q is
complete
and if Q
=
W Q
,
then
<P and W are
equal.
Give the
proof by
means of
theory
developed prior
to Art. 109.
8.
Definition
: Two
dyadics
such that ?
r
=
that
is to
say,
two
dyadics
that are commutative are said to be
homologous.
Show
that if
any
number of
dyadics
are homo
logous
to one
another, any
other
dyadics
which
may
be obtained
from them
by
addition, subtraction,
and direct
multiplication
are
homologous
to each other and to the
given dyadics.
Show
also that the
reciprocals
of
homologous dyadics
are homolo
gous. Justify
the statement that if
~
l
or
~
l
(P,
which are
equal,
be called the
quotient
of
by
?F,
then the
rules
governing
addition, subtraction,
multiplication
and
division of
homologous dyadics
are identical with the rules
governing
these
operations
in
ordinary algebra
it
being
understood that
incomplete dyadics
are
analogous
to
zero,
and the
idemfactor,
to
unity.
Hence the
algebra
and
higher
analysis
of
homologous dyadics
is
practically
identical with
that of scalar
quantities.
9. Show that
(I X c)
c
X
$ and
(c X I)
&
=
c
X
#.
10. Show that whether or not
a, b,
c be
coplanar
abxc+bcxa+caxb
=
[abc]I
and
bxca+cxab+axbc=[abc]L
11. If
a, b,
c are
coplanar
use the above relation to
prove
the law of sines for the
triangle
and to obtain the relation
with scalar coefficients which exists between three
coplanar
vectors. This
may
be done
by multiplying
the
equation by
a
unit normal to the
plane
of
a, b,
and c.
12. What is the-condition which must subsist between the
coefficients in the
expansion
of a
dyadic
into nonion form if
LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 331
the
dyadic
be self-con
jugate
?
What,
if the
dyadic
be anti-
self-conjugate
?
13.
Prove the statements made in Art. 116
concerning
the
number of
ways
in which a
dyadic may
be reduced to its
normal form.
14. The
necessary
and sufficient condition that an anti-
self-conjugate dyadic
be zero is that the vector of the
dyadic
shall be zero.
15. Show that if be
any dyadic
the
product
<P
C
is
self-conjugate.
16. Show how to make use of the relation $
x
=
to
demonstrate that the antecedents and
consequents
of a self
conjugate dyadic
are the same
(Art. 116).
17. Show that
2
<P
2
=
2&
3
and
(0
+
W\
=
</>
2
+
4>*V
+
^
18. Show that if the double dot
product
: of a
dyadic
by
itself
vanishes,
the
dyadic
vanishes. Hence obtain the
condition for a linear
dyadic
in the forin <P
2
:
2
=
0.
19. Show that
(<P
+
ef) 3
=
<P
3
+
e-
2
f.
20. Show that
(0
+
?T) 3
=
8
+
<P
2
: V
+
d>
:
?F
2
+
V*
21. Show that the scalar of a
product
of
dyadics
is un
changed by cyclic permutation
of the
dyadics.
That is
CHAPTER VI
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
123.]
IN the
foregoing chapter
the
analytical theory
of
dyadics
has been dealt with and
brought
to a state of
completeness
which is
nearly
final for
practical purposes.
There
are, however,
a number of new
questions
which
present
themselves and some old
questions
which
present
themselves
under a new form when the
dyadic
is
applied
to
physics
or
geometry.
Moreover it was for the sake of the
applica
tions of
dyadics
that the
theory
of them was
developed.
It is
then the
object
of the
present chapter
to
supply
an extended
application
of
dyadics
to the
theory
of rotations and strains
and to
develop,
as far as
may appear necessary,
the further
analytical theory
of
dyadics.
That the
dyadic
$
may
be used to
deuote
a transformation
of
space
has
already
been mentioned. A
knowledge
of the
precise
nature of this
transformation, however,
was not needed
at the time. Consider r as drawn from a fixed
origin,
and r
as drawn from the same
origin.
Let now
r
=
0-r.
This
equation
therefore
may
be
regarded
as
defining
a trans
formation of the
points
P of
space
situated at the terminus of
r into the
point
P
,
situated at the terminus of r . The
origin
remains fixed. Points in the finite
regions
of
space
remain in
the finite
regions
of
space. Any point upon
a line
r
=
b
+
x a
becomes a
point
r
f
=
$ b
+
# $ *
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 333
Hence
straight
lines
go
over into
straight
lines and lines
parallel
to the same line a
go
over
by
the
transformation into
lines
parallel
to the same line a. In like manner
planes
go
over into
planes
and the
quality
of
parallelism
is invariant.
Such a transformation is known as a
homogeneous
strain.
Homogeneous
strain is of
frequent
occurrence in
physics.
For
instance,
the deformation of the infinitesimal
sphere
in a fluid
(Art. 76)
is a
homogeneous
strain. In
geometry
the homo
geneous
strain is
generally
known
by
different names. It is
called an affine collineation with the
origin
fixed. Or it is
known as a linear
homogeneous
transformation. The
equa
tions of such a transformation are
x
1
=
a x
+
n l2 13
y<
=
124.]
Theorem : If the
dyadic gives
the transformation
of the
points
of
space
which is due to a
homogeneous
strain,
2
,
the second of
0,
gives
the transformation of
plane
areas
which is due to that strain and all volumes are
magnified by
that strain in the ratio of
3
,
the third or determinant of
to
unity.
Let <P
=
al
+
bm
+
cn
r
=
<P.r
=
al-r-f
bm r
-f
cnr.
The vectors 1
,
m
,
n are
changed by
into
a, b,
c. Hence
the
planes
determined
by
m and n
,
n and 1
,
1 and m are
transformed into the
planes
determined
by
b and
c,
c and
a,
a and b. The
dyadic
which
accomplishes
this result is
$
2
=r
b x c mxn
+
cxa nxl
+
axb Ixm.
Hence if s denote
any plane
area in
space,
the transformation
due to
replaces
s
by
the area s such that
334
VECTOR ANALYSIS
It is
important
to notice that the vector s
denoting
a
plane
area is not transformed into the same vector
s
as it would
be if it denoted a line. This is evident from the fact that in
the latter case acts on s whereas in the former case <P
2
acts
upon
s.
To show that volumes are
magnified
in the ratio of <P
Z
to
unity
choose
any
three vectors
d, e,
f which determine the
volume of a
parallelepiped [d
e
f]. Express
with the vec
tors which form the
reciprocal system
to
d, e,
f as
consequents.
The
dyadic
<P
changes
d, e,
f into
a, b,
c
(which
are different
from the
a, b,
c above unless
d, e,
f are
equal
to 1
,
m
,
n
).
Hence the volume
[d
e f
]
is
changed
into the volume
[a
b
c].
8
=
[abc][dVf]
[d
e
fr^Cdef].
Hence
[a
b
c]
=
[d
e
f]
$
3
.
The ratio of the volume
[a
b
cj
to
[d
e
f]
is as <P
3
is to
unity.
But the vectors
d, e,
f were
any
three vectors which deter
mine a
parallelepiped.
Hence all volumes are
changed by
the action of in the same ratio and this ratio is as
3
is to 1.
Eotations about a Fixed Point. Versors
125.]
Theorem : The
necessary
and sufficient condition that
a
dyadic represent
a rotation about some axis is that it be
reducible to the form
=
i
i+j j
+
k k
(1)
where i
,
j
,
k and
i, j,
k are two
right-handed rectangular
systems
of unit vectors.
Let r
=
#i-f-f-3k
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 335
Hence if C? is reducible to the
given
form the vectors
i,
j,
k
are
changed
into the vectors i
,
j
,
k and
any
vector r is
changed
from its
position
relative to
i, j,
k
into the same
posi
tion relative to i
,j ,k
. Hence
by
the transformation no
change
of
shape
is effected. The strain reduces to a rotation
which carries
i,
j,
k into i
,
j
,
k
.
Conversely suppose
the
body
suffers no
change
of
shape
that
is,
suppose
it
subjected
to a rotation. The vectors
i,
j,
k must be carried into another
right-handed rectangular system
of unit vectors. Let these
be i
,
j ,
k . The
dyadic
<P
may
therefore be reduced to the
form
=
i i
+
j j+k
k.
Definition
: A
dyadic
which is reducible to the form
i i
+
j j
+
k k
and which
consequently represents
a rotation is called a
versor.
Theorem: The
conjugate
and
reciprocal
of a versor are
equal,
and
conversely
if the
conjugate
and
reciprocal
of a
dyadic
are
equal
the
dyadic
reduces to a versor or a versor
multiplied by
the
negative sign.
Let
=
i
i+j j
+
k
k,
Hence the first
part
of the theorem is
proved.
To
prove
the
second
part
let
=
ai
+
b
j
+
ck,
<p
c
=
i*+j
b +
kc,
If 4>-i =<P
C
,
Hence
aa4-bb
336
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence
(Art. 108)
the antecedents
a, b,
c and the
consequents
a, b,
c must be
reciprocal systems.
Hence
(page 87) they
must be either a
right-handed
or a left-handed
rectangular
system
of unit vectors. The left-handed
system may
be
changed
to a
right-handed
one
by prefixing
the
negative
sign
to each vector. Then
#.*rff,tnt).
(iy
The third or determinant of a versor is
evidently equal
to
unity
;
that of the versor with a
negative sign,
to minus one.
Hence the criterion for a versor
may
be stated in the form
$
=
I. 3>n
=
I I
=
1 (%\
{/
3 \ /
Or inasmuch as the determinant of is
plus
or minus one
if (P* (P
C
=I,
it is
only necessary
to state that if
C
3 \. /
$ is a versor.
There are two
geometric interpretations
of the transforma
tion due to a
dyadic
such that
9
@
__.
j
=
| 1
=
1
(3)
(J/
1
_j_
j j
_j_
k
k)
.
The transformation due to is one of rotation combined with
reflection in the
origin.
The
dyadic
i
i+j j
+
k k causes a
rotation about a definite axis it is a versor. The
negative
sign
then reverses the direction of
every
vector in
space
and
replaces
each
figure by
a
figure symmetrical
to it with
respect
to the
origin. By reversing
the directions of i and
j
the
system
i
,
j
,
k still remains
right-handed
and
rectangular,
but the
dyadic
takes the form
=
i
i+j j-k
k,
or <P
=
(i
i
+j j
-k k
) .(i
i
+ j j
+
k
k).
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
337
Hence the transformation due to is a rotation due to
i
i+j j
+
k k followed
by
a reflection in the
plane
of i and
j
. For the
dyadic
i i
+
j j
k k
causes such a transfor
mation of
space
that each
point goes
over into a
point sym
metrically
situated to it with
respect
to the
plane
of i and
j
.
Each
figure
is therefore
replaced by
a
symmetrical figure.
Definition
: A transformation that
replaces
each
figure by
a
symmetrical figure
is called a
perversion
and the
dyadic
which
gives
the transformation is called a
perversor.
The criterion for a
perversor
is that the
conjugate
of a
dyadic
shall be
equal
to its
reciprocal
and that the determi
nant of the
dyadic
shall be
equal
to minus one.
4>.<P
C
=
I,
I0I=-1.
(3)
Or inasmuch as if C?
c
=
I,
the determinant must be
plus
or minus one the criterion
may
take the form
-
C
=
I,
I I
<
0, (3)
is a
perversor.
It is evident from
geometrical
considerations that the
prod
uct of two versors is a versor
;
of two
perversors,
a versor
;
but of a versor and a
perversor
taken in either
order,
a
perversor.
.
126.]
If the axis of rotation be the i-axis and if the
angle
of rotation be the
angle q
measured
positive
in the
positive
trigonometric
direction,
then
by
the rotation the vectors
i, j,
k are
changed
into the vectors i
,j
,k
such that
i
=
i
j
=
j
cos
q
+
k sin
y,
k
=
j
sin
q
+
k cos
q.
The
dyadic
$
=
i i
+
j j
+
k k which
accomplishes
this rota
tion is
338
VECTOR ANALYSIS
=
ii
+
cos
q (jj
+
kk)
+
sin
q (k j
-
jk). (4)
jj +kk
=
I-ii,
kj-jk
=
I x i.
Hence
=
i i
+
cos
q (I
i
i)
+
sin
q
I x
i.
,(
5
)
If more
generally
in
place
of the i-axis
any
axis denoted
by
the unit vector a
be taken as the axis of rotation and if as
before the
angle
of rotation about that axis be denoted
by q,
the
dyadic
which
accomplishes
the rotation is
=
a a
+
cos
q (I
a
a)
+
sin
q
I x a.
(6)
To show that this
dyadic actually
does
accomplish
the
rotation
apply
it to a vector r. The
dyad
a a is an idemfactor
for all vectors
parallel
to
a;
but an annihilator for vectors
perpendicular
to a. The
dyadic
I a a is an idemfactor
for all vectors in the
plane perpendicular
to
a;
but an
annihilator for all vectors
parallel
to a. The
dyadic
I x a
is a
quadrantal
versor
(Art. 113)
for vectors
perpendicular
to
a;
but an annihilator for vectors
parallel
to a. If then
r be
parallel
to a
0.r
=
aar
=
r.
Hence leaves
unchanged
all vectors
(or components
of
vectors)
which are
parallel
to a. If r is
perpendicular
to a
.
r
=
cos
q
r
+
sin
q
a
x r.
Hence the vector
r has been rotated in its
plane through
the
angle q.
If r were
any
vector in
space
its
component parallel
to
a
suffers no
change
;
but its
component perpendicular
to a
is rotated about a
through
an
angle
of
q degrees.
The whole
vector is therefore rotated about a
through
that
angle.
Let a be
given
in terms of
i, j,
k as
a
l
a
z
ik
ROTATIONS AND
STRAINS
339
-r
a
2
a
x
ji
+
a
2
2
j j
+
a
2
a
3
jk
+
a
z
a
l
ki
+
8 2 kj
+
a
3
2
kk,
I
=
ii
+
jj
+
kk,
I X a
=
0ii-a
3
ij
+
2
ik,
~a
2
ki
+
a
x
kj
+
Okk.
Hence
$
=
{&J
2
(1
cos
#)
+
cos
#}
i i
+
S
a
i
a
2 (1
cos
2)
~~
a
3
Sin
2} lj
+
{
a
i
a
s (1
c s
?)
+
a
a
sin
^^
ik
+
{ 2
a
1
(1
cos^)
+
a
3
sin
q}
ji
+
{
2
2
C
1
-
cos
2)
+
cos
q} j j
+
(
a
2
a
3 (1
""
COS
2)
a
l
Sln
2l
J
*
+
{
3 !
(1
cos
^)
a
2
sin
q}
ki
+
{^3^2 (1
cos
q)
4-
ajsin^}
kj
+ {3
2
(1
cosg) + cosg}
kk.
(7)
127.]
If be written as in
equation (4)
the vector of <P
and the scalar of
may
be found.
X
=
i x i
+
cos
q (j
x
j
+ k x
k)
+
sin
q (k
x
j
-
j
x
k)
<P
X
=
2 sin
q
i
<2>
s
=
i
-
i
+ cosg (j j+k -k)
+sing (k
j j -k),
a
=
1
+
k cos
q.
The axis of rotation
i
is seen to have the direction of <P
X
,
the
negative
of the vector of 0. This is true in
general.
The direction of the axis of rotation of
any
versor is the
negative
of the vector of (P. The
proof
of this statement
depends
on the invariant
property
of $
x
.
Any
versor
may
be reduced to the form
(4) by
taking
the direction of i
340 VECTOR ANALYSIS
coincident with the direction of the axis of rotation. After
this reduction has been made the direction of the axis is seen
to be the
negative
of <P
X
. But <P
X
is not altered
by
the
reduction of <P to
any particular
form nor is the axis of
rotation altered
by
such a reduction. Hence the direction of
the axis of rotation is
always
coincident with $
x
,
the direc
tion of the
negative
of the vector of <?.
The
tangent
of one-half the
angle
of version
q
is
sin
q * x
,
ON
(8)
1
+
cos
q
1
+
4>
s
The
tangent
of one-half the
angle
of version is therefore
determined when the values of <#
x
and <P
S
are known. The
vector $
x
and the scalar (P
s
,
which are invariants of
<P,
deter
mine
completely
the versor <?. Let
ft
be a vector drawn
in the direction of the axis of rotation. Let the
magnitude
of
ft be
equal
to the
tangent
of one-half the
angle q
of
version.
The vector
ft determines the versor <P
completely,
ft
will be
called the vector
semi-tangent of
version.
By (6)
a versor $ was
expressed
in terms of a unit vector
parallel
to the axis of rotation.
<p
=
a a +
cos
q (I
a
a)
+ sin
q
I x a.
Hence if ft be the vector
semi-tangent
of version
There is a more
compact expression
for a versor in terms
of the vector
semi-tangent
of version. Let c be
any
vector in
space.
The version
represented by
ft
carries
c
ft x c into c
+ ft X c.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 341
It will be sufficient to show this in case c is
perpendicular
to
ft.
For if c
(or any component
of
it)
were
parallel
to
ft
the
result of
multiplying by
ft
x would be zero and the statement
would be that c is carried into c. In the first
place
the
mag
nitudes of the two vectors are
equal.
For
(c
ft x
c) (c
ft
x
c)
=
c c
+ftxc-ftxc 2c-ftxc
(c
+
ft x
c) (c
+ ft
x
c)-=
cc-hftxc ftxc
+ 2cftxc
cc + ftxcftxc
=
cc +
ftft
c c
ft
c
ft.c.
Since ft
and c are
by hypothesis perpendicular
c-c + ftxc.ftxc=:c
2
(l
+ tan
2
\
q).
The term c
ft
X c vanishes. Hence the
equality.
In the
second
place
the
angle
between the two vectors is
equal
to
q.
(c ftxc)(c
+
ftxc)_cc
ft x c
ft x c
c
2
(1
+
tan
2
-
q)
c*
(1
+
tan
2
i
j)
2 2
=
cos
q
c
2
(1
+
tan
2
i
q)
(c
ft x
c)
x
(c
+ ft x
c)
_
2 c x
(ft
x
c)
c
2
(1
+
tan
2
1
2)
c
2
(1
+ tan
2
I
j)
2
*
2 c
2
tan
i
2
=
sin
j.
Hence the cosine and sine of the
angle
between c ft
X c
and c
+ ft
x
c are
equal respectively
to the cosine and sine of
the
angle q
: and
consequently
the
angle
between the vectors
must
equal
the
angle q.
Now
342 VECTOR ANALYSIS
C
ftXC=(I Ixft)-C
and
(c
+ a
x
c)
=
(I
+
I x
ft)
c
(I
+
I x
Q) (I
-
I x
tt)-
1
-(I-Ixft)
=
I
+ Ixft.
Multiply by
c
(I
+
I x
a) (I
-
I x
Q)-
1
(c
-
Q
x
c)
= c
+ a x c.
Hence the
dyadic
=
(I
+
I x
tt) (I
-
I X
Q)-
1
(10)
carries the vector c
ft
x c into the vector c + ft
X c no matter
what the value of c. Hence the
dyadic
determines the
version due to the vector
semi-tangent
of version
ft.
The
dyadic
I
+
1 x ft carries the vector c
ft
x c into
(I
+
ft.ft)c.
(I
+
I x
ft) (c ftxc)
=
c
+ ftxc ftxc
ftx(ftxc)
(I +
I
X
Q) (c Q
X c)
=
c
+ Q Q
c
=
(1 + Q Q)
C.
Hence the
dyadic
1
+ ftft
carries the vector c ft x
c into the vector
c,
if c be
perpen
dicular to
ft
as has been
supposed. Consequently
the
dyadic
(I
+
Ixft)
2
1
+ ft-ft
produces
a rotation of all vectors in the
plane perpendicular
to
ft. If, however,
it be
applied
to a vector x
ft
parallel
to
ft
the result is not
equal
to x
ft.
+ IXQ)-(I + IXQ)
(I
+ IXQ) .
Q
*Q
i
+ O-O
*V-*
I
+ Q.Q
v
"l
+ Q-
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 343
To obviate this
difficulty
the
dyad
Q, ft,
which is an annihilator
for all vectors
perpendicular
to
ft,
may
be added to the nu
merator. The versor
(P
may
then be written
ftft+CI
+
IXft)*
1 + ft-ft
(i
+
1 x
ft) (i
+
1 x
ft)
=
i
+
2 1 x ft +
(i
x
ft)
.
(i
x
ft)
(Ixft)-(I xft)
=
(I xft)
x ft
=
l.ftft-ft.ftl.
Hence
substituting
:
^(l-ft.ft)I
+ 2ftft + 2Ixft
1
+ ft ft
This
may
be
expanded
in nonion form. Let
(11)
128.
]
If a is a unit vector a
dyadic
of the form
=
2aa-I
(12)
is a
liquadrantal
versor. That
is,
the
dyadic
turns the
points
of
space
about the axis a
through
two
right angles.
This
may
be seen
by setting q equal
to TT in the
general
expression
for a versor
=
a a
4-
cos
q (I
a
a)
+ sin
q
I x
a,
or it
may
be seen
directly
from
geometrical
considerations.
The
dyadic
<P leaves a vector
parallel
to
a
unchanged
but re
verses
every
vector
perpendicular
to
a in direction.
Theorem: The
product
of two
biquadrantal
versors is a
versor the axis of which is
perpendicular
to the axes of the
344 VECTOR ANALYSIS
biquadrantal
versors and the
angle
of which is twice the
angle
from the axis of the second to the axis of the first
Let a and b be the axes of two
biquadrantal
versors. The
product
=(2bb-I).(2aa-I)
is
certainly
a
versor;
for the
product
of
any
two versors
is a versor. Consider the common
perpendicular
to a and b.
The
biquadrantal
versor 2 aa I reverses this
perpendicular
in direction.
(2bb I) again
reverses it in direction and con
sequently brings
it back to its
original position.
Hence the
product
Q leaves the common
perpendicular
to a and b un
changed.
Q is therefore a rotation about this line as axis.
The cosine of the
angle
from a to Q a is
a Q a
=
2 b
-
a b a
-
a
.
a
=
2
(b a)
2
-
1
=
cos 2
(b, a).
Hence the
angle
of the versor Q is
equal
to twice the
angle
from a to b.
Theorem :
Conversely any given
versor
may
be
expressed
as the
product
of two
biquadrantal
versors,
of which the axes
lie in the
plane perpendicular
to the axis of the
given
versor
and include between them an
angle equal
to one half the
angle
of the
given
versor.
For let Q be the
given
versor. Let a and b be unit vectors
perpendicular
to the axis J?
x
of this versor. Furthermore
let the
angle
from a to b be
equal
to one half the
angle
of
this versor. Then
by
the
foregoing
theorem
J2=(2bb-I).(2aa-I).
(14)
The resolution of versors into the
product
of two
biquad
rantal versors affords an immediate and
simple
method for
compounding
two finite rotations about a fixed
point.
Let
d> and be two
given
versors. Let b be a unit vector
per-
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 345
pendicular
to the axes of and W. Let a
be a unit vector
perpendicular
to the axis of <P and such that the
angle
from
a to b is
equal
to one half the
angle
of 0. Let c be a unit
vector
perpendicular
to the axis of W and such that the
angle
from b to c is
equal
to one half the
angle
of . Then
</>
=
(2bb-I).(2aa-I)
$T=(2ec-I).(2bb-I)
V.
=
(2
cc
-
I) (2
bb
-
1)2. (2
aa
-
I).
But
(2
bb
I)
2
is
equal
to the
idemfactor,
as
may
be seen from
the fact that it
represents
a rotation
through
four
right angles
or from the
expansion
(2bb-I).(2bb-I)
=
4b.b bb-4bb
+
I
=
I.
Hence
W <P
=
(2
c c
-
I) (2
a a
-
I).
The
product
of W into is a versor the axis of which is
perpendicular
to a and c and the
angle
of which is
equal
to
one half the
angle
from a to c.
If and W are two versors of which the vector semi-
tangents
of version are
respectively QJ
and
ft^
the vector
semi-tangent
of version Q
3
of the
product
<P is
q
1
+ a
2
+a
2
xa
1
a
~
i-a.-a,
Let
0=(2bb-I) (2aa-I)
and
=
(2
c c
-
I)
.
(2
bb
-
I).
.
<P
=
(2cc-I) (2aa-I).
iff (V <?)
*
~
y
x
ba -2aa -2b b
x
=
4a b b
X a,
346 VECTOR ANALYSIS
5
=
4(a.b)
2
-l,
?T
=
4 c b cb 2 b b
-
2 c c
+
1,
r
x
=
4 c b c x
b,
?r
5
=
4(c.b)
2
-l
JF <p
=
4 c a ca 2 c c 2 a a
+
I
(?F. <p)
x
=
4 ca c x
a,
(ST. 0)^
=
4
(c-a)
2
-l.
axb bx c
axe
Hence t
=
-
-,
^
=
T ,
3
=
-
a b b c a c
(bxc)
x
(axb) [abc]
b
J
x Q
=
a b b c a b b c
But
[abc]
r
=
bxc a r
+
c x a b r
+
a x b c
r,
bxc axb axe
b c a b a b b c
Hence
Q
2
x
Qj
=
C^
ft
2
+
8
Q
=
a b b
-
c
(a
x
b) (b
x
c)
_
a
b
b c a c b b
2
"
a-bb-c abbc a*bb*c
Hence
r-^r
=
1
ft Q
r
a* b b c
Q
.
=
. . .
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 847
This formula
gives
the
composition
of two finite
rotations.
If the rotations be infinitesimal
ftj
and
Q^
are both infinitesi
mal.
Neglecting
infinitesimals of the second order the for
mula reduces to
The infinitesimal rotations combine
according
to the law of
vector addition. This demonstrates the
parallelogram
law for
angular
velocities. The
subject
was treated from different
standpoints
in Arts. 51 and 60.
icSy
Right
Tensors, Tonics,
and
Cyclotonics
129.]
If the
dyadic
<P be a versor it
may
be written in the
form
(4)
=
ii
+
cos
q (jj
+
kk)
+
sin
q (kj
-
jk).
The axis of rotation is
i and the
angle
of rotation about that
axis is
q.
Let be another versor with the same axis and
an
angle
of rotation
equal
to
q
.
=
ii
+
cos
q
f
(j j
+
kk)
+
sin
q
r
(kj jk).
Multiplying
:
.
y
= =
i i
+
cos
(g
+
? ) (j j
+
k
k)
+
Bin(j+ 9 )(kj-jk). (16)
This is the result which was to be
expected
the
product
of
two versors of which the axes are coincident is a versor with
the same axis and with an
angle equal
to the sum of the
angles
of the two
given
versors.
If a versor be
multiplied by
itself,
geometric
and
analytic
considerations alike make it evident that
2
=
i i
+
cos
2q (j j
+
kk)
+
sin 2
q (k j
-
j k),
and 4>
=
ii
+
cos
nq (j j
+
kk)
+ sin
nq (kj
j
k).
348 VECTOR ANALYSIS
On the other hand let 4>
l equal
jj
+
kk;
and <P
2 equal
kj-jk.
Then
<p
=
(i
i
+
cos
q l
+
sin
q
$
2)
n
.
The
product
of ii into either
l
or <P
2
is zero and into itself is
ii. Hence
4>
n
=
ii
+
(cos q
d>
l
+
sin
q 2)
n
n
=
ii
+
cos
n
q (PS
+
n cos
11
^
1
q
sin
# fl^""
1
<P
2
+
.
The
dyadic ^
raised to
any power reproduces
itself.
(Pf
=
<P
r
The
dyadic
<P
2
raised to the second
power gives
the
negative
of
<#!
;
raised to the third
power,
the
negative
of <P
2
;
raised
to the fourth
power, l
;
raised to the fifth
power,
<P
Z
and so
on
(Art. 114).
The
dyadic l multiplied by 2
is
equal
to
<P
2
. Hence
<p
n
=
i i
+
cos
n
q
l
+
n cos
n
~
l
q
sin
q <P%
nfnl)
V ; -
2
But &
n
= i i
+
cos n
q l
+
sin n
q
<P
y
Equating
coefficients of <P
l
and $
2
in these two
expressions
for
n
n (n
1)
cos n
q
=
cos
n
q ~~^TI
-
COS>1
"
?
sin
2
q
+
71
(71-1) (71-2)
n
"
3
sm 7i
q
=
TI cos
"^
j
sin
q
--
:
-
cos
n
"# sm^
+
o !
Thus the
ordinary expansions
for cos
nq
and sin
715
are
obtained in a manner
very
similar to the manner in which
they
are
generally
obtained.
The
expression
for a versor
may
be
generalized
as follows.
Let
a,b,
c be
any
three
non-coplanar
vectors
;
and a
, V,
c
,
the
reciprocal system.
Consider the
dyadic
<p
=
aa 4- cos
q (bb
+
cc
)
+
sin
q (cb
be
). (17)
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
349
This
dyadic
leaves vectors
parallel
to a
unchanged.
Vectors
in the
plane
of b and c suffer a
change
similar to rotation.
Let
r
=
cos
p
b + sin
p
c,
r =
<P r
=
cos
(p
+
q)
b +
sin
(p
+
q)
c.
This transformation
may
be
given
a definite
geometrical
interpretation
as follows. The vector
r,
when
p
is
regarded
as a variable scalar
parameter,
describes an
ellipse
of which
b and c are two
conjugate
semi-diameters
(page 117).
Let
this
ellipse
be
regarded
as the
parallel projection
of the
unit circle
r
=
cos
p
i
+
sin
q j.
That
is,
the
ellipse
and the circle are cut from the same
cylinder.
The two semi-diameters i and
j
of the circle
pro
ject
into the
conjugate
semi-diameters a and
b of the
ellipse.
The radius vector r in the
ellipse projects
into the radius vector
f in the unit circle. The radius vector r in the
ellipse
which
is
equal
to
r,
projects
into a radius vector r in the circle
such that
f
=
cos
(p
+
q)
i
+
sin
(jp
+
q) j.
Thus the vector
r
in the
ellipse
is so
changed by
the
applica
tion of as a
prefactor
that its
projection
f in the unit circle
is rotated
through
an
angle q.
This statement
may
be
given
a neater form
by making
use
of the fact that in
parallel projection
areas are
changed
in a
definite constant ratio. The vector r in the unit circle
may
be
regarded
as
describing
a sector of which the area is to the
area of the whole circle as
q
is to 2 TT. The radius vector f
then describes a sector of the
ellipse.
The area of this sector
is to the area of the whole
ellipse
as
q
is to 2 TT. Hence the
dyadic
$
applied
as a
prefactor
to a radius vector r in an
ellipse
of
which b and c are two
conjugate
semi-diameters advances
that vector
through
a sector the area
of
which is to the area
of
350 VECTOR ANALYSIS
the whole
ellipse
as
q
is to 2-Tr.
1
Such a
displacement
of the
radius vector r
may
be called an
elliptic
rotation
through
a
sector
q
from its
similarity
to an
ordinary
rotation of which
it is the
projection.
Definition
: A
dyadic
of the form
=
aa
+
cos
q (bb
+
cc
)
+
sin
q (c
V
-
be
) (17)
is called a
cyclic dyadic.
The versor is a
special
case of a
cyclic dyadic.
It is evident from
geometric
or
analytic
considerations that
the
powers
of a
cyclic dyadic
are
formed,
as the
powers
of a
versor were
formed,
by multiplying
the scalar
q by
the
power
to which the
dyadic
is to be raised.
n
=
a a
+
cos
nq (b
b
+
c c
)
+
sin
nq (c
V b c
).
If the scalar
q
is an
integral sub-multiple
of 2
TT,
that
is,
if
27T
=
m,
1
it is
possible
to raise the
dyadic
to such an
integral power,
namely,
the
power
w,
that it becomes the idemfactor
may
then be
regarded
as the mth root of the idemfactor.
In like manner if
q
and 2 TT are commensurable it is
possible
to raise to such a
power
that it becomes
equal
to the idem-
factor and even if
q
and 2 TT are incommensurable a
power
of
d>
may
be found which differs
by
as little as one
pleases
from
the idemfactor. Hence
any cyclic dyadic may
be
regarded
as
a root of the idemfactor.
1
It is evident that
fixing
the result of the
application
of
<
to all radii vectors
in an
ellipse practically
fixes it for all vectors in the
plane
of b and c. For
any
vector in that
plane may
be
regarded
as a scalar
multiple
of a radius vector of
the
ellipse.
ROTATIONS AND
STRAINS 351
130.] Definition:
The transformation
represented
by
the
<Z>
=
ii
+
&jJ+ckk
(18)
where
a, 6,
c are
positive
scalars is called a
^rare
strain. The
dyadic
itself is called a
rt^Atf
tensor.
A
right
tensor
may
be factored into three factors
The order in which these factors occur is immaterial. The
transformation
is such that the i and
j
components
of a
vector remain un
altered but the
k-component
is altered in the ratio of c to 1.
The transformation
may
therefore be described as a stretch or
elongation along
the direction k. If the constant c is
greater
than
unity
the
elongation
is a true
elongation
: but if c is less
than
unity
the
elongation
is
really
a
compression,
for the ratio
of
elongation
is less than
unity.
Between these two cases
comes the case in which the constant is
unity.
The
lengths
of the
k-components
are then not altered.
The transformation due to the
dyadic may
be
regarded
as the successive or simultaneous
elongation
of the com
ponents
of r
parallel
to
i, j,
and k
respectively
in the ratios
a to
1,
b to
1,
c to 1. If one or more of the constants
a, 6,
c
is less than
unity
the
elongation
in that or those directions
becomes a
compression.
If one or more of the constants is
unity, components parallel
to that direction are not altered.
The directions
i,
j,
k are called the
principal
axes
of
the strain.
Their directions are not altered
by
the strain
whereas,
if the
constants
#, &,
c be
different,
every
other direction is altered.
The scalars
a, 6,
c are known as the
principal
ratios
of
elongation.
In Art. 115 it was seen that
any complete dyadic
was
reducible to the normal form
352 VECTOR ANALYSIS
where
a, J,
c are
positive
constants. This
expression may
be
factored
into the
product
of two
dyadics.
0=
(ai
i
+
ftj j
+
ck k
) (i
i +
j j
+
k
k), (19)
or 0=
(i
i+j j
+ k
k) (aii
+
6jj
+
ckk).
The factor i i +
j j
+ k k
which is the same in either method of
factoring
is a versor.
It turns the vectors
i, j,
k into the vectors i
, j ,
k . The vector
semi-tangent
of the versor
ixi
+j xj
+
k xk
i>i
+
^
+
k kls
i + i.i-
+j .j
+
k.k"
The other factor
ai i + l
j j
+ ck k
,
or aii
is a
right
tensor and
represents
a
pure
strain. In the first
case the strain has the lines i
, j ,
k for
principal
axes: in
the
second, i, j,
k. In both cases the ratios of
elongation
are
the
same,
a to
1,
b to
1,
c to 1. If the
negative sign
occurs
before the
product
the version and
pure
strain must have
associated with them a reversal of directions of all vectors in
space
that
is,
a
perversion.
Hence
Theorem:
Any dyadic
is reducible to the
product
of a
versor and a
right
tensor taken in either order and a
positive
or
negative sign.
Hence the most
general
transformation
representable by
a
dyadic
consists of the
product
of a rota
tion or version about a definite axis
through
a definite
angle
accompanied by
a
pure
strain either with or without
perver
sion. The rotation and strain
may
be
performed
in either
order. In the two cases the rotation and the ratios of
elonga
tion of the strain are the same
;
but the
principal
axes of the
strain differ
according
as it is
performed
before or after the
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
353
rotation,
either
system
of axes
being
derivable from the other
by
the
application
of the versor as a
prefactor
or
postfactor
respectively.
If a
dyadic
be
given
the
product
of and its
conjugate
is a
right
tensor the ratios of
elongation
of which are the
squares
of the ratios of
elongation
of (P and the axes of which
are
respectively
the antecedents or
consequents
of accord
ing
as
C
follows or
precedes
in the
product.
4>
(ai
i +
6
j j
+ ck
k),
C
=
(aii
+
6
jj
+ ckk
),
.
C
=
a i i + 6
2
j j
+ c
2
k k
,
(20)
c
2
kk.
The
general problem
of
finding
the
principal
ratios of
elonga
tion,
the
antecedents,
and
consequents
of a
dyadic
in its
normal
form,
therefore reduces to the
simpler problem
of find
ing
the
principal
ratios of
elongation
and the
principal
axes
of a
pure
strain.
131.]
The natural and immediate
generalization
of the
right
tensor
is the
dyadic
<P
=
aaa + &bb + ccc
(21)
where
a, 6,
c are
positive
or
negative
scalars and where
a, b,
c
and a
,
b
,
c are two
reciprocal systems
of vectors. Neces
sarily
a, b,
c and a
,
b
,
c are each three
non-coplanar.
Definition
: A
dyadic
that
may
be reduced to the form
(21)
is called a tonic.
The effect of a tonic is to leave
unchanged
three non-
coplanar
directions
a, b,
c in
space.
If a vector be resolved
into its
components parallel
to
a, b,
c
respectively
these
23
354
VECTOR ANALYSIS
components
are stretched in the ratios a to
1,
& to
1,
c to 1.
If one or more of the constants
a, &,
c are
negative
the com
ponents parallel
to the
corresponding
vector
a, b,
c are re
versed in direction as well as
changed
in
magnitude.
The
tonic
may
be factored into three factors of which each
stretches the
components parallel
to one of the vectors
a, b,
c
but leaves
unchanged
the
components parallel
to the other
two.
cc
) (aa
+ &bb
+
ccXa
The value of a tonic is not altered if in
place
of
a, b,
c
any
three vectors
respectively
collinear with them be sub
stituted,
provided
of course that the
corresponding changes
which are
necessary
be made in the
reciprocal system
a
,
b
,
c .
But with the
exception
of this
change,
a
dyadic
which is
expressible
in the form of a tonic is so
expressible
in
only
one
way
if the constants
a, 6,
c are different. If two of the
constants
say
J and c are
equal, any
two vectors
coplanar
with the
corresponding
vectors b and c
may
be substituted
in
place
of b and c. If all the constants are
equal
the tonic
reduces to a constant
multiple
of the idemfactor.
Any
three
non-coplanar
vectors
may
be taken for
a, b,
c.
The
product
of two tonics of which the axes
a, b,
c are the
same is commutative and is a tonic with these axes and
with scalar coefficients
equal respectively
to the
products
of
the
corresponding
coefficients of the two
dyadics.
=
a
x
a a +
\
b V
+
^
c c
c
2
cc
0. y
=
<?
=
a
1
a
2
aa +
^^bV-f c^cc
.
(22)
The
generalization
of the
cyclic dyadic
a a + cos
q (b
V
+
c c
)
+ sin
q (c
b b c
)
is
=
a aa -1-
1
(b
V + cc
)
+
c
(c
V
-
be
), (23)
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 355
where
a, b,
c are three
non-coplanar
vectors of which a
r
, V,
c
is the
reciprocal system
and where the
quantities
a,
6, c,
are
positive
or
negative
scalars. This
dyadic may
be
changed
into a more convenient form
by determining
the
positive
scalar
p
and the
positive
or
negative
scalar
q (which may
always
be chosen between the limits
TT)
so that
and
c=psinq. (24)
That
is,
and tan
2
=.
(24y
Then
+ cc
)
+
p
sin
q (cV
be
). (25)
This
may
be factored into the
product
of three
dyadics
0=
(aaa
+ bV + cc
) (a
a
+
p
bV +
jpcc )
{aa
+
cos
q (b
b 4- o c
)
+
sin
q
(cV
-
be
)}.
The order of these factors is immaterial. The first is a tonic
which leaves
unchanged
vectors
parallel
to b and c but
stretches those
parallel
to
a in the ratio of a to 1. If a is
negative
the
stretching
must be
accompanied by
reversal
in direction. The second factor is also a tonic. It leaves
unchanged
vectors
parallel
to a but stretches all vectors in
the
plane
of b and c in the ratio
p
to 1. The third is a
cyclic
factor. Vectors
parallel
to a remain
unchanged
;
but
radii vectors in the
ellipse
of which b and c are
conjugate
semi-diameters are rotated
through
a sector such that the
area of the sector is to the area of the whole
ellipse
as
q
to
2 TT. Other vectors in the
plane
of b and c
may
be
regarded
as scalar
multiples
of the radii vectors of the
ellipse.
356 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Definition
: A
dyadic
which is reducible to the form
<P
=
a aa +
p
cos
q (bb
+ cc
)
+
p
sin
q (c
V be
), (25)
owing
to the fact that it combines the
properties
of the
cyclic dyadic
and the tonic is called a
cyclolonic.
The
product
of two
cyclotonics
which have the same three
vectors, a, b,
c as antecedents and the
reciprocal
system
a
,
b
,
c for
consequents
is a third
cyclotonic
and is com
mutative.
cc
)
+
pl sinql
(cb
f
be
)
5F
=
a
2
aa
+jp2
cos
j2
(bb
f
+ cc
)
+
jpa
sin
q2 (cb
be
)
0. 5P*= W* <?
=
a
1
a
2
aa +
pl p
2
cos
(q
l
+
ja) (bb
+ cc
)
+
Pi P*
sin
(2l
+
&
) (c
b
-
b c
). (26)
Reduction
of Dyadics
to Canonical Forms
132.]
Theorem : In
general any dyadic may
be reduced
either to a tonic or to a
cyclotonic.
The
dyadics
for which
the reduction is
impossible may
be
regarded
as
limiting
cases
which
may
be
represented
to
any
desired
degree
of
approxi
mation
by
tonics or
cyclotonics.
From this theorem the
importance
of the tonic and
cyclo
tonic which have been treated as natural
generalizations
of
the
right
tensor and the
cyclic dyadic may
be seen. The
proof
of the
theorem,
including
a discussion of all the
special
cases that
may
arise,
is
long
and somewhat tedious.
The method of
proving
the theorem in
general
however is
patent.
If three directions
a, b,
c
may
be found which are
left
unchanged by
the
application
of $ then <P must be a
tonic. If
only
one such direction can be
found,
there exists
a
plane
in which the vectors suffer a
change
such as that due
to the
cyclotonic
and the
dyadic
indeed
proves
to be such.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 357
The
question
is to find the directions which are
unchanged
by
the
application
of the
dyadic
0.
If the direction a is
unchanged,
then
a
=
a
a
(27)
or
(0 al).a
=
0.
The
dyadic
a I is therefore
planar
since it reduces vectors
in the direction a to zero. In
special cases,
which are set
aside for the
present,
the
dyadic may
be linear or zero. In
any
case if the
dyadic
<P-aI
reduces vectors collinear with a to zero it
possesses
at least
one
degree
of
nullity
and the third or
determinant of <P
vanishes.
(0-aI)8
=
0.
(28)
Now
(page 331) (0
+
W)z
=
<P
B
+
<P
2
: W
+ :
W^
+
z
.
Hence
(4>
-
a
I)8
=
<P
Z
-
a <Z>
2
: 1
+
a
2
:
^
-
a
3
1
8
I
2
=
I and I
3
=
1.
But
: 1
=
Hence the
equation
becomes
a
3
-
a
2
a
+
a
0^
-0
3
=
0.
(29)
The value of a which satisfies the condition that
is a solution of a cubic
equation.
Let x
replace
a. The
cubic
equation
becomes
x*
-
x* d>
3
+
x
2S
-
8
=
0.
(29)
\
358
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Any
value of x which satisfies this
equation
will be such
that
(*-aI),
=
0.
(28)
That is to
say,
the
dyadic
x I is
planar.
A vector
per
pendicular
to its
consequents
is reduced to zero. Hence
leaves such a direction
unchanged.
The further discussion
of the reduction of a
dyadic
to the form of a tonic or a
cyclo-
tonic
depends merely upon
whether the cubic
equation
in x
has one or three real roots.
133.]
Theorem : If the cubic
equation
x*
-
x* 4>
s
+
x
2
*
-
8
=
(29)
has three real roots the
dyadic
<P
may
in
general
be reduced
to a tonic.
For let x
=
a,
x
=
&,
x
=
c
be the three roots of the
equation.
The
dyadics
<P a
I,
61,
<P cl
are in
general planar.
Let
a, b,
c be
respectively
three
vectors drawn
perpendicular
to the
planes
of the
consequents
of these
dyadics.
b
=
0,
(30)
(0-cI).c
=
0.
Then <P a
=
a
a,
</>-b
=
&b,
(30)
<p
.
c
=
cc.
If the roots
a, &,
c are distinct the vectors
a, b,
c are non-
coplanar.
For
suppose
c
=
ma
+ ?ib
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 359
m $ a raca-ffl>0b n c b
=
0.
But
a
=
a
a,
b
=
6 b.
Hence m
(a c)
a +
n
(b c)
b
=
0,
and
m(a c)
=
0, n(b c)
=
0.
Hence m
=
or a
=
c,
TI
=
or b
=
c.
Consequently
if the vectors
a, b,
c are
coplanar,
the roots are
not
distinct;
and therefore if the roots are
distinct,
the
vectors
a, b,
c are
necessarily non-coplanar.
In case the roots
are not distinct it is still
always possible
to choose three
non-coplanar
vectors
a, b,
c in such a manner that the
equa
tions
(30)
hold. This
being
so,
there exists a
system
a , b
,
c
reciprocal
to
a, b,
c and the
dyadic
which carries
a, b,
c into
a
a,
b
b,
c c is the tonic
Theorem : If the cubic
equation
x*
-
x* 4>
a
+
x d>
2S
-
3
=
(29)
has one real root the
dyadic may
in
general
be reduced to
a
cyclotonic.
The cubic
equation
has one real root. This must be
posi
tive or
negative according
as <P
B
is
positive
or
negative.
Let
the root be a.
Determine a
perpendicular
to the
plane
of
the
consequents
of 4> a I.
(<P-aI)
.a
=
0.
Determine
a
also so that
a
.
(0-
a
I)
=
and let the
lengths
of a and a
be so
adjusted
that a a
=
l.
This cannot be
accomplished
in the
special
case in which a
360
VECTOR ANALYSIS
and a
;
are
mutually perpendicular.
Let b be
any
vector in
the
plane perpendicular
to a .
a
(0
-
a
I)
-
b
=
0.
Hence
(<P al)b
is
perpendicular
to a . Hence <Pb is
perpendicular
to a . In a similar manner <P
2
b,
$
3
b,
and
<P~
l
b,
0~
2
b, etc.,
will all be
perpendicular
to a and lie in
one
plane.
The vectors <P b and b cannot be
parallel
or
would have the direction b as well as a
unchanged
and
thus the cubic would have more than one real root.
The
dyadic changes
a, b,
b into
a,
</>
2
b,
<P b re
spectively.
The volume of the
parallelepiped
[<p.a
</>
2
b
</>.b]
=
</>
3 [a
<P-b
b]. (31)
But $a
=
aa.
Hence a a
(<P
2
b)
x
(0 b)
=
<P
3
a
(0 b)
x b.
(31)
The vectors <0
2
b,
$
b,
b all lie in the same
plane.
Their
vector
products
are
parallel
to a and to each other. Hence
a
(0
2
-
b)
x
(</>.b)
=
3
><Pb xb.
(31)"
Inasmuch as a and <P
3
have the same
sign,
let
^
=
a-i*
s
.
(32)
Let also
b
1
=;r
1
#-b b
2
=
/r
2
#
2
b
?
etc.
(33)
and
b_!
p
(&-
1
b b_
2
=
p
2
#~
2
b,
etc.
b
2 X
b
x
b
x X
b,
or
(b2
+
b)
x b
x
=
0.
The vectors b
2
+
b and b
x
are
parallel.
Let
b
2
+
b
=
27ib
r (34)
Then b
3
+
b
1
=
27ib
2
b
1
+ b
2
=
2nb
3
etc.,
b
x
-f
b_!
=
2 n b
b_!
+
b_
2
=
2 n b_
x
etc.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
861
Lay
off from a common
origin
the vectors
b,
bj,
b
2
, etc., b_
j, b_2,
etc.
Since is not a
tonic,
that
is,
since there is no direction in
the
plane perpendicular
to a which is left
unchanged by
these vectors b
OT pass
round and round the
origin
as m takes
on all
positive
and
negative
values. The value of n must
therefore lie between
plus
one and minus one. Let
n
=
cos
q. (36)
Then
b-j
+
bj
=
2 cos
q
b.
Determine c from the
equation
b
x
=
cos
q
b + sin
q
c.
Then
b_j
=
cos
q
b sin
q
c.
Let a
,
b
f
,
c be the
reciprocal system
of
a, b,
c. This is
pos
sible since a was so determined that a a
=
1 and since
a, b,
c are
non-coplanar.
Let
=
cos
q (bV
+
ccO
+
sin
q (c
V
-
be
).
Then ra
=
0,
?F.b
= b
1
,
.})_
l
=
b.
Hence
(a
*& +
p )
&
=
a a
=
$
a,
(a
aa +
p W)
b
=
p
b
x
= -
b,
(a
aa +
p )
b_
a =p
b
=
d>
.
b_
r
The
dyadic
a a a
+
p
W
changes
the vectors
a,
b and
b^
into
the vectors
-
a, b,
and b_
x
respectively.
Hence
=
(a
aa
+
p W)
=
a aa +
^
cos
j (bb
+ cc
7
)
4-
^?
sin
q (c
V b o
).
The
dyadic
in case the cubic
equation
has
only
one real
root is
reducible
except
in
special
cases to a
cyclotonic.
The theorem that a
dyadic
in
general
is reducible to a tonic
or
cyclotonic
has therefore been demonstrated.
362
VECTOR ANALYSIS
134.]
There remain two cases
1
in which the reduction
is
impossible,
as can be seen
by looking
over the
proof.
In
the first
place
if the constant n used in the reduction to
cyclo-
tonic form be 1 the reduction falls
through.
In the second
place
if the
plane
of the antecedents of
and the
plane
of the
consequents
are
perpendicular
the
vectors
a and a used in the reduction to
cyclotonic
form are
perpendicular
and it is
impossible
to determine a such that
a a shall be
unity.
The reduction falls
through.
If
n=l,
b_
1
+ b
1
=
2b.
Let b_
1
+
b
1
=
2b.
Choose c
=
b
1
b
=
b
b_
r
Consider the
dyadic
W
=
a aa +
p (bV
+ co
)
4-
p
o V
y.a
=
aa=<P.a,
*P b
pb + pc pbi
=
<P
b,
?p*.o=jt)c= -pb1 JP
b
=
c.
Hence <P
=
a aa +
p (b
V + cc
)
+
p
cb
r (37)
The transformation due to this
dyadic may
be seen best
by
factoring
it into three factors which are
independent
of the
order or
arrangement
.(aa
+ bb + cc
+
cb
7
).
1
In these cases it will be seen that the cubic
equation
has three real roots.
In one case two of them are
equal
and in the other case three of them. Thus
these
dyadics may
be
regarded
as
limiting
cases
lying
between the
cyclotonic
in
which two of the roots are
imaginary
and the tonic in which all the roots are real
and distinct. The limit
may
be
regarded
as
taking place
either
by
the
pure
imaginary part
of the two
imaginary
roots of the
cyclotonic becoming
zero or
by
two of the roots of the tonic
approaching
each other.
ROTATIONS AND
STRAINS 863
The first factor
represents
an
elongation
in the direction a in a
ratio a to 1. The
plane
of b and c
is
undisturbed. The
second factor
represents
a
stretching
of the
plane
of b and c in
the ratio
tp
to 1. The last factor takes the form
I
+ cb .
(I
+
oV)
a
=
#a,
(I
+ c
V)
x b
=
x b
+
x
o,
(I
+ c
V)
x c
=
x c.
A
dyadic
of the form I
+
cb
leaves vectors
parallel
to a
and c
unaltered. A vector #b
parallel
to b is increased
by
the vec
tor c
multiplied by
the ratio of the vector # b to b. In other
words the transformation of
points
in
space
is such that the
plane
of a and c
remains fixed
point
for
point
but the
points
in
planes parallel
to that
plane
are shifted in the direction c
by
an amount
proportional
to the distance of the
plane
in
which
they
lie from the
plane
of a and c.
Definition
: A
dyadic
reducible to the form
I + cb
is called a
shearing dyadic
or shearer and the
geometrical
transformation which it causes is called a shear. The more
general dyadic
<P
=
a aa
+
p (b
V + c c
;
)
+
o V
(37)
will also be called a
shearing dyadic
or shearer. The trans
formation to which it
gives
rise is a shear combined with
elongations
in the direction of a and is in the
plane
of b and c.
If n
=
1 instead of n
=
+1,
the result is much the same.
The
dyadic
then becomes
$
=
a aa
-,p (bV
+
c<0
-
c V
(37)
$
=
(a
aa + bb
r
+ cc
) {aa
f
-p (b
D + cc
)> (I
+
cV).
364
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The factors are the same
except
the second which now
repre
sents a
stretching
of the
plane
of b and c combined with a
reversal of all the vectors in that
plane.
The
shearing dyadic
then
represents
an
elongation
in the direction
a,
an
elonga
tion combined with a reversal of direction in the
plane
of
b and
c,
and a shear.
Suppose
that the
plane
of the antecedents and the
plane
of
the
consequents
of the
dyadic
0al are
perpendicular.
Let
these
planes
be taken
respectively
as the
plane
of
j
and k and
the
plane
of i and
j.
The
dyadic
then takes the form
<p a I A
j
i
+
B
j j +
C k i
+
D k
j.
The coefficient B must vanish. For otherwise the
dyadic
j Bk)
is
planar
and the scalar a
+
B is a root of the cubic
equation.
With this root the reduction to the form of a tonic
may
be
carried on as before.
Nothing
new arises. But if B vanishes
a new case occurs. Let
This
may
be reduced as follows to the form
ab + bc
where a V
=
a c
=
b c
=
and b V
=
1.
Square
W W
2
=
A D ki
=
ac .
Hence a must be chosen
parallel
to k
;
and c
,
parallel
to i.
The
dyadic
W
may
then be transformed into
Then
=AD*,
V=
Ci
+
Di
A D
b
=
A
j
c
=
i.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
365
With this choice of
a, b, V,
c the
dyadic
reduces to the
desired form ab
+
be and hence the
dyadic
<P is reduced to
=
al
+
ab + bc
(38)
or
=
aaa
+ abb + ace + aV + be .
This
may
be factored into the
product
of two
dyadics
the
order of which is immaterial.
The first factor al
represents
a
stretching
of
space
in all
directions in the ratio a to 1. The second factor
represents
what
may
be called a
complex
shear. For
r
=
IT + ab
r+
bc -r= r-t-aV-r + bc -r.
If r is
parallel
to
a it is left unaltered
by
the
dyadic
Q. If
r is
parallel
to b it is
changed by
the addition of a term
which is in direction
equal
to a and in
magnitude propor
tional to the
magnitude
of the vector r. In like manner
if r is
parallel
to c it is
changed by
the addition of a term
which in direction is
equal
to b and which in
magnitude
is
proportional
to the
magnitude
of the vector r.
-zb
=
(I
+ ab -f bc
).zb=
zb
+
a a
Q *xc
=
(I
+ ab + be
)
xc
=
xc 4- #b.
Definition
: A
dyadic
which
may
be reduced to the form
<P
=
aI
+
ab
+
bc
(38)
is called a
complex
shearer.
The
complex
shearer as well as the
simple
shearer men
tioned before are
limiting
cases of the
cyclotonic
and tonic
dyadics.
366
VECTOR ANALYSIS
135.]
A more
systematic
treatment of the various kinds
of
dyadics
which
may
arise
may
be
given by
means of the
Hamilton-Cayley equation
03
_
a
02
+
0^
_
3
i
=
and the cubic
equation
in x
x*
-
S
x*
+
<P
25
x
-
8
=
0.
(29)
If
a, &,
c are the roots of this cubic the
Hamilton-Cayley
equation may
be written as
(0
-
al) (<P
-
JI) (0
-
<?I)
=
0.
(40)
If, however,
the cubic has
only
one root the
Hamilton-Cayley
equation
takes the form
(0_al).(0
2
-
2^0082
4>
+
p*I)
=
0.
(41)
In
general
the
Hamilton-Cayley equation
which is an
equa
tion of the third
degree
in is the
equation
of lowest
degree
which is satisfied
by
0. In
general
therefore one of the above
equations
and the
corresponding
reductions to the tonic or
cyclotonic
form hold. In
special
cases, however,
the
dyadic
may satisfy
an
equation
of lower
degree.
That
equation
of lowest
degree
which
may
be satisfied
by
a
dyadic
is called
its characteristic
equation.
The
following possibilities
occur.
I.
(<P
-
a
I)
-
(0
-
b
I) (
-
c
I)
=
0.
II.
(0-aI)
III.
(
IV.
(<P
-
a
!).(</>- 61)
=
0.
V.
(0-aI)
3
=
0.
VI.
(<P
al)
2
=
0.
VII.
(<P-aI)
=
0.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS
367
In the first case the
dyadic
is a tonic and
may
be reduced
to the form
6bb + ccc .
In the second case the
dyadic
is a
cyclotonic
and
may
be
reduced to the form
d>
=
a a a +
p
cos
q (bb
+
cc
)
+
p
sin
q (eb
be
).
In the third case the
dyadic
is a
simple
shearer and
may
be
reduced to the form
</>
=
aaa + 6
(bb
+ cc
)
+ cb .
In the fourth case the
dyadic
is
again
a tonic. Two of the
ratios of
elongation
are the same. The
following
reduction
may
be
accomplished
in an infinite number of
ways.
=
aaa + b
(bb
+ cc
).
In the fifth case the
dyadic
is a
complex
shearer and
may
be
so
expressed
that
0= al
+
ab
-f
be .
In the sixth case the
dyadic
is
again
a
simple
shearer which
may
be reduced to the form
4>
=
al
+ cb =a
(aa
4- bb
+
cc
)
+ cb .
In the seventh case the
dyadic
is
again
a tonic which
may
be
reduced in a
doubly
infinite number of
ways
to the form
=
al
=
a(aa
/
+ bb + cc
).
These seven are the
only essentially
different forms which a
dyadic may
take. There are then
only
seven
really
different
kinds of
dyadics
three tonics in which the ratios of
elonga
tion are all
different,
two
alike,
or all
equal,
and the
cyclo
tonic
together
with three
limiting
cases,
the two
simple
and
the one
complex
shearer.
368 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Summary of Chapter
VI
The transformation due to a
dyadic
is a linear
homogeneous
strain. The
dyadic
itself
gives
the transformation of the
points
in
space.
The second of the
dyadic gives
the trans
formation of
plane
areas. The third of the
dyadic gives
the
ratio in which volumes are
changed.
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
dyadic repre
sent a rotation about a definite axis is that it be reducible to
the form
=
i i
+
j j
+
k k
(1)
or that 4>
c
=
I <P
3
=
+ 1
(2)
or that
c
=
I
8
>
The
necessary
and
sufficient condition that a
dyadic repre
sent a rotation combined with a transformation of reflection
by
which each
figure
is
replaced by
one
symmetrical
to it is
that
=
-(i
i +
j j
+ k
k) (iy
or that
$ <P
C
=
I*
^3
=
1
or that
0.00
=
1,
3
<0.
(3)
A
dyadic
of the form
(1)
is called a versor
;
one of the form
(1)
,
a
perversor.
If the axis of rotation of a versor be chosen as the i-axis
the versor reduces to
=
ii + cos
q (j j
+
kk)
+
sin
q (kj
-
j k) (4)
or
=
ii + cos
q (I ii)
+ sin
q
I x i.
(5)
If
any
unit vector
a is directed
along
the axis of rotation
<p
=
a a + cos
q (I
a
a)
+ sin
q
1 x a
(6)
The axis of the versor coincides in direction with
X
.
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 369
If a vector be drawn
along
the axis and if the
magnitude
of
the vector be taken
equal
to the
tangent
of one-half the
angle
of
rotation,
the vector determines the rotation
completely.
This vector is called the vector
semi-tangent
of version.
2
(9)
In terms of
Q
the versor <P
may
be
expressed
in a number of
was.
a dft / a a \
<P
=
+
cos
q
(I
-
)
+
sin
q
I x
a-ft
\ a-ay
(10)
or <D
=
(I
+ I x
ft) (I
-
I x
Q)-
1
(10)
J^
+
axQ)
(loy
,
tf
=
1
+
Q-ft
If a is a unit vector a
dyadic
of the form
<P
=
2aa-I
(11)
is a
biquadrantal
versor.
Any
versor
may
be resolved into
the
product
of two
biquadrantal
versors and
by
means of
such resolutions
any
two versors
may
be combined into
another. The law of
composition
for the vector
semi-tangents
of version is
A
dyadic
reducible to the form
<P
=
aa
+
cos
q (bb
+ cc
)
+ sin
q (cb -W) (17)
is called a
cyclic dyadic.
It
produces
a
generalization
of
simple
rotation an
elliptic
rotation,
so to
speak.
The
pro-
24
370
VECTOR ANALYSIS
duct of two
cyclic dyadics
which have the same antecedents
a, b,
c and
consequents
a b c is obtained
by adding
their
angles q.
A
cyclic dyadic may
be
regarded
as a root of the
idemfactor. A
dyadic
reducible to the form
=
aii
+bjj
+ ckk
(18)
where
#, &,
c are
positive
scalars is called a
right
tensor. It
represents
a
stretching along
the
principal
axis
i,
j,
k in the
ratio a to
1,
b to
1,
c to 1 which are called the
principal
ratios
of
elongation.
This transformation is a
pure
strain.
Any dyadic may
be
expressed
as the
product
of a
versor,
a
right
tensor,
and a
positive
or
negative sign.
=
(a
i i + &
j j
+
c k k
) (i
i +
j j
+ k
k)
or <P=
(i
i
+
j j
+ k
k).(aii
+
Jjj
+
ckk). (19)
Consequently any
linear
homogeneous
strain
may
be
regarded
as a combination of a rotation and a
pure
strain
accompanied
or
unaccompanied by
a
perversion.
The immediate
generalizations
of the
right
tensor and the
cyclic dyadic
is to the tonic
=
aaa
+
&bb + ccc
(21)
and
cyclotonic
cc
)
+
c(cV-bc) (23)
or <P
=
aaa +
p
cos
q (bb
+ cc
)+^sing (cV
be
) (25)
where
p
=
+
V 6
2
+
c
2
and tan
I
q
=
-
-.
(24)
*
2?
+
Any dyadic
in
general may
be reduced either to the form
(21),
and is therefore a
tonic,
or to the form
(25),
and is
therefore a
cyclotonic.
The condition that a
dyadic
be a
tonic is that the cubic
equation
+
0^
x
-
<J>
3
=
(29)
ROTATIONS AND STRAINS 371
shall have three real roots.
Special
cases in which the
reduction
may
be
accomplished
in more
ways
than one arise
when the
equation
has
equal
roots. The condition that a
dyadic
be a
cyclotonic
is that this cubic
equation
shall have
only
one real root. There occur two
limiting
cases in which
the
dyadic
cannot be reduced to
cyclotonic
form. In these
cases it
may
be written as
4> =aaa
+jp (bb
+ cc
)
+ cb
(37)
and is a
simple
shearer,
or it takes the form
=
al
+
ab
+
bc
(38)
and is a
complex
shearer.
Dyadics may
be classified accord
ing
to their characteristic
equations
(<P-aI).(0-&I).(<P-cI)
=0 tonic
(#
a
I) (<P
2
2
p
cos
q
+
jp
2
1)
=
cyclotonic
(0
a
I) (#
&
I)
2
=
simple
shearer
(0_ <*!)($
&I)
=
special
tonic
(0
a
I)
8
=
complex
shearer
(0
a
I)
2
=
special simple
shearer
(0
a
I)
=
special
tonic.
CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Quadric
Surfaces
136.]
If be
any
constant
dyadic
the
equation
r
. .
r
=
const.
(1)
is
quadratic
in r. The
constant,
in case it be not
zero,
may
be divided into the
dyadic
and hence the
equation
takes
the form
r r
=
1,
or r r
=
0.
(2)
The
dyadic may
be assumed to be self
-conjugate.
For if
W is an
anti-self-conjugate dyadic,
the
product
r W r is
identically
zero for all values of r. The
proof
of this state
ment is left as an exercise.
By
Art. 116
any self-conjugate
dyadic
is reducible to the form
-
t
L
l
JJ
-
If
Hence the
equation
r r
=
1
represents
a
quadric
surface real or
imaginary.
The different cases which arise are four in number. If the
signs
are all
positive,
the
quadric
is a real
ellipsoid.
If one
sign
is
negative
it is an
hyperboloid
of one
sheet;
if two are
QUADRIC
SURFACES
373
negative,
a
hyperboloid
of two sheets. If the three
signs
are
all
negative
the
quadric
is
imaginary.
In like manner the
equation
r r
=
is seen to
represent
a cone which
may
be either real or
imaginary according
as the
signs
are different or all alike.
Thus the
equation
r 0- r
=
const.
represents
a central
quadric
surface. The surface reduces to
a cone in case the constant is zero.
Conversely any
central
quadric
surface
may
be
represented by
a
suitably
chosen self-
conjugate dyadic
in the form
r d> r
=
const.
This is evident from the
equations
of the central
quadric
surfaces when reduced to the normal form.
They
are
#
2
7/
2
z
2
-
=
const.
a
2
6
J
c
2
The
corresponding dyadic
<Pis $
=
.
a* o* c*
The most
general
scalar
expression
which is
quadratic
in
the vector
r
and which
consequently
when set
equal
to a con
stant
represents
a
quadric
surface,
contains terms like
r
r,
(r a) (b
r)
,
r
c,
d
e,
where
a, b, c, d,
e are constant vectors. The first two terms
are of the second order in r
;
the
third,
of the first order
;
and
the
last,
independent
of r.
Moreover,
it is evident that these
four sorts of terms are the
only
ones which can occur in a
scalar
expression
which is
quadratic
in r.
But r r
=
r I
r,
and
(r a) (b r)
=
r a b r.
374
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence the most
general quadratic expression may
be reduced
to
where is a constant
dyadic,
A a constant
vector,
and
a constant scalar. The
dyadic may
be
regarded
as self-
conjugate
if desired.
To be rid
of
the linear term r
A,
make a
change
of
origin
by replacing
r
by
r t.
(r -t).
0-
(r -t)
+
(r -t)
A+ C=0
r
.
<P
*
r t $ r r <P t + t <P t
+
r -A-t- A + (7=0.
Since is
self-conjugate
the second and third terms are
equal.
Hence
r r
+
2 r
(J
A
-
t)
+ C
f
=
0.
If now is
complete
the vector t
may
be chosen so that
IA
=
0-t or t
=
5
0-
1
-
A.
L L
Hence the
quadric
is reducible to the central form
r r
=
const.
In case is
incomplete
it is unt
planar
or unilinear because
is self-con
jugate.
If A lies in the
plane
of or in the line
of as the case
may
be the
equation
is soluble for t and the reduction to central form is still
pos
sible. But unless A is so situated the reduction is
impossible.
The
quadric
surface is not a central surface.
The discussion and classification of the various non-central
quadrics
is an
interesting
exercise. It will not be taken
up
here. The
present object
is to
develop
so much of the
theory
QUADRIC
SURFACES 375
of
quadric
surfaces as will be useful in
applications
to mathe
matical
physics
with
especial
reference to
non-isotropic
media. Hereafter therefore the central
quadrics
and in
par
ticular the
ellipsoid
will be discussed.
137.]
The
tangent plane may
be found
by
differentiation.
r <P r
=
1.
di r + r <t>
di
=
0.
Since <P is
self-conjugate
these two terms are
equal
and
dr.0-r
=
0.
(5)
The increment d r
is
perpendicular
to <P r. Hence r is
normal to the surface at the
extremity
of the vector r. Let
this normal be denoted
by
K and let the unit normal be n.
BT
=
<P r
(6)
r r
n
=
r) (0 r)
Vr
#
2
r*
Let
p
be the vector drawn from the
origin perpendicular
to
the
tangent plane, p
is
parallel
to n. The
perpendicular
distance from the
origin
to the
tangent plane
is the
square
root of
p p.
It is also
equal
to the
square
root of r
p.
r
p
=
r cos
(r, p) p
=
p
2
.
Hence r
p
=
p p.
Or
Ll!
=
,
. JL =
L
p.p p.p
But r0r
=
rH
=
l.
Hence inasmuch as
p
and IT are
parallel, they
are
equal.
0.r
=
!T=-^-.
(T)
p.p
376 VECTOR ANALYSIS
On
page
108 it was seen that the vector which has the direc
tion of the normal to a
plane
and which is in
magnitude equal
to the
reciprocal
of the distance from the
origin
to the
plane
may
be taken as the vector coordinate of that
plane.
Hence
the above
equation
shows that <P r is not
merely
normal to
the
tangent plane,
but is also the coordinate of the
plane.
That
is,
the
length
of <P r
is the
reciprocal
of the distance
from the
origin
to the
plane tangent
to the
ellipsoid
at
the
extremity
of the vector r.
The
equation
of the
ellipsoid
in
plane
coordinates
may
be
found
by eliminating
r from the two
equations.
( r r
=
1,
Hence
r r =
H 0-
1
0-
1
If
=
JT 0"
1
H.
Hence the desired
equation
is
H-0-i-H
=
l.
(8)
*4+y+"
c
2
kk.
Let
r
=
#i-t-yj+3k,
and N
=
ui
+
v
j
+
wk,
where
u, v,
w are the
reciprocals
of the
intercepts
of the
plane
N
upon
the axes
i,
j,
k. Then the
ellipsoid may
be
written in either of the two forms familiar in Cartesian
geometry.
or K 0-
1
.N
=
a
2
w
a
+ Z>
2
v
2
+ c
2
w
2
=
1.
(10)
QUADRIC
SURFACES 377
138.]
The locus of the middle
points
of a
system
of
parallel
chords in an
ellipsoid
is a
plane.
This
plane
is
called the diametral
plane conjugate
with the
system
of
chords. It is
parallel
to the
plane
drawn
tangent
to the
ellipsoid
at the
extremity
of that one of the chords which
passes through
the center.
Let r be
any
radius vector in the
ellipsoid.
Let n be the
vector drawn to the middle
point
of a chord
parallel
to a.
Let
r
=
s +
x
a.
If r is a radius vector of the
ellipsoid
r r
=
(B
+
x
a)
<D
(s
+
x
a)
=
1.
Hence s $ s
+
2 # s
.
a
+
2? a # a
=
1.
Inasmuch as the vector s bisects the chord
parallel
to a the
two solutions of x
given by
this
equation
are
equal
in
mag
nitude and
opposite
in
sign.
Hence the coefficient of the
linear term x vanishes.
,.
s
. .
a
=
0.
Consequently
the vector s is
perpendicular
to
a. The
locus of the terminus of s is therefore a
plane passed through
the center of the
ellipsoid, perpendicular
to
a,
and
parallel
to the
tangent plane
at the
extremity
of a.
If b is
any
radius vector in the diametral
plane conjugate
with
a,
_
A
b a
=
0.
The
symmetry
of this
equation
shows that a is a radius
vector in the
plane conjugate
with b. Let c
be a third radius
vector in the
ellipsoid
and let it be chosen as the line of
intersection of the diametral
planes conjugate respectively
with a and b. Then
a
.
d>
.
b
=
0,
b
.
c
=
0,
(11)
e a
=
0.
378 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The vectors
a, b,
c are
changed
into <P
a,
<D
b,
<P
c
by
the
dyadic
0. Let
a
=
a,
V
=
b,
c
-
b
c.
The vectors a
,
b
,
c form the
system reciprocal
to
a, b,
c.
For a a
=
a a
=
1,
b V
=
b b
=
1,
c o
=
c o
=
1,
and a V
=
a b
=
0,
b
c =
b c
=
0,
c a
=
c a
=
0.
The
dyadic may
be therefore
expressed
in the forms
=
a a + b b
+
cV,
(12)
and 0"
1
=
aa
+
bb
+ cc.
If for convenience the three directions
a, b, c,
be called a
system
of three
conjugate
radii
vectors,
and if in a similar
manner the three
tangent planes
at their extremities be called
a
system
of three
conjugate tangent planes,
a number of
geometric
theorems
may
be obtained from
interpreting
the
invariants of 0. A
system
of three
conjugate
radii vectors
may
be obtained in a
doubly
infinite number of
ways.
The volume of a
parallelepiped
of which three concurrent
edges
constitute a
system
of three
conjugate
radii vectors is
constant and
equal
in
magnitude
to the
rectangular parallele
piped
constructed
upon
the three semi-axes of the
ellipsoid.
For let
a, b,
c be
any system
of three
conjugate
axes.
0-
1
=
aa + bb
+
cc.
The determinant or third of 0"
1
is an invariant and inde
pendent
of the form in which is
expressed.
3-i=[abc]
2
.
QUADRIC
SURFACES 379
But if 0-!:=a
2
ii
+ &
2
jj
+
c
2
kk,
Hence
[a
b
c]
=
a 6 c.
This demonstrates the theorem. In like manner
by
inter
preting
<P
3
, <Ps~~\
and
S
it is
possible
to show that:
The sum of the
squares
of the radii vectors drawn to an
ellipsoid
in a
system
of three
conjugate
directions is constant
and
equal
to the sum of the
squares
of the semi-axes.
The volume of the
parallelepiped,
whose three concurrent
edges
are in the directions of the
perpendiculars upon
a
system
of three
conjugate tangent planes
and in
magnitude equal
to
the
reciprocals
of the distances of those
planes
from the
center of the
ellipsoid,
is constant and
equal
to the
reciprocal
of the
parallelepiped
constructed
upon
the semi-axes of the
ellipsoid.
The sum of the
squares
of the
reciprocals
of the three
per
pendiculars dropped
from the
origin upon
a
system
of three
conjugate tangent planes
is constant and
equal
to the sum of
the
squares
of the
reciprocals^
the
semi-axes.
If
i, j,
k be three
mutually perpendicular
unit vectors
4>
s
=
i* </> i +
j
<P
j
+ k #
k,
tf^-i
=
i
.
0-i
.
i +
j
.
0-i
.
j
+ k 0"
1
k.
Let
a, b,
c be three radii vectors in the
ellipsoid
drawn
respectively parallel
to
i, j,
k.
a
. .
a
=
b
i
i
j
Hence <P
a
=
---
+
*
a a
But the three terms in this
expression
are the
squares
of the
reciprocals
of the radii vectors drawn
respectively
in the
i, j,
k directions. Hence :
380 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The sum of the
squares
of the
reciprocals
of three
mutually
perpendicular
radii vectors in an
ellipsoid
is constant. And
in a similar manner: the sum of the
squares
of the
perpen
diculars
dropped
from the
origin upon
three
mutually perpen
dicular
tangent planes
is constant.
139.]
The
equation
of the
polar plane
of the
point
deter
mined
by
the vector
a
is
l
s a
=
1.
(13)
For let s be the vector of a
point
in the
polar plane.
The
vector of
any point upon
the line which
joins
the terminus of
s and the terminus of a is
y
s
+
#a
x +
y
If this
point
lies
upon
the surface
8*0*8+
x
+
y
x
+
y
2 x
y
If the terminus of s lies in the
polar plane
of
a
the two values
of the ratio
x:y
determined
by
this
equation
must be
equal
in
magnitude
and
opposite
in
sign.
Hence the term in x
y
vanishes.
Hence s a
=
1
is the desired
equation
of the
polar plane
of the terminus
of a.
Let
a
be
replaced by
z a. The
polar plane
becomes
s
.
(p
.
z a
=
1,
1
or
s (P a
=
-
z
1
It is
evidently
immaterial whether the central
quadric
determined
by
* be
real or
imaginary, ellipsoid
or
hyperboloid.
QUADRIC
SURFACES 381
When z increases the
polar plane
of the terminus of z a
approaches
the
origin.
In the limit when z becomes infinite
the
polar plane
becomes
s a
=
0.
Hence the
polar plane
of the
point
at
infinity
in the direction
a is the same as the diametral
plane conjugate
with a. This
statement is
frequently
taken as the definition of the diame
tral
plane conjugate
with a. In case the vector a is a radius
vector of the surface the
polar plane
becomes identical with
the
tangent plane
at the terminus of a. The
equation
s <P a
=
1 or s IT
=
1
therefore
represents
the
tangent plane.
The
polar plane may
be obtained from another
standpoint
which is
important.
If a
quadric
Q
and a
plane
P are
given,
and P
=
r c C
=
0,
the
equation (r
r
-
1)
+ k
(r
c
-
C)
2
=
represents
a
quadric
surface which
passes through
the curve
of intersection of
Q
and P and is
tangent
to
Q
along
that
curve. In like manner if two
quadrics
Q
and
Q
f
are
given,
Q
=
T r 1
=
Q
=
T* -r-l
=
0,
the
equation (r
r
1)
+ k
(r
# r
-
1)
=
represents
a
quadric
surface which
passes through
the curves
of intersection of
Q
and
Q
and which cuts
Q
and
Q
f
at no
other
points.
In case this
equation
is factorable into two
equations
which are linear in
r,
and which
consequently rep
resent two
planes,
the curves of intersection of
Q
and
Q
r
become
plane
and lie in those two
planes.
382
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If A is
any point
outside of the
quadric
and if all the
tangent
planes
which
pass through
A are
drawn,
these
planes envelop
a cone. This cone touches the
quadric along
a
plane
curve
the
plane
of the curve
being
the
polar plane
of the
point
A.
For let a be the vector drawn to the
point
A. The
equation
of
any tangent plane
to the
quadric
is
s
. .
r
=
1.
If this
plane
contains
A,
its
equation
is satisfied
by
a. Hence
the conditions which must be satisfied
by
r if its
tangent
plane passes through
A are
a
.
r
=
1,
r <P r
=
1.
The
points
r therefore lie in a
plane
r
(<P a)
=
1 which
on
comparison
with
(13)
is seen to be the
polar plane
of A.
The
quadric
which
passes through
the curve of intersection
of this
polar plane
with the
given quadric
and which touches
the
quadric along
that curve is
(r
r
-
1)
+
k
(a
r
-
I)
2
=
0.
If this
passes through
the
point
-4,
(a
. .
a
-
1)
+
k
(a
a
-
I)
2
=
0.
Hence
(r
r
-
1) (a
a
-
1)
-
(a
r
-
I)
2
=
0.
By transforming
the
origin
to the
point
A this is
easily
seen
to be a cone whose vertex is at that
point
140.]
Let be
any self-conjugate dyadic.
It is
expres
sible in the form
where
A, 5,
C are
positive
or
negative
scalars. Further-
more let
A<B<G
-
Bl
=
(<7- B)
kk
-
(5
-
A)
ii.
QUADRIC
SURFACES 383
Let
V
C B k
=
c and
V
B A i
=
a.
Then 0- Bl
=
cc-aa
=
\
j(c
+
a)(c-a)+(c-a)(c+a)
J.
Let c + a
=
p
and c a =
q.
Then <P
=
51 +
-(pq
+
qp). (14)
The
dyadic
$ has been
expressed
as the sum of a constant
multiple
of the idemfactor and one half the sum
pq
+
qp.
The reduction has assumed
tacitly
that the constants
-4, B,
are different from each other and from zero.
This
expression
for <P is
closely
related to the circular
sections of the
quadric
surface
r r
=
1.
Substituting
the value of
$,
r r
=
1 becomes
5 r r +
r
p q
r
=
1.
Let r
p
=
n
be
any plane perpendicular
to
p.
By
substitution
B r.r-ftt
q
r 1
=
0.
This is a
sphere
because the terms of the second order all
have the same coefficient B. If the
equation
of this
sphere
be subtracted from that of the
given quadric,
the
resulting
equation
is that of a
quadric
which
passes through
the inter
section of the
sphere
and the
given quadric.
The difference
q
r
(r
p
n)
=
0.
Hence the
sphere
and the
quadric
intersect in two
plane
curves
lying
in the
planes
q
.
r
=
and r
p
=
n.
384
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Inasmuch as these curves lie
upon
a
sphere they
are circles.
Hence
planes perpendicular
to
p
cut the
quadric
in circles.
In like manner it
may
be shown that
planes perpendicular
to
q
cut the
quadric
in circles. The
proof may
be conducted as
follows :
.5 r r + r
p q
r
=
1.
If r is a radius vector in the
plane passed through
the center
of the
quadric perpendicular
to
p
or
q,
the term r
p q
r van
ishes. Hence the vector r in this
plane
satisfies the
equation
B r-r
=
l
and is of constant
length.
The section is therefore a circular
section. The radius of the section is
equal
in
length
to the
mean semi-axis of the
quadric.
For convenience let the
quadric
be an
ellipsoid.
The con
stants
A, B,
C are then
positive.
The
reciprocal dyadic
(P"
1
may
be reduced in a similar manner.
B
B
\B
C
\A
B
Let 1
=
1-*
and d =
-i.
Then
1
-
-^
I
=
f f
-
dd
=
\
j
(f
+
d) (f
-
d)
+
(f-d)(f
+
d)j
Let +
d =
u and d
=
v.
Then 0-i
=
4
1
+
I
O
v +
vu). (15)
>
*
QUADRIC
SURFACES
385
The vectors u and v are connected
intimately
with the cir
cular
cylinders
which
envelop
the
ellipsoid
r r
=
1 or N (t>~
1
N
=
1.
For
-
N N
+
N u v N
=
1.
z>
If now N be
perpendicular
to u or v the second
term,
namely,
N u v
N,
vanishes and hence the
equation
becomes
N
-
N
=
B.
That
is,
the vector N is of constant
length.
But the
equation
is the
equation
of a
cylinder
of which the elements and tan
gent planes
are
parallel
to u. If then N N is constant the
cylinder
is a circular
cylinder enveloping
the
ellipsoid.
The
radius of the
cylinder
is
equal
in
length
to the mean semi-axis
of the
ellipsoid.
There are
consequently
two
planes passing through
the
origin
and
cutting
out circles from the
ellipsoid.
The normals
to these
planes
are
p
and
q.
The circles
pass through
the
extremities of the mean axis of the
ellipsoid.
There are also
two circular
cylinders enveloping
the
ellipsoid.
The direction
of the axes of these
cylinders
are n and v. Two elements of
these
cylinders pass through
the extremities of the mean axis
of the
ellipsoid.
These results can be seen
geometrically
as follows. Pass
a
plane through
the mean axis and rotate it about that
axis from the
major
to the minor axis. The section is an
ellipse.
One axis of this
ellipse
is the mean axis of the
ellipsoid.
This remains constant
during
the rotation. The
other axis of the
ellipse
varies in
length
from the
major
to the
minor axis of the
ellipsoid
and hence at some
stage
must
pass
through
a
length equal
to the mean axis. At this
stage
of
25
386 VECTOR ANALYSIS
the rotation the section is a circle. In like manner consider
the
projection
or shadow of the
ellipsoid
cast
upon
a
plane
parallel
to the mean axis
by
a
point
at an infinite distance
from that
plane
and in a direction
perpendicular
to it. As the
ellipsoid
is rotated about its mean
axis,
from the
position
in
which the
major
axis is
perpendicular
to the
plane
of
projec
tion to the
position
in which the minor axis is
perpendicular
to that
plane,
the shadow and the
projecting cylinder
have the
mean axis of the
ellipsoid
as one axis. The other axis
changes
from the minor axis of the
ellipsoid
to the
major
and hence at
some
stage
of the rotation it
passes through
a value
equal
to
the mean axis. At this
stage
the shadow and
projecting
cylinder
are circular.
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that r be the
major
or minor semi-axis of the section of the
ellipsoid
r $ r
=
1
by
a
plane passing through
the center and
perpendicular
to a
is that
a, r,
and r be
coplanar.
Let r <P r =
1
and r a
=
0.
Differentiate : d r $ r
=
0,
d r a
=
0.
Furthermore d r r
=
0,
if r is to be a
major
or minor axis of the
section;
for r is a
maximum or a mininum and hence is
perpendicular
to dr.
These three
equations
show that
a, r,
and r are all ortho
gonal
to the same vector dr. Hence
they
are
coplanar.
[a
r 4>
r]
=
0.
(16)
Conversely
if
[a
r <P
r]
=
0,
dr
may
be chosen
perpendicular
to their common
plane.
"
QUADRIC
SURFACES
387
Hence r is a maximum or a minimim and is one of the
prin
cipal
semi-axes of the section
perpendicular
to a.
141.]
It is
frequently
an
advantage
to write the
equation
of an
ellipsoid
in the form
r ?T
2
r
=
1,
(17)
instead of r <P r
=
1.
This
may
be done
;
because if
ii
jj
kk
*
=
-
2
+
^
+
ir>
is a
dyadic
such that W* is
equal
to <P.
may
be
regarded
as
a
square
root of <P and written as $*. But it must be re
membered that there are other
square
roots of <P for
example,
and
For this reason it is
necessary
to bear in mind that the
square
root which is meant
by
<P* is that
particular
one which has
been denoted
by
.
The
equation
of the
ellipsoid may
be written in the form
or .r. .r
=
.
Let r be the radius vector of a unit
sphere.
The
equation
of
the
sphere
is
r r
=
1.
388 VECTOR ANALYSIS
If r
=
?Trit becomes evident that an
ellipsoid may
be
transformed into a unit
sphere by applying
the
operator
to each radius vector
r,
and vice
versa,
the unit
sphere may
be transformed into an
ellipsoid by applying
the inverse
oper
ator
~
l
to each radius vector r . Furthermore if
a, b,
c are
a
system
of three
conjugate
radii vectors in an
ellipsoid
a- ?F
2
a
=
b
F
2
b
=
c ^.0
=
1,
a
2
b
=
b
*
c
=
c
2
a
=
0.
If for the moment a
,
b
,
c denote
respectively
W
a,
W
b,
W
c,
a a
=
V V
=
c c
=
1,
a
.
V
=
V c
=
c a
=
0.
Hence the three radii vectors
a
,
b
,
c
of the unit
sphere
into
which three
conjugate
radii vectors in the
ellipsoid
are trans
formed
by
the
operator
W
~
1
are
mutually orthogonal. They
form a
right-handed
or left-handed
system
of three
mutually
perpendicular
unit vectors.
Theorem :
Any ellipsoid may
be transformed into
any
other
ellipsoid by
means of a
homogeneous
strain.
Let the
equations
of the
ellipsoids
be
r <P r
=
1,
and r r
=
1.
By
means of the strain 0* the radii vectors r of the first
ellipsoid
are
changed
into the radii vectors
r
of a unit
sphere
r
=
01. r
,
r .r
=
l.
By
means of the strain
~l
the radii vectors
r
of this unit
sphere
are transformed in like manner into the radii vectors f
of the second
ellipsoid.
Hence
by
the
product
r is
changed
into f.
f
=
r-
. .
r.
(19)
QUADRIC
SURFACES 389
The transformation
may
be
accomplished
in more
ways
than one. The radii vectors r of the unit
sphere may
be
transformed
among
themselves
by
means of a rotation with or
without a
perversion. Any
three
mutually orthogonal
unit
vectors in the
sphere may
be
changed
into
any
three others.
Hence the semi-axes of the first
ellipsoid may
be carried over
by
a suitable strain into the semi-axes of the second. The
strain is then
completely
determined and the transformation
can be
performed
in
only
one
way.
142.]
The
equation
of a
family
of confocal
quadric
sur
faces is
--ir-
a* n o* n c* n
If r r
=
1 and r W r
=
1 are two surfaces of the
family,
2
n
l
6
2
TI
I
c
2
7&
kk
-
.-.. ^ Tin C 7l*
2
0-1
=
(a
2
-
71^11+
(&
2
-tti)jj
+
((^-w^kk,
y-i
=
(a
2
-
7i
2 )
i i +
(&
2
-
n
2
) j j
+
(c
2
-
n
2 )
k k.
Hence 0-
1
-
r-
1
^
(7i
2
-
74)
(ii
+
j j
+
kk)
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that the two
quadrics
r r
=
1
and r r
=
1
be
confocal,
is that the
reciprocals
of <P and differ
by
a
multiple
of the idemfactor
390
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If two confocal
quadrics intersect,
they
do so at
right angles.
Let the
quadrics
be r <P r
=
1,
and
r r
=
1.
Let s
=
<P r and s
=
r,
r
=
0-
1
.
s and r
=
~
l
s .
Then the
quadrics may
be written in terms of s and s as
s 0-
1
.s
=
l,
and s W~
l
.
s
=
1,
where
by
the confocal
property,
0-i_ W~*
=
xl.
If the
quadrics
intersect at r the condition for
perpendicularity
is that the normals d> r and r be
perpendicular.
That
is,
s s
=
0.
But r
=
W~
l
s
=
4>
rl
s
=
(
r-
1
+
x
I)
s
=
?r-i
.
s
+
#
s,
x s s
=
s W~
l
s
-
s r-
1
*
s
=
1
-
s 5T-
1
s .
In like manner
r
= 0-
1
=
F-
1
s
=
(0-
1
-
I)
s
=
0-
1
s
-
x s .
X 8 S
f
=
S (P""
1
S S <P~
l
S
=
S <P~
l
S 1.
Add: 2 a s
s
=
s
(0~
l
-
P"
1
)
s
=
x s s .
Hence s s
=
0,
and the theorem is
proved.
If the
parameter
n be allowed to
vary
from oo to
+
oo the
resulting
confocal
quadrics
will consist of three families of
which one is
ellipsoids
; another,
hyperboloids
of one sheet
;
and the
third,
hyperboloids
of two sheets.
By
the
foregoing
QUADRIC
SURFACES 391
theorem each surface of
any
one
family
cuts
every
surface
of the other two
orthogonally.
The surfaces form a
triply
orthogonal system.
The lines of intersection of two families
(say
the
family
of one-sheeted and the
family
of two-sheeted
hyperboloids)
cut
orthogonally
the other
family
the
family
of
ellipsoids.
The
points
in which two
ellipsoids
are cut
by
these lines are called
corresponding points upon
the two
ellip
soids. It
may
be shown that the ratios of the
components
of
the radius vector of a
point
to the axes of the
ellipsoid
through
that
point
are the same for
any
two
corresponding
points.
For let
any ellipsoid
be
given by
the
dyadic
The
neighboring ellipsoid
in the
family
is
represented by
the
dyadic
11
"
JJ
kk
=
a
2
d n b
2
dn c
2
dn
y-\
=
$-i ldn.
Inasmuch as and are
homologous (see
Ex.
8,
p. 330)
dyadics they may
be treated as
ordinary
scalars in
algebra.
Therefore if terms of order
higher
than the first in dn be
omitted,
0+&dn.
The two
neighboring ellipsoids
are then
r r
=
1,
and r
(# +
#
2
d
n)
f
1,
By (19)
f
(0 +
<Z>
2
d
n)-i
#
r,
r= I +
f
(I I<Pdn)
T r
~
392 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The vectors r
and r differ
by
a
multiple
of r which is
perpendicular
to the
ellipsoid
0. Hence the termini of r and
r are
corresponding points,
for
they
lie
upon
one of the lines
which cut the
family
of
ellipsoids orthogonally.
The com
ponents
of r and f in the direction i are r i
=
x and
dn
.
dn x
f i
=
x
=
r i i
.
*r
=
x -.
2 2 a
2
/> ft
fj\
The ratio of these
components
is
-
=
1
- -
X
A a
The axes of the
ellipsoids
in the direction
i
are
Va
2
d n and
a. Their ratio is
i dn
A/a
2
dn a
- i
..
dn
x
=
"
l
~*
T ,.,
V&
2
dn
y j V^
2
dn
z
In like manner
=
-
and
=
-.
by
c z
Hence the ratios of the
components
of the vectors r and r
drawn to
corresponding points upon
two
neighboring ellip
soids
only
differ at most
by
terms of the second order in d n
from the ratios of the axes of those
ellipsoids.
It follows
immediately
that the ratios of the
components
of the vectors
drawn to
corresponding points upon any
two
ellipsoids, sepa
rated
by
a finite variation in the
parameter
n,
only
differ at
most
by
terms of the
first
order in dn from the ratios of the
axes of the
ellipsoids
and hence must be identical with them.
This
completes
the demonstration.
The
Propagation
of
Light
in
Crystals
1
143.]
The
electromagnetic equations
of the ether or of
any
infinite
isotropic
medium which is
transparent
to
electromag
netic waves
may
be written in the form
1
The
following
discussion must be
regarded
as mathematical not
physical.
To treat the
subject
from the
standpoint
of
physics
would be out of
place
here.
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS 393
d
2
V
Pot
+
.FD
+
VF=O,
V.D
=
O
(i)
where D is the electric
displacement
satisfying
the
hydrody-
namic
equation
V D
=
0,
E a constant of the dielectric meas
ured in
electromagnetic
units,
and V F the electrostatic force
due to the function F. In case the medium is not
isotropic
the
constant E becomes a linear vector function 0. This function
is
self-conjugate
as is evident from
physical
considerations.
For convenience it will be taken as 4 TT <D. The
equations
then become
-4-7T0.D +
VF=0,
V-D=0.
(2)
U/ (/
Operate by
V x V x.
V x V x Pot
+
47rVxVx0.D
=
0.
(3)
CL t
The last term
disappears owing
to the fact that the curl of
the derivative VFvanishes
(page 167).
The
equation may
also be written as
Pot V x V x
-r-y
+
47rVxVx<P.D
=
0.
(3)
But VxVx=VV.-V.V.
Remembering
that V D and
consequently
V and
-n _
(t t
V
-V-TT
vanish and that Pot V V is
equal
to 4 TT the
a t
2
equation
reduces at once to
,72 Tk
0.D V V $
D,
VD
=
0.
(4)
dt*
Suppose
that the vibration D is harmonic. Let r be the
vector drawn from a fixed
origin
to
any point
of
space.
394
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Then D
=
A cos
(m
r n
f)
where A and m are constant vectors and n a constant scalar
represents
a train of waves. The vibrations take
place
in
the direction A. That
is,
the wave is
plane polarized.
The
wave advances in the direction m. The
velocity
v of that ad
vance is the
quotient
of n
by
m,
the
magnitude
of the vector
m. If this wave is an
electromagnetic
wave in the medium
considered it must
satisfy
the two
equations
of that medium.
Substitute the value of D in those
equations.
The value of V
D,
V V $
D,
and VV D
may
be
obtained most
easily by assuming
the direction i to be coinci
dent with m. m r then reduces to m i r which is
equal
to
m x. The variables
y
and z no
longer
occur in D. Hence
D
=
A cos
(m
x n
f)
3D
V D
=
i
-z
=
i A m sin (m x n
f)
d X
V V d> D
=
m
2
A cos
(m
x n
f)
V V # D
=
m
2
i i- 4> A cos
(mx
nf).
Hence V D
=
m A sin
(m
r
nf)
V V d> D
=
m m D
VV* 0.D
=
-mm. </>.D.
Moreover
-j-
-^
=
7i
a
D.
Hence if the harmonic vibration D is to
satisfy
the
equa
tions
(4)
of the medium
n
2
D
=
m-m <P D m m <P D
(5)
and m A
=
0.
(6)
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN
CRYSTALS 395
The latter
equation
states at once that the vibrations must
be transverse to the direction m of
propagation
of the waves.
The former
equation may
be
put
in the form
D
=
<P D
-
4> D.
(5)
n
2
7i
2
Introduce s
=
-
n
The vector s is in the direction of advance m. The
magnitude
of s is the
quotient
of m
by
n. This is the
reciprocal
of the
velocity
of the wave. The vector s
may
therefore be called
the wave-slowness.
D s
-
s D s s D.
This
may
also be written as
D
=
(s
x s x
D)
=
s x
(0 D)
x s.
Dividing by
the scalar factor cos
(m
x n
t\
A
=
sx(0A)xs
=
ss A S A.
(7)
It is evident that the wave slowness s
depends
not at all
upon
the
phase
of the vibration but
only upon
its direction.
The motion of a wave not
plane polarized may
be discussed
by
decomposing
the wave into waves which are
plane polarized.
144.]
Let a be a vector drawn in the direction A of the
displacement
and let the
magnitude
of a be so determined
that a d> a
=
1.
(8)
The
equation (7)
then becomes reduced to the form
a
=
sx
(<2>*a) Xs
=
s-s #-a ss-#-a
(9)
a a
=
1.
(8)
These are the
equations by
which the discussion of the
velocity
or rather the slowness of
propagation
of a wave in different
directions in a
non-isotropic
medium
may
be carried on.
a a
=
s s a a
=
s s.
(10)
396
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Hence the wave slowness s due to a
displacement
in
the
direction a is
equal
in
magnitude (but
not in
direction)
to the
radius vector drawn in the
ellipsoid
a a
=
1 in that
direction.
axa
= =
ss a x <P
a a x s s <P
.
a
=
s
s(aX
#
a)-
# a
aXs
# a s # a.
But the first term contains <P a
twice and vanishes. Hence
a x s a
=
[a
s
a]
=
0.
(11)
The wave-slowness s therefore lies in a
plane
with the
direction a of
displacement
and the normal a drawn to the
ellipsoid
a <P a
=
1 at the terminus of a. Since s is
perpen
dicular to a and
equal
in
magnitude
to a it is
evidently
com
pletely
determined
except
as
regards sign
when the direction
a is known. Given the direction of
displacement
the line of
advance of the wave
compatible
with the
displacement
is com
pletely
determined,
the
velocity
of the advance is likewise
known. The wave however
may
advance in either direction
along
that line.
By
reference to
page
386,
equation (11)
is seen
to be the condition that a shall be one of the
principal
axes of
the
ellipsoid
formed
by passing
a
plane through
the
ellipsoid
perpendicular
to s. Hence for
any given
direction of advance
there are two
possible
lines of
displacement.
These are the
principal
axes of the
ellipse
cut from the
ellipsoid
a a
=
1
by
a
plane passed through
the center
perpendicular
to the
line of advance. To these statements
concerning
the deter-
minateness of s when a is
given
and of a when s is
given just
such
exceptions
occur as are obvious
geometrically.
If a and
a are
parallel
s
may
have
any
direction
perpendicular
to a.
This
happens
when a is directed
along
one of the
principal
axes of the
ellipsoid.
If s is
perpendicular
to one of the
circular sections of the
ellipsoid
a
may
have
any
direction in the
plane
of the section.
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS 397
When the direction of
displacement
is allowed to
vary
the
slowness s varies. To obtain the locus of the terminus of
s,
a
must be eliminated from the
equation
a
=
s s <P a SB a
or
(I
-
s s + s s
(P)
a
=
0.
(12)
The
dyadic
in the
parenthesis
is
planar
because it annihilates
vectors
parallel
to a. The third or determinant is zero. This
gives immediately
(I
+
#) 8
=
0,
or
(0-
1
-
s s 1 +
ss) 3
=
0.
(13)
This is a scalar
equation
in the vector s. It is the locus of
the
extremity
of s when a is
given
all
possible
directions. A
number of transformations
may
be made.
By
Ex.
19,
p.
331,
(<P
+
ef)8
=
<P
S
+ e <P
a
f
=
8
+
e
00-
1
f </>
3
.
Hence
Dividing
out the common factor and
remembering
that $ is
self-conjugate.
1
+ s-
(CM-s- si)-
1
-8
=
0.
1
+
8-1.8
+
s
---
-r -8
=
S S I 8 8
8 S
Hence s
--
-= s
=
0.
(14)
1 8*8 (P
Let
398 VECTOR ANALYSIS
1
/^_W/_J_\
jj
+
/
i
u
k
i-i.i*-^_-jj [i_g
JJ+
[ir^J
Let s
=
xi
+
yj
+
zk and s
2
= #
2
+
y*
+
z
2
.
Then the
equation
of the surface in
Cartesian coordinates is
20
o
^
j?/
2
z*
-72
=
0.
(14)
l-fl i-_
a
2
The
equation
in Cartesian coordinates
may
be obtained
rpnf1 v frr\ m
directly
from
The determinant of this
dyadic
is
a
2
s
2
+
x
2
x
y
x z
x
y
6
2
s
2
+
y^ y
z
x z
y
z c
2
s
2
=
0.
(13)
By
means of the relation s
2
= x
2
+
y
2
+
z
2
this assumes the
forms
n n I o i o ~T~ n n
~~"
-^
+
"2 2
s
2
c
2
or
This
equation appears
to be of the sixth
degree.
It is how
ever of
only
the fourth. The terms of the sixth order cancel
out.
The vector s
represents
the wave-slowness.
Suppose
that a
plane
wave
polarized
in the direction a
passes
the
origin
at a
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS 399
certain instant of time with this slowness. At the end of a
unit of time it will have travelled in the direction
s,
a distance
equal
to the
reciprocal
of the
magnitude
of s. The
plane
will
be in this
position represented by
the vector s
(page 108).
If s
=
ui +
vj
+ wit
the
plane
at the
expiration
of the unit time cuts off
intercepts
upon
the axes
equal
to the
reciprocals
of
u, v,
w. These
quantities
are therefore the
plane
coordinates of the
plane.
They
are connected with the coordinates of the
points
in the
plane by
the relation
ux
+
vy
+ wz
=
\.
If different
plane
waves
polarized
in all
possible
different
directions a be
supposed
to
pass through
the
origin
at the
same instant
they
will
envelop
a surface at the end of a unit
of time. This surface is known as the wave-surface. The
perpendicular upon
a
tangent plane
of the wave-surface is the
reciprocal
of the slowness and
gives
the
velocity
with which
the wave travels in that direction. The
equation
of the wave-
surface in
plane
coordinates
u, v,
w is identical with the
equa
tion for the locus of the terminus of the slowness vector s.
The
equation
is
=
(15)
where s
2
=
u
2
-f
v
2
+
w
2
. This
may
be written in
any
of the
forms
given previously.
The surface is known as FresneVs
Wave-Surface.
The
equations
in vector form are
given
on
page
397 if the variable vector s be
regarded
as
determining
a
plane
instead of a
point.
145.]
In an
isotropic
medium the direction of a
ray
of
light
is
perpendicular
to the wave-front. It is the same as
the direction of the wave s advance. The
velocity
of the
ray
400 VECTOR ANALYSIS
is
equal
to the
velocity
of the wave. In a
non-isotropic
medium this is no
longer
true. The
ray
does not travel
per
pendicular
to the wave-front that
is,
in the direction of the
wave s advance.
And the
velocity
with which the
ray
travels
is
greater
than the
velocity
of the wave. In
fact,
whereas the
wave-front travels off
always tangent
to the
wave-surface,
the
ray
travels
along
the radius vector drawn to the
point
of tan-
gency
of the
wave-plane.
The
wave-pknes envelop
the
wave-surface;
the termini of the
rays
are situated
upon
it.
Thus in the wave-surface the radius vector
represents
in
mag
nitude and direction the
velocity
of a
ray
and the
perpen
dicular
upon
the
tangent plane represents
in
magnitude
and
direction the
velocity
of the wave. If instead of the wave-
surface the surface which is the locus of the
extremity
of the
wave slowness be considered it is seen that the radius vector
represents
the slowness of the
wave;
and the
perpendicular
upon
the
tangent plane,
the slowness of the
ray.
Let v be the
velocity
of the
ray.
Then s v
=
1 because
the
extremity
of v lies in the
plane
denoted
by
s. Moreover
the condition that v be the
point
of
tangency gives
d v
per
pendicular
to s. In like manner if a
r
be the slowness of the
ray
and v the
velocity
of the
wave,
s v
=
1 and the condition
of
tangency gives
d s
perpendicular
to v. Hence
s v
=
1 and s
-
v
=
1,
(16)
and s d v
=
0,
v d s
=
0,
v
-
d s
=
0,
s d v
=
0,
v
may
be
expressed
in terms of
a, s,
and as follows.
a =
s s <P
a s s <P
a,
da
=
2s.tfs<P.a s- ^arfs
+
ss<?-rfa
sds- &
-
a. s s # d a.
Multiply by
a and take account of the relations a s
=
and
a 4>
.
d a and a a
=
s s. Then
THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN CRYSTALS 401
s d s a d s B a
=
0,
or d s
(s
a s <P
a)
=
0.
But since v d s
=
0,
v and s a s <P a have the same
direction.
v
=
x
(s
a s
a),
s v
=
#
(s
s s a
s
a)
=
x s s.
,
s a
s
. .
a
Hence v
=
,
(17)
8*8
s
.
op
.
a a $ a s $ a
v <P a
= =
0.
s s
Hence the
ray velocity
v is
perpendicular
to
a,
that
is,
the
ray velocity
lies in the
tangent plane
to the
ellipsoid
at the
extremity
of the radius vector a drawn in the direction of the
displacement. Equation (17)
shows that v is
coplanar
with
a and s. The vectors
a, s, a,
and v therefore lie in one
plane.
In that
plane
s is
perpendicular
to a
;
and v
;
,
to a.
The
angle
from s to v is
equal
to the
angle
from a to $ a.
Making
use of the relations
already
found
(8) (9) (11)
(16) (17),
it is
easy
to show that the two
systems
of vectors
a,
v
,
a x v and
a, s,
(<P a)
x s
are
reciprocal systems.
If a be
replaced by
a the
equa
tions take on the
symmetrical
form
s
.
a
=
B s
=
a a a a
=
1,
v
f
-a
f
=
v .v =a -a s
.
v
=
1,
a
=
s x a x s a
=
v x a x v
(18)
s
=
a x v x a v
=
a x s x a
a a
=
1 a 0-
1
a
=
1.
Thus a dual relation exists between the direction of
displace
ment,
the
ray-velocity,
and the
ellipsoid
on the one hand
;
26
402
VECTOR ANALYSIS
and the normal to the
ellipsoid,
the
wave-slowness,
and the
ellipsoid
~
l
on the other.
146.]
It was seen that if s was normal to one of the cir
cular sections of the
displacement
a could take
place
in
any
direction in the
plane
of that section. For all directions in
this
plane
the wave-slowness had the same direction and the
same
magnitude.
Hence the wave-surface has a
singular
plane perpendicular
to s. This
plane
is
tangent
to the surface
along
a curve instead of at a
single point.
Hence if a wave
travels in the direction s the
ray
travels
along
the elements of
the cone drawn from the center of the wave-surface to this
curve in which the
singular plane
touches the surface. The
two directions s which are normal to the circular sections of
are called the
primary optic
axes. These are the axes of
equal
wave velocities but
unequal ray
velocities.
In like manner v
being coplanar
with a and a
[4>
a v
a]
=
[a
v <P~
l
a
]
=
0.
The last
equation
states that if a
plane
be
passed through
the center of the
ellipsoid
<P~
l
perpendicular
to
V,
then a
which is
equal
to a will be directed
along
one of the
prin
cipal
axes of the section. Hence if a
ray
is to take a definite
direction a
may
have one of two directions. It is more con
venient however to
regard
v as a vector
determining
a
plane.
The first
equation
[0
.
a v
a]
=
states that
a is the radius vector drawn in the
ellipsoid
to
the
point
of
tangency
of one of the
principal
elements of the
cylinder
circumscribed
about
parallel
to v : if
by
a
principal
element is meant an element
passing through
the extremities
of the
major
or minor axes of
orthogonal plane
sections
of that
cylinder.
Hence
given
the direction v of the
ray,
the
two
possible
directions of
displacement
are those radii vectors
VARIABLE DYADICS
403
of the
ellipsoid
which lie in the
principal planes
of the
cylin
der circumscribed
about the
ellipsoid parallel
to v .
If the
cylinder
is one of the two circular
cylinders
which
may
be circumscribed
about the direction of
displacement
may
be
any
direction in the
plane passed through
the center
of the
ellipsoid
and
containing
the common curve of
tangency
of the
cylinder
with the
ellipsoid.
The
ray-velocity
for all
these directions of
displacement
has the same direction and
the same
magnitude.
It is therefore a line drawn to one
of the
singular points
of the wave-surface. At this
singular
point
there are an infinite number of
tangent planes envelop
ing
a cone. The
wave-velocity may
be
equal
in
magnitude
and direction to the
perpendicular
drawn from the
origin
to
any
of these
planes.
The directions of the axes of the two
circular
cylinders circumscriptible
about the
ellipsoid
are
the directions of
equal ray-velocity
but
unequal wave-velocity.
They
are the radii drawn to the
singular points
of the wave-
surface and are called the
secondary optic
axes. If a
ray
travels
along
one of the
secondary optic
axes the wave
planes
travel
along
the elements of a cone.
Variable
Dyadics.
The
Differential
and
Integral
Calculus
147.]
Hitherto the
dyadics
considered have been constant.
The vectors which entered into their make
up
and the scalar
coefficients which occurred in the
expansion
in nonion form
have been constants. For the elements of the
theory
and for
elementary applications
these constant
dyadics
suffice. The
introduction of variable
dyadics,
however,
leads to a
simplifica
tion and unification of the differential and
integral
calculus of
vectors,
and furthermore variable
dyadics
become a
necessity
in the more advanced
applications
for
instance,
in the
theory
of the curvature of surfaces and in the
dynamics
of a
rigid
body
one
point
of which is fixed.
404 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Let W be a vector function of
position
in
space.
Let r be
the vector drawn from a fixed
origin
to
any point
in
space.
d r
=
dx i +
dy
j
+
dz
k,
3W
,
5W 5W
^dx-^
+
dy
+
dz-Ti
.
$#
c?y
c/ z
(
SW 3W 5W)
Hence d
W
=
d r H
---
h
j
-= +
k
-
> .
(
dx
dy
dz
)
The
expression
enclosed in the braces is a
dyadic.
It thus
appears
that the differential of W is a linear function of
c?r,
the differential
change
of
position.
The antecedents are
i,
j, k,
and the
consequents
the first
partial
derivatives of W with re
spect
of
x,
y,
z. The
expression
is found in a manner
precisely
analogous
to del and will in fact be denoted
by
V W.
=i-
+
j
+ k-.
(1)
Then dW
=
dr.VW.
(2)
This
equation
is like the one for the differential of a scalar
function F.
dV=dr VF.
It
may
be
regarded
as
defining
VW. If
expanded
into
nonion form VW becomes
.
VW
=
11
3x
.5X .9Y
3Z
+
ki
ls
-+kj
T
-
+
kk-^--,
dz 3 z <y z
if
W
VARIABLE DYADICS 405
The
operators
V and V x which were
applied
to a vector
function now become
superfluous
from a
purely analytic
standpoint.
For
they
are
nothing
more nor less than the
scalar and the vector of the
dyadic
VW.
div W
=
V
W
=
(V W)* (4)
curl W
=
V x W
=
(V W)x
.
(5)
The
analytic advantages
of the introduction of the variable
dyadic
VW
are therefore these. In the first
place
the
oper
ator V
may
be
applied
to a vector function
just
as to a scalar
function. In the second
place
the two
operators
V and V x
are reduced to
positions
as functions of the
dyadic
VW. On
the other hand from the
standpoint
of
physics nothing
is to
be
gained
and indeed much
may
be lost if the
important
in
terpretations
of V
W
and V x
W
as the
divergence
and curl
of W be
forgotten
and their
places
taken
by
the
analytic
idea
of the scalar and vector of VW.
If the vector function W be the derivative of a scalar
function
V^
dW
=
dVF=e?r
VVF",
where VV F= i i
75-
+
i
j
= =- +
i
k
^
,
<y x <y x c/ y <y x c/ z
Qty 32 y 3
2
F"
**- TT o T
dy
dx
&y
z
dy
d z
+
kj
-
+ k
j
-g-
+
k k
dzdx
9zSy
The result of
applying
V twice to a scalar function is seen to
be a
dyadic.
This
dyadic
is self
-conjugate.
Its vector
V
x VV
is zero
;
its scalar V V Vis
evidently
3
2
F 3
2
V 9
2
V
V-VF=
(VVF)*=
0-2
+
T-2
+
TT 2 * *
406
VECTOR ANALYSIS
If an
attempt
were made to
apply
the
operator
V
symboli
cally
to a scalar function V three
times,
the result would be a
sum of
twenty-seven
terms like
* *
,etc.
r
r, ^r
= ;r-
c/ x
6
v x d
y
& z
This is a triadic. Three vectors are
placed
in
juxtaposition
without
any sign
of
multiplication.
Such
expressions
will
not be discussed here. In a similar manner if the
operator
V
be
applied
twice to a vector
function,
or once to a
dyadic
func
tion of
position
in
space,
the result will be a triadic and hence
outside the limits set to the discussion here. The
operators
V x and V
may
however be
applied
to a
dyadic
to
yield
respectively
a
dyadic
and a vector.
S 50 30
V x
=
i
x
^-
+
j
x
^-
+ k x
^-,
(7)
dx
Sy
9z
30 30 30
V-
= i._
+
j
.
+ k-
T
-.
(8)
3x
dy
3z
If
=
u i + v
j
+ w
k,
where
u, v,
w are vector functions of
position
in
space,
Vx $
=
V x u i
+
Vxvj
+ Vx w
k,
(7)
f
and V 0= V u i
+
V v
j
+
V
w k.
(8)
Or if
=
i u
+
j
v -f k
w,
X)v
T r x* /
w
W
^ V
\ I*
** ^
W
Vx 0=
i{- ^-) + j^
=-
*
-++
<
8
>"
In a similar manner the scalar
operators (a V)
and
(V V)
may
be
applied
to 0. The result is in each case a
dyadic,
VARIABLE DYADICS 407
30 30 5d>
(a.V)<P
=
a
.
1
^
+
a
2
^-
+
a
8
^,
(9)
32 32 $ 32
(V
.
V)
<P
=
^
f
+ +
-
(10)
o/ z
2
c?
y*
d z
2
The
operators
a V and V V as
applied
to vector func
tions are no
longer necessarily
to be
regarded
as
single oper
ators. The individual
steps may
be carried out
by
means of
the
dyadic
VW.
(a
-
V)
W
=
a
(V W)
=
a V
W,
(V V)
W
=
V
(V W)
=
V V
W.
But when
applied
to a
dyadic
the
operators
cannot be inter
preted
as made
up
of two successive
steps
without
making
use
of the triadic V 0. The
parentheses
however
may
be removed
without
danger
of confusion
just
as
they
were removed in
case of a vector function before the introduction of the
dyadic.
Formulae similar to those
upon page
176
may
be
given
for
differentiating products
in the case that the differentiation
lead to
dyadics.
V
(u v)
=
>V
u v + u V
v,
V(vxw)=Vvxw
Vwxv,
Vx
(v
x
w)
=
w V v V v w v V
w + V w
v,
V
(v w)
=
V v
w +
V
w
v,
V
(v w)
=
V v w + v V
w.
Vx
(v w)
=
V x v w
v x V
w,
V .
(u
#)
=
V u <P
+
u V
0,
VxVx
<P
=
VV. <P V V
<P,
etc.
The
principle
in these and all similar cases is that enun
ciated
before,
namely
: The
operator
V
may
be treated
sym-
408 VECTOR ANALYSIS
bolically
as a vector. The differentiations which it
implies
must be carried out in turn
upon
each factor of a
product
to which it is
applied.
Thus
V x
(vw)
=
[V
x
(v w)]
v
+
[V
x
(vw)]^
[Vx (vw)]
w
=
V
xvw,
[V
x
(v w)]
v
=
-
[v
x V
w]
v
=
-
v x V w.
Hence Vx
(v w)
=
V x v w v x V w.
Again
V
(v
x
w)
=
[V (v
x
w)]
T +
[V (v
x
w)]^
[V (v
x
w)]
w
=
V v x
w,
[V (v
x
w)]
v
=
[
V (w
x
v)]
v
=
V w x v.
Hence
V(vxw)
=
Vvxw
v
w x v.
148.]
It was seen
(Art. 79)
that if C denote an arc of a
curve of which the initial
point
is r and the final
point
is r
the line
integral
of the derivative of a scalar function taken
along
the curve is
equal
to the difference between the values
of that function at r and r .
r* VF=
F(r)-
F(r ).
In like manner Cd
r
.
VW
=
W
(r)
-
W
(r ),
J
c
and Cd
r V W
=
0.
Jo
It
may
be well to note that the
integrals
fdr.VW
and fvw
dr
are
by
no means the same
thing.
VW is a
dyadic.
The
vector dx cannot
be
placed
arbitrarily upon
either side of it.
VARIABLE DYADICS 409
Owing
to the fundamental
equation (2)
the differential di
necessarily precedes
VW.
The differentials must be written
before the
integrands
in most cases. For the sake of uni
formity they always
will be so
placed.
Passing
to surface
integrals,
the
following
formulae,
some
of which have been
given
before and some of which are
new,
may
be mentioned.
ff
ax VW=
fdr
W
ff da. Vx W= fdr*
r/daVx0= I dr <
The line
integrals
are taken over the
complete bounding
curve
of the surface over which the surface
integrals
are taken. In
like manner the
following
relations exist between volume and
surface
integrals.
fff
dv VW=rfa W
///
<* V x *-
410 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The surface
integrals
are taken over the
complete
bounding
surface of the
region throughout
which the volume
integrals
are taken.
Numerous formulae of
integration by parts
like those
upon
page
250
might
be added. The reader will rind no
difficulty
in
obtaining
them for himself.
The
integrating operators may
also be extended to other cases. To the
potentials
of scalar
and vector functions the
potential,
Pot
</>,
of a
dyadic may
be
added. The Newtonian of a vector function and the
Lapla-
cian and Maxwellian of
dyadics may
be defined.
Pot <?
=
New W
=
//
r
^^I^>
dV
d ,
Max *
=
The
analytic theory
of these
integrals may
be
developed
as
before. The most natural
way
in which the demonstrations
may
be
given
is
by considering
the vector function W as the
sum of its
components,
W
=
Xi+
Fj
+ ^k
and the
dyadic
as
expressed
with the constant
consequents
i,
j,
k and variable antecedents
u, v, w,
or vice
versa,
These matters will be left at this
point.
The
object
of en
tering upon
them at all was to indicate the natural extensions
which occur when variable
dyadics
are considered. These ex
tensions differ so
slightly
from the
simple
cases which have
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES 411
gone
before that it is far better to leave the details to be worked
out or assumed from
analogy
whenever
they may
be needed
rather than to
attempt
to
develop
them in
advance. It is suffi
cient
merely
to mention what the extensions are and how
they
maybe
treated.
The Curvature
of Surfaces
1
149.
]
There are two different methods of
treating
the cur
vature of surfaces. In one the surface is
expressed
in
para-
metic form
by
three
equations
x
=/i <X
v
)
y
=/a
O> *0
*
=/8 <X ")>
or
r
=
f
(u, v).
This is
analogous
to the method followed
(Art. 57)
in
dealing
with curvature and torsion of curves and it is the method
employed by
Fehr in the book to which reference was made.
In the second method the surface is
expressed by
a
single
equation connecting
the variables
x,y,z
thus
,
z)
=
0.
The latter method of treatments affords a
simple application
of
the differential calculus of variable
dyadics.
Moreover,
the
dyadics
lead
naturally
to the most
important
results connected
with the
elementary theory
of surfaces.
Let r be a radius vector drawn from an
arbitrary
fixed
origin
to a variable
point
of the surface. The increment d r
lies in the surface or in the
tangent plane
drawn to the surface
at the terminus of r.
Hence the derivative V^is collinear with the normal to the
surface.
Moreover,
inasmuch as F and the
negative
of Fwhen
1
Much of what follows is
practically
free from the use of
dyadics.
This is
especially
true of the treatment of
geodetics,
Arts. 155-157.
412 VECTOR ANALYSIS
equated
to zero
give
the same
geometric
surface,
VF
may
be
considered as the normal
upon
either side of the surface. In
case the surface
belongs
to the
family
defined
by
F
(#, y, z)
=
const.
the normal V Flies
upon
that side
upon
which the constant
increases. Let V F be
represented by
N the
magnitude
of
which
may
be denoted
by
N,
and let n be a unit normal drawn
in the direction of IT. Then
(1)
If s is the vector drawn to
any point
in the
tangent plane
at
the terminus of
r,
s r and n are
perpendicular. Consequently
the
equation
of the
tangent plane
is
(s-r)
and in like manner the
equation
of the normal line is
(s-r)x
VjF=0,
or s
=
r +
& VJP
where k is a variable
parameter.
These
equations may
be
translated into Cartesian form and
give
the familiar results.
150.]
The variation dn of the unit normal to a surface
plays
an
important part
in the
theory
of curvature, dn is
perpendicular
to n because n is a unit vector.
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES
413
-*
N iv
2
The
dyadic
I nn is an idemfactor for all vectors
perpen
dicular to n and an annihilator for vectors
parallel
to n.
Hence
dn
(I
n
n)
=
d
n,
and
V^.(I-nn)=0,
N
J
N N
Hence rf n
=
d r VV .F
(I nn).
But d r
=
d r
(I
n
n).
Hanco .-*,.
<* ~">
V
^
P-").
(2)
Let >
=
(I-..
Then dn
=
dr <P.
(4)
In the
vicinity
of
any point upon
a surface the variation d n of
the unit normal is a linear function of the variation of the
radius vector r.
The
dyadic
is self-con
jugate.
For
N4>
c
=
(I
-
nn), (VV F) c (I
-
nn)^
Evidently (I
-
n
ri) c
=
(I
-
n
n)
and
by (6)
Art. 147 VVF
is
self-conjugate.
Hence <P
C
is
equal
to 0. When
applied
to
a vector
parallel
to
n,
the
dyadic produces
zero. It is there
fore
planar
and in fact
uniplanar
because
self-conjugate.
The
antecedents and the
consequents
lie in the
tangent plane
to
414 VECTOR ANALYSIS
the surface. It is
possible (Art. 116)
to reduce to the
form
4>
=
a i i + b
j j
(5)
where i and
j
are two
perpendicular
unit vectors
lying
in the
tangent plane
and a and b are
positive
or
negative
scalars.
dn
=
dr
(a
i i + b
j j ).
The vectors i
,
j
and the scalars
a,
6
vary
from
point
to
point
of the surface. The
dyadic
C? is variable.
151.]
The conic r r
=
1 is called the indicatrix of the
surface at the
point
in
question.
If this conic is an
ellipse,
that
is,
if a and b have the same
sign,
the surface is convex at
the
point
;
but if the conic is an
hyperbola,
that
is,
if a and b
have
opposite signs
the surface is concavo-convex. The curve
r
.
r
=
1
may
be
regarded
as
approximately equal
to
the
intersection of the surface with a
plane
drawn
parallel
to the
tangent plane
and near to it. If r r be set
equal
to zero
the result is a
pair
of
straight
lines. These are the
asymp
totes of the conic. If
they
are real the conic is an
hyperbola
;
if
imaginary,
an
ellipse.
Two directions on the surface which
are
parallel
to
conjugate
diameters of the conic are called con
jugate
directions. The directions on the surface which coin
cide with the directions of the
principal
axes i
, j
of the
indicatrix are known as the
principal
directions.
They
are a
special
case of
conjugate
directions. The directions
upon
the
surface which coincide with the directions of the
asymptotes
of the indicatrix are known as
asymptotic
directions. In case
the surface is
convex,
the indicatrix is an
ellipse
and the
asymptotic
directions are
imaginary.
In
special
cases the
dyadic may
be such that the coeffi
cients a and b are
equal. may
then be reduced to the
form
=
a(i
i
+
j j ) (5)
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES
415
in an infinite
number of
ways.
The directions i and
j
may
be
any
two
perpendicular
directions. The indicatrix becomes a
circle.
Any pair
of
perpendicular
diameters of this circle
give principal
directions
upon
the surface. Such a
point
is
called an umbilic.
The surface in the
neighborhood
of an
umbilic is convex.
The
asymptotic
directions are
imaginary.
In another
special
case the
dyadic
$ becomes linear and redu
cible to the form
<p
=
a i i .
(5)"
The indicatrix consists of a
pair
of
parallel
lines
perpendicular
to i . Such a
point
is called a
parabolic
point
of the surface.
The further discussion of these and other
special
cases will be
omitted.
The
quadric
surfaces afford
examples
of the various kinds
of
points.
The
ellipsoid
and the
hyperboloid
of two sheets
are convex. The indicatrix of
points upon
them is an
ellipse.
The
hyperboloid
of one sheet is concavo-convex. The in
dicatrix of
points upon
it is an
hyperbola.
The indicatrix
of
any point upon
a
sphere
is a circle. The
points
are all
umbilies. The indicatrix of
any point upon
a cone or
cylinder
is a
pair
of
parallel
lines. The
points
are
parabolic.
A sur
face in
general may
have
upon
it
points
of all
types elliptic,
hyperbolic, parabolic,
and umbilical.
152.]
A line of
principal
curvature
upon
a surface is a
curve which has at each
point
the direction of one of the
prin
cipal
axes of the indicatrix. The direction of the curve at a
point
is
always
one of the
principal
directions on the surface at
that
point. Through any given point upon
a surface two
per
pendicular
lines of
principal
curvature
pass.
Thus the lines
of curvature divide the surface into a
system
of infinitesi
mal
rectangles.
An
asymptotic
line
upon
a surface is a curve
which has at each
point
the direction of the
asymptotes
of the
indicatrix. The direction of the curve at a
point
is
always
one of the
asymptotic
directions
upon
the surface.
Through
416
VECTOR ANALYSIS
any given point
of a surface two
asymptotic
lines
pass.
These
lines are
imaginary
if the surface is convex. Even when real
they
do not in
general
intersect at
right angles.
The
angle
between the two
asymptotic
lines at
any point
is bisected
by
the lines of curvature which
pass through
that
point.
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a curve
upon
a
surface be a line of
principal
curvature is that as one advances
along
that
curve,
the increment of d
n,
the unit normal to the
surface is
parallel
to the line of advance. For
rfn= 0. dr
=
(a
i i
+
b
j j )
dr
dr x i
+
yj
.
Then
evidently
d n and d r are
parallel
when and
only
when
dr is
parallel
to i or
j
. The statement is therefore
proved.
It is
frequently
taken as the definition of lines of curvature.
The differential
equation
of a line of curvature is
dnxdr
=
0.
(6)
Another method of statement is that the normal to the
surface,
the increment d n of the
normal,
and the element d r of the
surface lie in one
plane
when and
only
when the element d r
is an element of a line of
principal
curvature. The differential
equation
then becomes
[n
dn
rfr]
=
0.
(7)
The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a curve
upon
a
surface be an
asymptotic
line,
is that as one advances
along
that curve the increment of the unit normal to the surface is
perpendicular
to the line of advance. For
dn
=
dr <P
dn dr
=
dr dr.
If then d n d r is zero d r tf> d r is zero. Hence d r is an
asymptotic
direction. The statement is therefore
proved.
It
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES 417
is
frequently
taken as the definition of
asymptotic
lines. The
differential
equation
of an
asymptotic
line is
d n d r
=
0.
(8)
153.]
Let P be a
given point upon
a surface and n the
normal to the surface at P. Pass a
plane p through
n. This
plane p
is normal to the surface and cuts out a
plane
section.
Consider the curvature of this
plane
section at the
point
P.
Let n be normal to the
plane
section in the
plane
of the
section, n coincides with n at the
point
P. But unless the
plane p
cuts the surface
everywhere orthogonally,
the normal
n to the
plane
section and the normal n to the surface will not
coincide, d n and d n will also be different. The curvature
of the
plane
section
lying
in
p
is
(Art. 57).
____
ds d s
2
As far as numerical value is concerned the increment of the
unit
tangent
t and the increment of the unit normal n are
equal.
Moreover,
the
quotient
of d r
by
d s is a unit vector
in the direction of d n .
Consequently
the scalar value of C is
d n
1
dr dn
f
dr
ds ds ds
2
By hypothesis
n
=
n at P and ndr
=
n -dr
=
0,
d
(V
d
r)
=
d n d r
+
n
-
d
2
r
=
0.
Hence d n d r
+
n d
2
r
=
d n d r
+
n d
2
r.
Since n and n are
equal
at
P,
dn*dr dr <P dr dr <P dr
Hence C
=
^
=
-
j-^
-
=
3
-
3
-
(
9
)
ds
2
ds
2
dr dr
27
418 VECTOR ANALYSIS
.
C7
=
a
- --
+
b
dr ar ar ar
Hence tf= a cos
2
(i
,
dr)
+
& cos
2
Q
,
dr),
or (7= a cos
2
(i
,
rfr)
+
b sin
2
(i
,
dr). (10)
The
interpretation
of this formula for the curvature of a
normal section is as follows : When the
plane p
turns about
the normal to the surface from i to
j ,
the curvature C of the
plane
section varies from the value a when the
plane passes
through
the
principal
direction i
,
to the value b when it
passes through
the other
principal
direction
j
. The values
of the curvature have
algebraically
a maximum and minimum
in the directions of the
principal
lines of curvature. If a and
b have unlike
signs,
that
is,
if the surface is concavo-convex
at
Pj
there exist two directions for which the curvature of a
normal section vanishes. These are the
asymptotic
directions.
154.]
The sum of the curvatures in two normal sections
at
right angles
to one another is constant and
independent
of
the actual
position
of those sections. For the curvature in
one section is
C
l
=
a cos
2
(i
,
dr)
+
b sin
2
(i , dr),
and in the section at
right angles
to this
(7
2
=
a sin
2
(i
,
di)
+
b cos
2
(i
,
dr).
Hence O
l
+
C
2
=
a
+
b
=
4>
a (11)
which
proves
the statement.
It is
easy
to show that the invariant
$%
s
is
equal
to the
pro
duct of the curvatures a and b of the lines of
principal
curv
ature.
4>t
S
=
ab
Hence the
equation
x* <P
a
x
+
0^
3
=
(12)
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES 419
is the
quadratic equation
which determines the
principal
curv
atures a and I at
any point
of the surface.
By
means of this
equation
the scalar
quantities
a and b
may
be found in terms
of
F(x, y, z).
.
(I-nn)
N
N
(nn
VV.F-
nn)^
=
(nn
nn VV^
7
)^
=
(nn
(VV^) (nn^
Hence
9.
=
-
-^
(nn. VV^)^
=
nn: VVJ^=n. VV F n.
V.V^ VFVF:WF
Hence
<^^
=
--
(13)
.
**
T
---
^i
--
CIS)
These
expressions may
be written out in Cartesian
coordinates,
but
they
are
extremely long.
The Cartesian
expressions
for
2/5
are even
longer.
The vector
expression may
be obtained
as follows:
(I nn)2
=
nn.
Hence
S-IA\
155.]
Given
any
curve
upon
a surface. Let t be a unit
tangent
to the
curve,
n a unit normal to the surface and m a
420 VECTOR ANALYSIS
vector defined as n x t. The three vectors
n, t,
m constitute
an
i, j,
k
system.
The vector t is
parallel
to the element d r.
Hence the condition for a line of curvature becomes
t x d n
=
0.
(15)
Hence
m d n
=
d
(m n)
= =
m dn
+
n d m.
Hence n d m
=
0.
Moreover m d m
=
0.
Hence t x d m
=
0,
(16)
or dmxdn
=
Q.
(16)
The increments of m and of n and of
r are all
parallel
in case of
a line of
principal
curvature.
A
geodetic
line
upon
a surface is a curve whose
osculating
plane
at each
point
is
perpendicular
to the surface. That the
geodetic
line is the shortest line which can be drawn between
two
points upon
a surface
may
be seen from the
following
considerations of mechanics. Let the surface be smooth and
let a smooth elastic
string
which is constrained to lie in the
surface be stretched between
any
two
points
of it. The
string
acting
under its own tensions will take a
position
of
equili
brium
along
the shortest curve which can be drawn
upon
the
surface between the two
given points.
Inasmuch as the
string
is at rest
upon
the surface the normal reactions of the
surface must lie in the
osculating plane
of the curve. Hence
that
plane
is normal to the surface at
every point
of the curve
and the curve itself is a
geodetic
line.
The vectors t and d t lie in the
osculating
plane
and deter
mine that
plane.
In case the curve is a
geodetic,
the normal
to the
osculating plane
lies in the surface and
consequently
is
perpendicular
to the normal n. Hence
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES 421
n*tx<2t
=
0,
n x t d i
=
(17)
or
m d t
=
0.
The differential
equation
of a
geodetic
line is therefore
[n
dr d
2
r]
=0.
(18)
Unlike the differential
equations
of the lines of curvature
and the
asymptotic
line,
this
equation
is of the second order.
The surface is therefore covered over with a
doubly
infinite
system
of
geodetics. Through any
two
points
of the surface
one
geodetic may
be drawn.
As one advances
along any
curve
upon
a surface there is
necessarily
some
turning up
and
down,
that
is,
around the
axis
m,
due to the fact that the surface is curved. There
may
or
may
not be
any turning
to the
right
or left. If one advances
along
a curve such that there is no
turning
to the
right
or
left,
but
only
the unavoidable
turning up
and
down,
it is to be
expected
that the advance is
along
the shortest
possible
route
that
is,
along
a
geodetic.
Such is in fact the case. The
total amount of deviation from a
straight
line is d t. Since
n,
t,
m form an
i,
j,
k
system
I
=
tt
+
nn
+
mm.
Hence dt
=
tt*dt
+
nndt
+
mm*dt.
Since t is a unit vector the first term vanishes. The second
term
represents
the amount of
turning up
and
down;
the
third
term,
the amount to the
right
or left. Hence m d t is
the
proper
measure of this
part
of the deviation from a
straightest
line. In case the curve is a
geodetic
this term
vanishes as was
expected.
156.]
A curve or surface
may
be
mapped upon
a unit
sphere
by
the method of
parallel
normals. A fixed
origin
is
assumed,
from which the unit normal n at the
point
P of a
422 VECTOR ANALYSIS
given
surface is laid off. The terminus P
r
of this normal lies
upon
the surface of a
sphere.
If the normals to a surface at all
points
Pof a curve are thus constructed from the same
origin,
the
points
P
r
will trace a curve
upon
the surface of a unit
sphere.
This curve is called the
spherical image
of the
given
curve. In like manner a whole
region
T of the surface
may
be
mapped upon
a
region
T
1
the
sphere.
The
region
T
1
upon
the
sphere
has been called the
hodogram
of the
region
T
upon
the surface. If d r be an element of arc
upon
the surface the
corresponding
element
upon
the unit
sphere
is
dn= dr.
If da be an element of area
upon
the
surface,
the corre
sponding
element
upon
the
sphere
is d*! where
(Art. 124).
d a
=
<P
2
d a.
=
a i i
+
&
j j
<P
2
=
a6 i x
j
i
f
xj
f
=
ab nn.
Hence dd
=
ab nn d
a.
(19)
The ratio of an element of surface at a
point
P to the area of
its
hodogram
is
equal
to the
product
of the
principal
radii of
curvature at P or to the
reciprocal
of the
product
of the
prin
cipal
curvatures at P.
It was seen that the measure of
turning
to the
right
or left
is m d t. If then is
any
curve drawn
upon
a surface the
total amount of
turning
in
advancing along
the curve is the
integral.
r
m dt.
(20)
c
For
any
closed curve this
integral may
be evaluated
in a
manner
analogous
to that
employed (page
190)
hi the
proof
of Stokes s theorem. Consider two curves C and near
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES
423
together.
The variation which the
integral undergoes
when
the curve of
integration
is
changed
from C to C is
S f m- dt.
S fm.dt= Cs
(m
-
di)=
fSm
-
dt+ Cm*Sdt
d(m-8t)
=
dmSt-hmd
8 1
S Cm* dt= C Sm* dt- C dm* St
+
C d
(m Si).
The
integral
of the
perfect
differential d
(m
S
t)
vanishes
when taken around a closed curve. Hence
S I mdt= / Sm dt I dm Sk
The idemfactor is I
=
tt
+
nn
+
mm,
8m (2t
=
m I e2t
=
m nn
dt,
for t c t and S m m vanish. A similar transformation
may
be effected
upon
the term dm S t. Then
S / mdt=
/(Smn
n^t rfmn
n-St).
By differentiating
the relations m n
=
and n t
=
it is
seen that
c?mn=:--m^n n
.
dt
=
dn t.
Hence 8 /m^t=/
(m
Sn t*dn
m dn t
Sn)
Sim
rft=/(mxt-8nx^n)=
I n Sn x dn.
424 VECTOR ANALYSIS
The differential Sn x dn
represents
the element of area in
the
hodogram upon
the unit
sphere.
The
integral
/ n 8 n x <J n
=
/ n d a
represents
the total area of the
hodogram
of the
strip
of
surface which lies between the curves C and C
f
. Let the
curve C start at a
point upon
the surface and
spread
out to
any
desired size. The total amount of
turning
which is re
quired
in
making
an infinitesimal circuit about the
point
is
2 TT. The total variation in the
integral
is
f 8 fin. rft=f
m.dt-27T.
But if H denote the total area of the
hodogram.
Hence / m d t
=
2 TT
-JET,
or iT=27r fm
rft,
(22)
or
H+
Cm* dt
=
27r.
The area of the
hodogram
of the
region
enclosed
by any
closed curve
plus
the total amount of
turning along
that curve
is
equal
to 2 TT. If the surface in
question
is convex the area
upon
the
sphere
will
appear positive
when the curve
upon
the
surface is so described that the enclosed area
appears positive.
If, however,
the surface is concavo-convex the area
upon
the
sphere
will
appear negative.
This matter of the
sign
of the
hodogram
must be taken into account in the statement made
above.
THE CURVATURE OF SURFACES 425
157.]
If the closed curve is a
polygon
whose sides are
geodetic
lines the amount of
turning along
each side is zero.
The total
turning
is therefore
equal
to the sum of the exterior
angles
of the
polygon.
The statement becomes : the sum of
the exterior
angles
of a
geodetic polygon
and of the area of
the
hodogram
of that
polygon (taking
account of
sign)
is
equal
to 2 TT.
Suppose
that the
polygon
reduces to a
triangle.
If the surface is convex the area of the
hodogram
is
positive
and the sum of the exterior
angles
of the
triangle
is less than
2 TT. The sum of the interior
angles
is therefore
greater
than
TT. The
sphere
or
ellipsoid
is an
example
of such a surface.
If the surface is concavo-convex the area of the
hodogram
is
negative.
The sum of the interior
angles
of a
triangle
is in
this case less than TT. Such a surface is the
hyperboloid
of one
sheet or the
pseudosphere.
There is an intermediate case in
which the
hodogram
of
any geodetic triangle
is traced twice in
opposite
directions and hence the total area is zero. The sum
of the interior
angles
of a
triangle upon
such a surface is
equal
to TT.
Examples
of this surface are afforded
by
the
cylinder,
cone,
and
plane.
A surface is said to be
developed
when it is so deformed that
lines
upon
the surface retain their
length.
Geodetics remain
geodetics.
One surface is said to be
developable
or
applicable
upon
another when it can be so deformed as to coincide with
the other without
altering
the
lengths
of lines. Geodetics
upon
one surface are
changed
into
geodetics upon
the other.
The sum of the
angles
of
any geodetic triangle
remain un
changed by
the
process
of
developing.
From this it follows
that the total amount of
turning along any
curve or the area
of the
hodogram
of
any portion
of a surface are also invariant
of the
process
of
developing.
426
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Harmonic Vibrations and Bivectors
158.]
The differential
equation
of rectilinear
harmonic
motion is
The
integral
of this
equation may
be reduced
by
a suitable
choice of the constants to the form
x
=
A sin n t.
This
represents
a vibration back and forth
along
the X-axis
about the
point
x
=
0. Let the
displacement
be denoted
by
D in
place
of x. The
equation may
be written
D
=
i A sin n t.
Consider D
=
i A sin n t cos m x.
This is a
displacement
not
merely
near the
point
x
=
Or,
but
along
the entire axis of x. At
points
x
=
-
,
where
in
k is a
positive
or
negative integer,
the
displacement
is at all
times
equal
to zero. The
equation represents
a
stationary
wave with nodes at these
points.
At
points midway
between
these the wave has
points
of maximum vibration. If the
equation
be
regarded
as in three variables
x,
y,
z it
repre
sents a
plane
wave the
plane
of which is
perpendicular
to
the axis of the variable x.
The
displacement given by
the
equation
D
x
=
i A
l
cos
(m
x n
f) (1)
is likewise a
plane
wave
perpendicular
to the axis of x but
not
stationary.
The vibration is harmonic and advances
along
the direction i with a
velocity equal
to the
quotient
of
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS AND BIVECTORS
427
n
by
m. If v be the
velocity; p
the
period;
and / the wave
length,
n 2?r 2 TT /
v
=
-,
^p
=
,
I
=
,
v
=
-.
(2)
m n m
p
The
displacement
D
2
=
j
A
2
cos
(m
x
nt)
differs from
Dj
in the
particular
that the
displacement
takes
place
in the direction
j,
not in the direction i. The wave as
before
proceeds
in the direction of x with the same
velocity.
This vibration is transverse instead of
longitudinal. By
a
simple
extension it is seen that
D
=
A cos
(m
x n
t)
is a
displacement
in the direction A. The wave advances
along
the direction of x. Hence the vibration is
oblique
to
the wave-front. A still more
general
form
may
be obtained
by substituting
m r for m x. Then
D
=
A cos
(m
r n
t). (3)
This is a
displacement
in the direction A. The maximum
amount of that
displacement
is the
magnitude
of A. The
wave advances in the direction m
oblique
to the
displace
ment;
the
velocity, period,
and
wave-length
are as before.
So much for rectilinear harmonic motion.
Elliptic
har
monic motion
may
be defined
by
the
equation (p. 117).
The
general integral
is obtained as
r
=
A cos n t
+
B sin n t.
The discussion of waves
may
be carried
through
as
pre
viously.
The
general
wave of
elliptic
harmonic motion
advancing
in the direction m is seen to be
428
VECTOR ANALYSIS
D
=
A cos
(m
r n
t)
B sin
(m
r n
t).
(4)
dV ( }
=
n
|
A sin
(m
r n
t)
+
B cos
(m
r n
t)
j
(5)
is the
velocity
of the
displaced point
at
any
moment in the
ellipse
in which it vibrates. This is of course
entirely
differ
ent from the
velocity
of the wave.
An
interesting
result is obtained
by adding up
the dis
placement
and the
velocity multiplied by
the
imaginary
unit
V
1 and divided
by
n.
D
H
--
=
A cos
(m
r n
t)
B sin
(m
r n
f)
+ V
1
\
A sin
(m
r n
t)
+
B cos
(m
r n
t) }.
The
expression
here
obtained,
as far as its form is
concerned,
is an
imaginary
vector. It is the sum of two real vectors of
which one has been
multiplied by
the
imaginary
scalar
V
1.
Such a vector is called a bivector or
imaginary
vector. The
ordinary imaginary
scalars
may
be called biscalars. The use
of bivectors is found
very
convenient in the discussion of
elliptic
harmonic motion. Indeed
any undamped elliptic
har
monic
plane
wave
may
be
represented
as above
by
the
pro
duct of a bivector and an
exponential
factor. The real
part
of the
product gives
the
displacement
of
any point
and the
pure
imaginary part gives
the
velocity
of
displacement
divided
by
n.
159.]
The
analytic theory
of bivectors differs from that of
real vectors
very
much as the
analytic theory
of biscalars
differs from that of real scalars. It is
unnecessary
to have
any distinguishing
character for bivectors
just
as it is need-
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS AND BIVECTORS
429
less to have a
distinguishing
notation for biscalars. The bi-
vector
may
be
regarded
as a natural and inevitable extension
of the real vector. It is the formal sum of two real vectors
of which one has been
multiplied by
the
imaginary
unit
V
1-
The usual
symbol
i will be maintained for
V
1. There is
not much likelihood of confusion with the vector i for the
reason that the two could
hardly
be used in the same
place
and for the further reason that the Italic i and the Clarendon
i differ
considerably
in
appearance.
Whenever it becomes
especially
convenient to have a
separate alphabet
for bivec-
tors the small Greek or German letters
may
be called
upon.
A bivector
may
be
expressed
in terms of
i, j,
k
with com
plex
coefficients.
If r
=
TJ
+
i r
2
and r
i
=
x
i
*
r
=
# i
or
r
=
#i
+
yj
+
z.
Two bivectors are
equal
when their real and their
imaginary
parts
are
equal.
Two bivectors are
parallel
when one is the
product
of the other
by
a scalar
(real
or
imaginary).
If
a bivector is
parallel
to a real vector it is said to have a real
direction. In other cases it has a
complex
or
imaginary
direction. The value of the
sum, difference, direct, skew,
and indeterminate
products
of two bivectors is obvious with
out
special
definition. These statements
may
be
put
into
analytic
form as follows.
Let r
=
TJ
+
i r
2
and s
=
s
2
+
i s
2
.
Then if r
=
s,
r
l
=
B
I
and r
2
=
s
2
if r
||
s r
=
x s
=
(x
l
+
i #
3
)
s,
480 VECTOR ANALYSIS
r
+
s
=
(r 1
+
s
1)
+
i(r2
+
s
2
),
r
.
s
=
<>! B!
-
r
2
s
2
)
+
i
(r
l
s
2
+
r
2 Sl),
r x s
=
(r
l
x B
I
r
2
x s
2
)
+
i
(r x
x s
a
+
r
a
x s
x)
rs
=
(r l
s
l
+
r
2
s
2
)
+
i
(T
I
s
2
+
r
2 Sj).
Two bivectors or biscalars are said to be
conjugate
when
their real
parts
are
equal
and their
pure imaginary parts
differ
only
in
sign.
The
conjugate
of a real scalar or vector
is
equal
to the scalar or vector itself. The
conjugate
of
any
sort of
product
of bivectors and biscalars is
equal
to the
pro
duct of the
conjugates
taken in the same order.
A similar
statement
may
be made
concerning
sums and differences.
Oi
+
i r
2
) (
r
i
-
* r
2
)
=
r
x TJ
+ r
t
r
2
,
Oi
+
* *
2
)
X
(rx
-
i r
2)
=
2 i r
2
x T
V
Ol
+
* r
2> (
r
l
~
* F
2>
=
(
r
l
r
l
+ F
2
r
2>
+
*
(
r
2
F
l
-
r
l
r
2>-
If the bivector r
=
TJ
4-
i r
2
be*
multiplied by
a root of
unity
or
cyclic
factor as it is
frequently
called,
that
is,
by
an
imagi
nary
scalar of the form
cos
q
+
i sin
q
=
a
+
ib,
(7)
where a
2
+
&
2
=
1,
the
conjugate
is
multiplied by
a i
6,
and hence the four
products
are unaltered
by multiplying
the bivector r
by
such a factor.
Thus if
r
=
r
/
+
i r
2
=
(a
+
iV) (rx
+
i r
2),
TI TI
+
*z
r
2
=
r
x T!
+
r
2
r
2
,
etc.
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS AND
BIVECTORS 431
160.]
A closer examination of the effect of
multiplying
a
bivector
by
a
cyclic
factor
yields interesting
and
important
geometric
results. Let
r
i
+
* r
a
=
(
cos
?
+
* sin
2) (
r
i
+
i r
a)- (
8
)
Then r
x
=
i
l
cos
^
r
2
sin
,
r
a
=
r
2
cos
q
+
T
I
sin
j.
By
reference to Art. 129 it will be seen that the
change pro
duced in the real and
imaginary
vector
parts
of a bivector
by
multiplication
with a
cyclic
factor,
is
precisely
the same as
would be
produced upon
those vectors
by
a
cyclic dyadic
d>
=
a a + cos
q (bb
+
c c
)
-
sin
q (c
b
-
be
)
used as a
prefactor.
b and c are
supposed
to be two vectors
collinear
respectively
with r
x
and r
2
. a is
any
vector not in
their
plane.
Consider the
ellipse
of which
TJ
and r
2
are a
pair
of
conjugate
semi-diameters. It then
appears
that
r^
and r
2
are also a
pair
of
conjugate
semi-diameters of that
ellipse. They
are rotated in the
ellipse
from
r
2
toward
r
1$ by
a sector of which the area is to the area of the whole
ellipse
as
q
is to 2 ?r. Such a
change
of
position
has been called an
elliptic
rotation
through
the sector
q.
The
ellipse
of which T
I
and r
2
are a
pair
of
conjugate
semi-
diameters is called the directional
ellipse of
the bivector r.
When the bivector has a real direction the directional
ellipse
reduces to a
right
line in that direction. When the bivector
has a
complex
direction the
ellipse
is a true
ellipse.
The
angular
direction from the real
part
T
I
to the
complex part
r
2
is considered as the
positive
direction in the directional
ellipse,
and must
always
be known. If the real and
imagi
nary parts
of a bivector turn in the
positive
direction
in the
ellipse they
are said to be advanced
;
if in the
negative
direc
tion
they
are said to be retarded. Hence
multiplication of
a
432
VECTOR ANALYSIS
bivector
by
a
cyclic factor
retards it in its
directional
ellipse
by
a sector
equal
to the
angle
of
the
cyclic factor.
It is
always possible
to
multiply
a bivector
by
such a
cyclic
factor that the real and
imaginary parts
become
coincident
with the axes of the
ellipse
and are
perpendicular.
r
=
(cos q
+
i sin
q) (a
+
i
b)
where a b
=
0.
To
accomplish
the reduction
proceed
as follows : Form
r r
=
(cos
2
q
+
i sin 2
q) (a
+
i
b) (a
+
i
b).
If a b
=
0,
r r
=
(cos
2
q
+
i sin 2
q) (a
a b
b).
Let r r
=
a
+
i
6,
and tan 2
q
=
-.
a
With this value of
q
the axes of the directional
ellipse
are
given by
the
equation
a
-f
i b =
(cos q
i sin
q)
r.
In case the real and
imaginary parts
a
and b of a bivector
are
equal
in
magnitude
and
perpendicular
in direction both a
and b in the
expression
for r r vanish. Hence the
angle
q
is indeterminate. The directional
ellipse
is a circle. A
bivector whose directional
ellipse
is a circle is called a circu
lar bivector. The
necessary
and sufficient condition that a
non-vanishing
bivector r be circular is
r r
=
0,
r circular.
If
r
=
zi
+
2/j
+ *k,
r
.
r
=
x*
+
y*
+
z
2
=
0.
The condition r
r
=
0,
which for real vectors
implies
r
=
0,
is not sufficient to ensure the
vanishing
of a bivector. The
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS
AND BIVECTORS 433
bivector
is
circular,
not
necessarily
zero. The condition that
a bivector vanish
is that the direct
product
of it
by
its con
jugate
vanishes.
Oi
+
i r
2) (rx
-
t r
2)
=
r
x
r
x
+
r
2
r
a
=
0,
then
F!
=
r
2
=
and r
=
0.
In case the bivector has a real direction it becomes
equal
to
its
conjugate
and their
product
becomes
equal
to r r.
161.]
The condition that two bivectors be
parallel
is that
one is the
product
of the other
by
a scalar factor.
Any
bi-
scalar factor
may
be
expressed
as the
product
of a
cyclic
factor and a
positive
scalar,
the modulus of the biscalar. If
two bivectors differ
by only
a
cyclic
factor their directional
ellipses
are the same. Hence two
parallel
vectors have their
directional
ellipse
similar and
similarly placed
the ratio of
similitude
being
the modulus of the biscalar. It is evident
that
any
two circular bivectors whose
planes
coincide are
parallel.
A circular vector and a non-circular vector cannot
be
parallel.
The condition that two bivectors be
perpendicular
is r s
=
0,
or r
t !
r
2 83
=
r
x
s
2
+ r
2
B
I
=
0.
Consider first the case in which the
planes
of the bivectors
coincide. Let
r
=
a
(TJ
+ i r
2),
s
=
I
(s1
+ i g
2
).
The scalars a and b are biscalars. r
x may
be chosen
perpen
dicular to r
2
,
and s
l may
be taken in the direction of r
a
. The
condition r s
=
then
gives
r
a 82
=
and r
x
s
2
+
r
a
n
l
=
0.
28
434
VECTOR ANALYSIS
The first
equation
shows that r
2
and s
2
are
perpendicular
and
hence s
l
and s
2
are
perpendicular. Moreover,
the second
shows that the
angular
directions from r
x
to r
2
and from s
1
to
s
2
are the
same,
and that the axes of the directional
ellipses
of r and s are
proportional.
Hence the conditions for
perpendicularity
of two
bivectors
whose
planes
coincide are that their directional
ellipses
are
similar,
the
angular
direction in both is the
same,
and the
major
axes of the
ellipses
are
perpendicular.
1
If both vectors
have real directions the conditions
degenerate
into the
per
pendicularity
of those directions. The conditions therefore
hold for real as well as for
imaginary
vectors.
Let r
and s
be two
perpendicular
bivectors the
planes
of
which do not coincide. Resolve T
I
and r
2
each into two com
ponents
respectively parallel
and
perpendicular
to the
plane
of s. The
components perpendicular
to that
plane
contribute
nothing
to the value of r s. Hence the
components
of r
x
and r
2 parallel
to the
plane
of
s
form a bivector r which is
perpendiqular
to s. To this bivector and s the conditions
stated above
apply.
The directional
ellipse
of the bivector r
is
evidently
the
projection
of the directional
ellipse
of
r
upon
the
plane
of s.
Hence,
if two bivectors are
perpendicular
the directional
ellipse
of either bivector and the directional
ellipse
of the
other
projected upon
the
plane
of that one are
similar,
have
the same
angular
direction,
and have their
major
axes
per
pendicular.
162.]
Consider a bivector of the
type
where A and m are bivectors and TI is a biscalar. r is the
position
vector of a
point
in
space.
It is therefore to be con-
1
It should be noted that the condition of
perpendicularity
of
major
axes is not
the same as the condition of
perpendicularity
of real
parts
and
imaginary parts
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS AND
BIVECTORS 435
sidered as real, t is the scalar
variable time and is also to
be considered as real. Let
A
=
Aj
+
i
A*p
m
=
ni + i
mj
D
=
As has been seen
before,
the factor
(A
x
+ i
Aj)
e
<(mt
*
r
~
nif)
represents
a train of
plane
waves of
elliptic
harmonic vibra
tions. The vibrations take
place
in the
plane
of
Aj
and A
2
,
in an
ellipse
of which A
x
and
A%
are
conjugate
semi-diam
eters. The
displacement
of the
vibrating point
from the
center of the
ellipse
is
given by
the real
part
of the factor.
The
velocity
of the
point
after it has been divided
by nj
is
given by
the
pure imaginary part.
The wave advances
in the direction m
r
The other factors in the
expres
sion are
dampers.
The factor
""*
is a
damper
in the
direction m
2
. As the wave
proceeds
in the direction
m^
it
dies
away.
The factor e*** is a
damper
in time. If n
a
is
negative
the wave dies
away
as time
goes
on. If n
2
is
posi
tive the wave increases in
energy
as time increases. The
presence (for
unlimited
time)
of
any
such factor in an ex
pression
which
represents
an actual vibration is
clearly
inad
missible. It contradicts the law of conservation of
energy.
In
any physical
vibration of a conservative
system
n
a
is ne
cessarily negative
or zero.
The
general expression (9)
therefore
represents
a train of
plane
waves of
elliptic
harmonic vibrations
damped
in a
definite direction and in time. Two such waves
may
be com
pounded by adding
the bivectors which
represent
them. If
the
exponent
m r n t is the same for both the
resulting
train of waves advances in the same direction and has the
436
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
same
period
and
wave-length
as the individual
waves. The
vibrations, however,
take
place
in a
different
ellipse.
If the
waves are
the resultant is
(A
+
B)
**.
By combining
two trains of waves which advance in
opposite
directions but which are in other
respects equal
a
system
of
stationary
waves is obtained.
A e
-
m
*-
1
V
(mi
- lr
-
n0
+
A e~
m
*
r
Ae-^- e-""
(e
<mi
*
r
+
$-"i")
=
2Acos
(n^ r)
e-
m
*
p
e^
int
The
theory
of bivectors and their
applications
will not be
carried further. The
object
in
entering
at all
upon
this
very
short and condensed discussion of bivectors was first to show
the
reader
how the
simple
idea of a direction has to
give way
to the more
complicated
but no less useful idea of a directional
ellipse
when the
generalization
from real to
imaginary
vectors
is
made,
and second to set forth the manner in which a
single
bivector D
may
be
employed
to
represent
a train of
plane
waves of
elliptic
harmonic vibrations. This
application
of bi
vectors
may
be used to
give
the
Theory
of
Light
a
wonderfully
simple
and
elegant
treatment.
1
1
Such use of bivectors is made
by
Professor Gibbs in his course of lectures on
"
The
Electromagnetic Theory of Light"
delivered
biannually
at Yale
University.
Bivectors were not used in the second
part
of this
chapter,
because in the
opinion
of the
present
author
they possess
no essential
advantage
over real vectors until
the more advanced
parts
of the
theory,
rotation of the
plane
of
polarization by
magnets
and
crystals,
total and metallic
reflection, etc.,
are reached.
249005