Knowledge

TRADITIONS & PRACTICES

OF INDIA
Textbook for Class XI

Module 1
Astronomy in India

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar,
Delhi-110 092 India

Knowledge

TRADITIONS & PRACTICES

OF INDIA
Textbook for Class XI

Module 1
Astronomy in India

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India

No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).

Preface

India has a rich tradition of intellectual inquiry and a textual heritage that goes back to several
hundreds of years. India was magnificently advanced in knowledge traditions and practices
during the ancient and medieval times. The intellectual achievements of Indian thought are found
across several fields of study in ancient Indian texts ranging from the Vedas and the Upanishads to
a whole range of scriptural, philosophical, scientific, technical and artistic sources.
As knowledge of India's traditions and practices has become restricted to a few erudite scholars
who have worked in isolation, CBSE seeks to introduce a course in which an effort is made to make
it common knowledge once again. Moreover, during its academic interactions and debates at key
meetings with scholars and experts, it was decided that CBSE may introduce a course titled
Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India as a new Elective for classes XI - XII from the year
2012-13. It has been felt that there are many advantages of introducing such a course in our
education system. As such in India, there is a wide variety and multiplicity of thoughts,
languages, lifestyles and scientific, artistic and philosophical perceptions. The rich classical and
regional languages of India, which are repositories of much of the ancient wisdom, emerge from
the large stock of the shared wealth of a collective folklore imagination. A few advantages given
below are self explanatory.
India is a land of knowledge and traditions and through this course the students will become
aware of our ancient land and culture.
Learning about any culture particularly one's own culture - whatever it may be - builds
immense pride and self-esteem. That builds a community and communities build harmony.
The students will be learning from the rich knowledge and culture and will get an objective
insight into the traditions and practices of India. They will delve deeply to ascertain how these
teachings may inform and benefit them in future.
The textbook has extracts and translations that will develop better appreciation and
understanding of not only the knowledge, traditions and practices of India but also
contemporary questions and issues that are a part of every discipline and field in some form or
another.
This course once adopted in schools across India can become central to student learning: each
student brings a unique culture, tradition and practice to the classroom. The content is devised in a
way that the educator becomes knowledgeable about his/her students' distinctive cultural

background. This can be translated into effective instruction and can enrich the curriculum
thereby benefitting one and all. This insight has close approximation with the pedagogy of CCE.
The course is designed in a way that it embodies various disciplines and fields of study ranging
from Language and Grammar, Literature, Fine Arts, Agriculture, Trade and Commerce,
Philosophy and Yoga to Mathematics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Medicine and
Surgery, Life Sciences, Environment and Cosmology. This can serve as a good foundation for
excellence in any discipline pursued by the student in her/his academic, personal and
professional life.
This book aims at providing a broad overview of Indian thought in a multidisciplinary and
interdisciplinary mode. It does not seek to impart masses of data, but highlights concepts and
major achievements while engaging the student with a sense of exploration and discovery. There
is an introduction of topics so that students who take this are prepared for a related field in higher
studies in the universities.
The examination reforms brought in by CBSE have strengthened the Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation System. It has to be ascertained that the teaching and learning
methodology of CCE is adopted by the affiliated schools when they adopt this course. The
contents have to cultivate critical appreciation of the thought and provide insights relevant for
promoting cognitive ability, health and well-being, good governance, aesthetic appreciation,
value education and appropriate worldview.
This document has been prepared by a special committee of convenors and material developers
under the direction of Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training) and co-ordinated by
Mrs. Neelima Sharma, Consultant, CBSE.
The Board owes a wealth of gratitude to Professor Jagbir Singh, Professor Kapil Kapoor,
Professor Michel Danino, and all those who contributed to the extensive work of conceptualizing
and developing the contents. I sincerely hope that our affiliated schools will adopt this new
initiative of the Board and assist us in our endeavour to nurture our intellectual heritage.

Vineet Joshi
Chairman

Convenors Note by Professor Jagbir Singh

In 2012, CBSE decided to introduce an Elective Course 'Knowledge Traditions and Practices of
India' for classes XI and XII and an Advisory Committee was constituted to reflect on the themes
and possible content of the proposed course. Subsequently Module-Preparation Committees were
constituted to prepare ten modules for the first year of the programme to include the following
Astronomy, Ayurveda (Medicine and Surgery), Chemistry, Drama, Environment, Literature,
Mathematics, Metallurgy, Music and Philosophy.
Each module has;
I. A Survey article
ii. Extracts from primary texts
iii. Suitably interspersed activities to enable interactive study and class work
iv. Appropriate visuals to engender reading interest, and
v. Further e- and hard copy readings.
Each module in the course has kept in mind what would be a viable amount of reading and
workload, given all that the class IX students have to do in the given amount of time, and controlled
the word-length and also provided, where needed, choices in the reading materials.
Each Module consists of:
I. A Survey Essay (about 1500-2000 words) that introduces and shows the growth of ideas, texts
and thinkers and gives examples of actual practice and production.
ii. A survey-related selection of extracts (in all about 2000 words) from primary sources (in
English translation, though for first hand recognition, in some cases, where feasible, the
extracts are also reproduced in the original language and script).
iii. Three kinds of interactive work are incorporated, both in the survey article and the extracts comprehension questions, individual and collective activities and projects (that connect the
reading material and the student to the actual practice and the environment).
iv. Visuals of thinkers, texts, concepts (as in Mathematics), practices.
v. Internet audiovisual resources in the form of URLs.
vi. List of further questions, and readings.
The objective of each module, as of the whole course, is to re-connect the young minds with the
large body of intellectual activity that has always happened in India and, more importantly, to

enable them (i) to relate the knowledge available to the contemporary life, theories and practices,
(ii) to develop, wherever feasible, a comparative view on a level ground of the contemporary
Western ideas and the Indian theories and practices, and (iii) to extend their horizons beyond what
is presented or is available and contemplate on possible new meanings, extensions and uses of the
ideas - in other words to make them think.
We have taken care to be objective and factual and have carefully eschewed any needless claims or
comparisons with western thought. Such things are best left to the readers' judgement.
This pedagogical approach clearly approximates CBSE's now established activity-oriented
interactive work inviting the students' critical responses.
It is proposed to upload the first year's modular programme to be downloaded and used by
schools, teachers and students.
As a first exercise, we are aware that the content selection, a major difficult task, can be critically
reviewed from several standpoints. We do not claim perfection and invite suggestions and
concrete proposals to develop the content. We are eagerly looking forward to receiving the
feedback from both teachers and students. That would help us refining the content choice, the
length and the activities. We will also thankfully acknowledge any inadvertent errors that are
pointed out by readers.
The finalisation of this course is thus envisaged as a collective exercise and only over a period of
time, the Course will mature. We know that perfection belongs only to God.
If our students enjoy reading these materials, that would be our true reward.

Prof. Jagbir Singh

Convenor

Acknowledgment
e

CBSE ADVISORS

Shri Vineet Joshi, Chairman

Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training)

CONVENOR
Prof. Jagbir Singh
Convenor, Former Head Department of Punjabi Delhi University

MATERIAL PRODUCTION TEAM

Prof. Kapil Kapoor

Prof. Shrawan Kumar Sharma

Ms. Uma Sharma

Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice

Chancellor, Jawahar Lal Nehru University

Ex Craft Coordinator CCRT, Ex TGT,

RPVV, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi.

Prof. Michel Danino

Head Dept. of English Director, Centre for

Canadian Studies Gurukul Kangri
University
Haridwar, Uttarakhand

Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar,

& Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi

Ms. Kiran Bhatt

Freelancer: Content Developer, Resource

Person - SCERT, DIET (RN) New Delhi.

Prof. Avadhesh Kumar Singh

(Retd.) Head of Dept. (English), Modern

School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi

Ms. Anjali Shukla

Professor & Director School of Translation

IGNOU

Ms. Heemal Handoo Bhat

DAV Public School, Sector - 7, Rohini,

New Delhi - 110085

Dr. P. Ram Manohar,

MD (Ayurveda)

Shaheed Rajpal DAV Dayanand Vihar, New

Delhi

Mr. Pundrikakash

Ms. Archana Sharma

Dr. Sandhya S. Tarafdar

PGT History, K.V. Vikaspuri, New Delhi

Director and CSO, AVP Research

Foundation, 36/137, Trichy Road,
Ramanathapuram P.O., Coimbatore641045, Tamil Nadu, India

Vice Principal, Physics, RPVV, DoE, Kishan Dr. B. S. Dashora

ELT Group (Retd. Principal), Bhopal,
Ganj, New Delhi
Madhya Pradesh.

Dr. J. Sreenivasa Murthy

Maths, Kulachi Hansraj Model School,

Ashok Vihar, New Delhi

Ms. Shubhika Lal

Dr. Sanjay Kumar

Ms. Kusum Singh

K.V., SPG Complex, Sector - 8, Dwarka,

New Delhi

DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon

(Retd) Associate Professor, Delhi

University, Founder member and Trustee
International Forum for India's Heritage.
PO Box 8518, Ashok Vihar, Delhi 110052.

Ms. Bindia Rajpal

ELT, Free Lancer, New Delhi

The Air Force School, Subroto Park, New

Delhi

Grateful Thanks to:

Dr. Vipul Singh

Ms. Reeta Khera

Dr. Rajnish Kumar Mishra, JNU

(Sanskrit/Philosophy)
Head, Department of Sanskrit,
M.E.S College, Bangalore - 560 003

Prof. Bharat Gupt

Ms. Rashmi Kathuria

MLNC, University of Delhi, South Campus, VVDAV Public School, D- Block, Vikaspuri,
New Delhi
New Delhi

Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi

Ms. Gayatri Khanna

Dr. Santosh Kumar Shukla, JNU

Mr. Albert Abraham
Former Report Writer, CBSE

CO-ORDINATOR
Ms. Neelima Sharma

EDITORS
Prof. Kapil Kapoor, Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice- Chancellor

Consultant (ELT), CBSE New Delhi

Jawahar Lal Nehru University

Prof. Michel Danino, Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar & Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi
SUPPORTING MEMBERS (CBSE)
Mr. Yogeshwar

Mr. Abhimanyu Kumar Gupta

Ms. Prabha Sharma

Asstt. Record Keeper

Computer Assistant

Computer Assistant

Content of Module 1
Astronomy in India

Astronomy in India: A Survey

In every ancient culture, astronomy was born before mathematics: there is, in fact, no
need of maths to look at the sky, observe the
periodicity of the moons phases, of a few identifiable
planets, the northward or southward journey of the
sunrise on the eastern horizon through the year, or

What do you think were the

ancients immediate needs that
they thought could be met through
an observation of the night sky?

to trace imaginary lines between the stars.

The Beginnings of Indian Astronomy

And that is indeed how the story of astronomy always begins. In India, those beginnings
are not adequately documented. The first astronomical objects, found in the Andamans,
belong to the palaeolithic era, some 12,000 years ago; they are calendar sticks noting the
waxing and waning* of the moon by incising daily notches on a wooden stick.

Observe this stick and

interpret its various
sections. How can they
be related to the
phases of the moon?

One of the calendar sticks found in the Andaman islands,

apparently recording lunar phases across several months

The apparent increase (waxing) and decrease (waning) of the moons disc from new moon to full moon

and back, in the course of a lunar month.

Patterns of rock art found in Kashmir, such as a double sun or concentric circles,
have convinced some scholars that they were depictions of a supernova and meteor
showers respectively, perhaps witnessed some 7,000 years ago. Ring-stones found at
Mohenjo-daro, the largest city of the Indus civilization (2600-1900

BCE),

which exhibit

rows of small drilled holes, have been interpreted as calendrical devices keeping track of
the sunrise at different times of the year. The perfect eastwest alignment of streets in
the same city has been attributed to the sighting of the star cluster Pleiades (Kttik).
While the above statements remain speculative, it is well recognized that ancient people
everywhere felt a need to relate to the universe by tuning in to the rhythms of celestial
objects.

Some of the ring-stones found at Mohenjo-daro, with rows of small drilled holes that appear
to point to the sunset across the year. (Courtesy: Erkka Maula)

A few thousand years ago, the Rig-Veda, the oldest of the four Vedas, spoke of a year
of 360 days divided into twelve equal parts and used a five-year yuga (era), probably as a
first attempt to reconcile the lunar and solar years (by the addition of a month after
those five years). It clearly recorded a solar eclipse, although in a metaphorical language.
And it has recently been proposed that its mention of 3,339 gods was actually a
reference to the 18-year cycle of eclipses known as the saros; if so, this points to a very

early tradition of astronomical observation. A few centuries later, the Yajur-Veda

considered a lunar year of 354 days and a solar year of 365 days, and divided the year
into six tus or seasons of two months each. The Yajur-Veda also gave the first list of 27
nakatras or lunar mansions, that is, constellations along the path of the moon on the
celestial sphere.

The 27 nakatras, with the earth in the centre. (Courtesy: M.S. Sriram)

How many of these nakatras (or constellations on the path of the

moon) are you familiar with? Can you identify some of them in the
sky on a clear night with the naked eye?

Because of the need to keep time for the proper conduct of rituals, calendrical
astronomy grew more sophisticated in the late Vedic period, with the Vedga Jyotia of
Lagadha as its representative text (and, if we may call it so, the first extant Indian
scientific text). On the basis of its own astronomical data, it has been dated between the
12th and the 14th centuries

BCE

by most scholars. The length of the sidereal day (i.e. the

time taken by the earth to complete one revolution with respect to any given star) it uses
is 23 h 56 min 4.6 s, while the correct value is 23 h 56 min 4.091 s; the tiny difference is an
indication of the precision reached in that early age. The Vedga Jyotia also discusses
3

solstices (ayannta) and equinoxes (viuva) and uses two intercalary lunar months
(adhikamsa) to catch up with the solar calendar.* In some ways, this text remains the
foundation for Indias traditional luni-solar calendars.

The Early Historical Period

The second period extended from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE and was marked
by astronomical computations based on the risings and settings of planets, their
revolutions, etc. Jain astronomy also developed in this period, based on a peculiar model
of two sets of 27 nakatras, two suns and two moons; it nevertheless resulted in precise
calendrical calculations.
This is also the period when huge scales of time were conceived of such as a day of
Brahm (or kalpa) of 4.32 billion years, which curiously comes close to the age of the
earth (4.5 billion years). Of course, there are much longer time scales to be found in Jain
texts and in the Puras.
While some scholars have discerned Babylonian and Greek influences at play
during this and the next periods, the issue remains open. Nevertheless, such influences
seem clear enough in the introduction of the seven-day week
a few centuries

BCE

(late Vedic India divided the month only

into two lunar fortnights or paka, one light and one dark),
and of the zodiac of 12 signs (ri), first recorded in the

Compare the Indian ris

to the twelve signs of the
European zodiac. What
conclusions can you draw?

Yavanajtaka (c. 269 CE).

The solar year is about 365.24 solar days, while the lunar year is, at most, 360 days. After a few years, the

difference between the two will grow so much that a month needs to be added to the lunar year to restore
a broad coincidence between the two systems. This is the intercalary month.

The Siddhntic Era

There are many gaps in our knowledge after the
above period and before the start of what has been
called the golden age of Indian mathematics and

Why is this era of Indian

astronomy called golden? Make a
list of three major contributions of
that age.

astronomy. Beginning in the 5th century CE, this is the

Siddhntic era, when texts called siddhntas were composed a Sanskrit word meaning
principle or conclusion, but which applies here to a collection of conclusions or a
treatise. Their chief characteristics were the use of trigonometric methods and epicyclic*
models for the computations of planetary positions.
ryabhaa I (born 476
Find out the name of the first
ever satellite launched by
India. Why do you think it was
so named?

CE),

working near what is today Patna, ushered in this era

with his ryabhaya, which dealt concisely but
systematically with developments in mathematics and
astronomy. Among other things, it discussed units of
time and features of the celestial sphere, described the

earth as a rotating sphere hanging in space, and produced a table of the planets mean
positions. ryabhaa also gave a correct explanation for both lunar and solar eclipses,
and stated that the diameter of the earth is 1,050 yojanas (defining the yojana as 8,000
average human heights or about 13.6 km); this is close to the actual dimension, though
12% too large. (His diameters for the planets and the sun are however much too small.)

Because they were using a geocentric system, early Greek and Indian astronomers could not explain the

planets occasional retrograde motion (as seen from the earth); they assumed that the planets moved along
smaller orbits, called epicycles, whose centres revolved around the earth along larger circles (the planets
mean orbits).

A map showing some of Indias astronomers / mathematicians. Their dates of birth as well as
their place of birth or work are often approximate. Note that many more names, from
Baudhyana (~ 600 BCE) to rdhara (~ 800) or ryabhaa II (~ 950), simply cannot be placed on
the map, as the texts are silent on their locations. (Courtesy: Michel Danino, compiled from
various sources)

Many brilliant astronomers followed, dealing with issues of coordinate systems,

time measurement and division, mean and true positions of celestial bodies, and eclipses.
Varhamihira, ryabhaas contemporary, composed in 505

CE

a collection of five

astronomical texts prevalent during his time; one of the five texts, the Srya Siddhnta,
was revised later and became a fundamental text of Indian astronomy; two others
expounded the principles of Greek astronomy. Varhamihira extensively discussed the
6

revolutions of planets, eclipses, and the zodiac, often with an astrological background.
Bhskara I (b. 600 CE), the earliest known exponent of ryabhaa I, provided a very useful
elucidation of ryabhaas astronomy, besides improved calculation methods.

A manuscript of a passage of Brahmaguptas Brahmasphuta Siddhnta.

(Courtesy: Bombay University Library)

A few years later, Brahmagupta (born 598

CE),

who lived near Mount Abu,

mistakenly rejected ryabhaas view of the earth as a rotating sphere, but contributed
Refer to Brahmaguptas objection
to ryabhaa in the selection of
extracts from primary texts, and
assess its pertinence.

much to calculations of the mean and true longitudes

of planets, conjunctions and problems of lunar and
solar eclipses, applying to all these his considerable
mathematical skills. *

The celestial longitude of a celestial body (planet or star) is the arc of the ecliptic measured eastward

from the vernal equinox (Aries) to the point where the ecliptic is intersected by the great circle passing
through the body. (The ecliptic is the plane of the earths orbit.) Mean longitude refers to an average
value, i.e. the bodys average position, while true longitude refers to its actual position at a given time.

Ind
dian astrono
omers could
d not have achieved
a
so much witho
out a strongg tradition of
o
observattion, and th
he 22nd chaapter of Braahmaguptas magnum opus, the Brahmasphut
B
ta
Siddhntaa, dealt with
h a variety of
o astronom
mical instrum
ments, most of which co
ould be easilly
made byy any good craftsman:
c
among them
m, a water clock
c
(gha yantra) co
onsisting of a
bowl witth a small hole at the bottom,
b
whicch would sin
nk in exactlly 24 minutes (a gha) if
placed over water; a gnomon (aa short stick
k kept vertically for thee study of th
he motion of
o
its shado
ow); a graduated disk or half-disk
k; and a scissor-like paair acting as a compass.
Those in
nstruments and
a the com
mputational techniques applied to them
t
were both
b
adopteed
by later scholars,
s
beeginning by Lalla of the 8th century.

Some of the instrumeents described

d by Lalla for astronomical
a
o
observations.
(Courtesy: Sh
hekher Narvek
ker)

Braahmagupta also authorred a manuaal of astrono

omical calcu
ulations whiich remaineed
popular for centuriees, as testifiied by Al-Biiruni, the Peersian savan
nt who cam
me to India in
i
the 11th century as
a part of Mahmud of
o Ghaznis entourage.. Al-Biruni was deeplly

interested in Indian astronomical techniques, wrote about them at length, and translated
texts by Varhamihira and Brahmagupta into Arabic or Persian.
Bhskara II (b. 1114), better known as Bhskarchrya, brought important
innovations to both astronomical and mathematical techniques, discussing in particular
the mean and true positions of planets, the triple problem of time, direction and place,
the risings and settings and conjunctions of the planets, eccentric and epicyclic theories
for their motions of planets, and a large number of astronomical instruments. Over all,
Bhskarchrya greatly improved upon the formulas and methods adopted by earlier
Indian astronomers.

Inscription of 1128 CE recording King Ratnadevas donation of a village to astronomer

Padmanbha for predicting a total lunar eclipse. Over 350 such inscriptions, from 440 to 1859,
have been traced out. (Courtesy: B.V. Subbarayappa)

Durring those centuries,

c
a
astronomys
s interface with
w
the gen
neral publicc was mostlly
through calendars and
a pacggas (almanaacs), and thee prediction
n of eclipsess, which haad
great relligious and social signiificance. Ind
deed, an asttronomers fame was guaranteed
g
if
he could
d accuratelly predict the occurrence, naturre and durration of eclipses,
e
an
nd
numerou
us inscriptio
ons record a kings rew
ward to such
h an astrono
omer. Anoth
her interfacce
was arch
hitecture, and
a
many teemples show
w clear asttronomical alignments with eventts
such as the
t sunrise at
a solstices and
a equinox
xes.

The Sringeri temple, whose mandapa

T
m
is ded
dicated to the twelve ris orr signs of the zodiac;
z
s
some
of the pilllars are aligneed to the sunrise on the two
o solstices. (Co
ourtesy: B.S. Sh
hylaja)

10

The Kerala School

The widespread belief that there was virtually no progress in Indian astronomy and
mathematics after Bhskara II is based on a general ignorance of the intense
developments that took place in the southern state of Kerala. The so-called Kerala
School of astronomy and mathematics flourished there from the 14th to the 17th century,
when networks of knowledge transmission in north India were severely disrupted in the
wake of repeated invasions.
Paramevara (c. 1362-1455), an author of some thirty works, was one of the
foremost astronomers of this School, and the founder of the dk system, which improved
computations of eclipses and the positions of the planets and proved to be very popular.
He emphasized the need to regularly correct formulas to bring them closer to actual
observations, and was said to have studied eclipses and their parameters over a period of
55 years. He was followed by Nlakaha Somayj (1444-1545), who, in his landmark
Tantrasagraha, carried out a major revision of the older Indian planetary model for the
inferior planets, Budha (Mercury) and ukra (Venus), and described them, along with
Magala or Kuja (Mars), Bhaspati or Guru (Jupiter) and ani (Saturn), as moving in
eccentric orbits around the sun. This achievement of the Kerala school of astronomy is
truly remarkable in the light of the fact that Nlakaha preceded Copernicus (14731543), the propounder of the heliocentric theory in Europe. It seems unlikely, however,
that Indian heliocentrism directly influenced European advances in the field.

Other Post-Siddhntic Developments

About the same time, a complex interface with Islamic astronomy took place, which,
among other benefits, brought instruments such as the astrolabe to India. The famous
and massive yantramantra or Jantar Mantar observatories built in the early 18th century

11

by the Maharaja of Jaipur, Sawai Jai Singh (1688-1743), represent a convergence between
Indian, Arabic and European astronomy.

Two views of New Delhis Jantar Mantar. (Courtesy: Michel Danino)

12

In a general way, Indian astronomers were more interested in efficient methods of

computation than in theoretical models. Some of the techniques used to calculate
planetary positions and eclipses yielded remarkably precise results and impressed by
their speed European astronomers such as Le Gentil, a French savant who stayed in
Puducherry for two years to observe a solar transit of Venus in June 1769.
Although traditional tables and even calculation methods survived well into the
nineteenth century (witness the case of the Odiya astronomer, Smanta Candraekhara
Simha, who was completely insulated from European astronomy and authored in 1869 a
voluminous Siddhnta), the introduction of modern astronomy brought to a close Indias
own developments in this science. But India, in many ways, had contributed to the
growth of the new science, as some of the techniques developed by Indian astronomers
and mathematicians had been relayed to Europe centuries earlier through the Arabs.
Indeed, Indian astronomy interacted not only with Islamic (or Zj) and European
astronomies, but also with Chinese astronomy, in complex interplays that invariably
enriched both players.
***

Match the following

ring-stones

heliocentrism

nakatras

water-clock

ryabhaa

Jantar Mantar observatories

gha yantra

lunar mansions

Nlakaha

Mohenjo-daro

Jai Singh

rotating earth

13

Comprehension questions
1. Write a few sentences on the inception of astronomy in India.
2. What is the astronomical content of the Rig-Veda?
3. Consider the following statement by the U.S. astronomer Carl Sagan (who can be
viewed

online,

reading

this

out

in

South

Indian

temple:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3EyAKFi3_Xg): The Hindu religion ... is the

only religion in which the time scales correspond, no doubt by accident, to those
of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to
a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the
Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang. Do you find this
statement justified?
4. Spell out ryabhaas contribution to astronomy.
5. How do we know that Indian astronomers were skilled in astronomical
observations?

Project ideas
Study some of the main instruments of the Jantar Mantar (Delhi or Jaipur) and try
to explain their function and principles. Your project should underline the
historical importance and technical principles of the Jantar Mantar. Make a
PowerPoint presentation.
Make a list of at least ten major Indian astronomers; mention their contributions
and their impact on the society around them.
Draw a timeline for Indian astronomy, including some of its most famous
representatives.

14

Extended activities
Construct a sundial; observe the variations of the shadow not only in the course of
the day, but in the course of the year. Indian astronomers researched the
equations of the gnomon and shadow extensively; try to refer to some of their
research and put it in modern terms.
Visit the nearest planetarium and acquire a basic knowledge of astronomy,
beginning with our solar system. Reflect on how much the ancients (not just in
India) were able to observe and calculate despite having no telescopes.
Learn to observe the night sky and identify the main constellations (not just the
nakatras), both by their international and Indian names.

Further Reading
1.

S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000

2.

S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Some Landmarks, Jnana Deep
Publications, Bangalore, 3rd edn 2004

3.

S. Balachandra Rao & Padmaja Venugopal, Eclipses in Indian Astronomy, Bhavans Gandhi
Centre of Science and Human Values, Bangalore, 2008

4.

D.M. Bose, S.N. Sen & B.V. Subbarayappa, eds, A Concise History of Science in India, Universities
Press, Hyderabad, 2nd edn, 2009

5.

S.K. Chatterjee, Indian Calendric System, Publications Division, Govt. of India, 2nd edn, 2006

6.

David Pingree, Jyotihstra: Astral and Mathematical Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden,
1981

7.

K.V. Sarma, A History of the Kerala School of Hindu Astronomy (in Perspective), Vishveshvaranand
Institute, Hoshiapur, 1972

8.

S.R. Sarma, The Archaic and the Exotic: Studies in the History of Indian Astronomical Instruments,
Manohar, New Delhi, 2008

9.

Helaine Selin, & Roddam Narasimha, eds, Encyclopaedia of Classical Indian Sciences, Universities
Press, Hyderabad, 2007

10. S.N. Sen & K.S. Shukla, eds, History of Astronomy in India, Indian National Science Academy,
New Delhi, 2nd edn, 2000

15

11. Virendra Nath Sharma, Sawai Jai Singh and His Astronomy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1995
12. M.S. Sriram, K. Ramasubramanian & M.D. Srinivas, 500 Years of Tantrasangraha: A Landmark in
the History of Astronomy, Inter-University Centre & Indian Institute of Advanced Study,
Shimla, 2002
13. B.V. Subbarayappa, The Tradition of Astronomy in India: Jyotihstra, vol. IV part 4 in History of
Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Centre for Studies in Civilization, New
Delhi, 2008
14. B.V. Subbarayappa & K.V. Sarma, eds & trs, Indian Astronomy: A Source-Book, Nehru Centre,
Bombay, 1985

Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2012)

BBC TV series What the Ancients Did for Us The Indians, especially for the
sections on Indian astronomy time keeping and the Jantar Mantar:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWRhsenRZUI

About the Jantar Mantar observatories: www.jantarmantar.org/

About general astronomy:
www.skyandtelescope.com/, www.euhou.net/, www.ipsindia.org/,
www.astronomy.com/News-Observing/Astronomy%20Kids.aspx,
www.sky-map.org,www.astronomynow.com/, etc.

For lessons on astronomy:

http://science.lotsoflessons.com/space/index.html,
http://outreach.as.utexas.edu/marykay/highschool/hs.html

For astronomy in ancient civilizations:

www.starteachastronomy.com/archaeoastronomy.html (note that the page on India is
seriously outdated),
www.experiment-resources.com/mesopotamian-astronomy.html,
www.laep.org/target/bridges/mayans_ancient1.html,
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/lectures/greek_astro.htm,
www.haystack.mit.edu/edu/pcr/resources/astronomyhistory.htm,
http://www.astro.umass.edu/~rfinn/phys400/P400-history.pdf .

YZ

16

Primary Texts on Astronomy in India: A selection

Note: Indian texts of astronomy are generally of a highly technical nature. In the
excerpts below, passages of a more general character have been selected. The texts
are arranged more or less chronologically; the authors dates of birth (when known)
and the translators name (when available) have been added. Brief explanatory notes
follow the excerpts. (Many of these excerpts have been borrowed from B.V.
Subbarayappa & K.V. Sarma, eds & trs, Indian Astronomy: A Source-Book, Nehru Centre,
Bombay, 1985.)

Aitareya Brhmaa
He [the sun] never sets or rises. When [people] think that he is setting, he is
only turning round, after reaching the end of the day, and makes night here
and day below. Then, when [people] think he is rising in the morning, he is
only turning round after reaching the end of the night, and makes day here
and night below. Thus, he [the sun] never sets at all. (4.11.6, 14.6)
Note: This passage from a Brhmaa (a commentary on the Veda, of uncertain date,
perhaps about 1000

BCE)

appears to show an awareness of the sphericity of the earth,

since there is always a part of it exposed to daylight.

***

ryabhaa I (b. 476 CE), ryabhaya (tr. K.S. Shukla)

The globe of the earth stands [supportless] in space at the centre of the
circular frame of the asterisms [i.e., at the centre of the celestial sphere]

17

surrounded by the orbits [of the planets]; it is made of water, earth, fire and
air and is circular on all sides [i.e., spherical].
Just as the bulb of a kadamba flower is covered all around by blossoms, so is
the globe of earth surrounded by all creatures, terrestrial as well as aquatic.
(4.67)
Note: Here, ryabhaa makes a case for a spherical earth hanging in space unsupported.
Just as a man in a boat moving forward sees the stationary objects [on either
side of the river] as moving backward, so are the stationary stars seen by
people at Lak [on the equator], as moving exactly towards the west. (4.9)
Note: ryabhaa now explains that the earth is rotating in space, and its rotation is
causing the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere. (Lak, in Indian astronomy, refers
to the equator, not to Sri Lanka.)
The moon is water, the sun is fire, the earth is earth, and what is called
shadow is darkness (caused by the earths shadow). The moon eclipses the sun
and the great shadow of the earth eclipses the moon. (4.37)
Note: While it is incorrect to say that the moon is water, ryabhaas explanation for
solar and lunar eclipses is perfectly correct. See a figure of the earths shadow and
related calculations in the module on Mathematics in India.
***

Varhamihira (b. ~ 485 CE), Bhat Sahit (tr. M.R. Bhat)

We shall now explain the aphorisms, i.e., rules or qualifications for an
astronomer.

18

Among the astronomical calculations, the astronomer should be conversant

with the various sub-divisions of time such as the yuga, year, solstice, season,
month, fortnight, day and night, jma [a period of 90 minutes] muhrta [48
minutes], n [or gha, 24 minutes] pra [time required for one inhalation],
trui [a very small unit of time] and its further subdivisions, as well as with
the ecliptic [or with geometry] that are treated of in the five Siddhntas
entitled Paulia, Romaka, Vsiha, Saura and Paitmaha.
He should also be thoroughly acquainted with the reasons for the existence of
the four systems of measurement of time, viz. Saura or the solar system,
Svana, or the terrestrial time, i.e. the time intervening between the first
rising of any given planet or star and its next rising, Nkatra or sidereal, and
Cndra or lunar, as well as for the occurrence of intercalary months and
increasing and decreasing lunar days.
He should also be well-versed with the calculation of the beginning and
ending times of the cycle of sixty years, a yuga [a five-year period], a year, a
month, a day, a hor [hour], as well as of their respective lords.
He should also be capable of explaining, by means of arguments, the
similarities and dissimilarities as well as the appropriateness or otherwise of
the different systems of measurement of time according to the solar and
allied systems.
Despite differences of opinion among the Siddhntas regarding the expiry or
ending time of an ayana [solstice], he should be capable of reconciling them
by showing the agreement between correct calculation and what has been
actually observed in the circle drawn on the ground by means of the shadow
of the gnomon as well as water-instruments.

19

He should also be well acquainted with the causes that are responsible for the
different kinds of motions of the planets headed by the sun, viz. fast, slow,
southerly, northerly, towards perigee and apogee.
He must be able to forecast, by calculation, the times of commencement and
ending, direction, magnitude, duration, intensity and colour at the eclipses of
the sun and the moon, as well as the conjunctions of the moon with the five
trgrahas [non-luminous planets, i.e. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn] and the planetary conjunctions.
He should also be an expert in determining accurately for each planet, its
motion in yojanas [a linear unit equivalent to about 13.6 km], its orbit, other
allied dimensions etc., all in terms of yojanas.
He must be thoroughly acquainted with the earths rotation [on its own axis]
and its revolution along the circle of constellations, its shape and such other
details, the latitude of a place and its complement, the difference in the
lengths of the day and night [lit. diameter of the day-circle], the carakhaas
of a place, rising periods of the different signs of the zodiac at a given place,
the methods of converting the length of shadow into time [in ghas] and time
into the length of shadow and such other things, as well as those to find out
the exact time in ghas that has elapsed since sunrise or sunset at any
required time from the position of the sun or from the Ascendant, as the case
may be. (2. 1-12)
Note: Varhamihira provides here a long description of the minimum qualifications
expected of an astronomer, especially a command of time measurement, planetary
motion and eclipses.

20

Varhamihira (b. ~ 485 CE), Pacasiddhntik (tr. T.S. Kuppanna Sastry)

The circumference of the earth is 3,200 yojanas. When situated on the equator
the sun is visible from pole to pole at all latitudes [making the day and night
equal]. (13.18)
Note: Varhamihira proposes a measurement for the earths circumference. The yojanas
was usually taken to be 8,000 human heights (Kautilya in his Arthastra and ryabhaa
specifically adopted this definition); if we take an average height to be 1.7 m, we get a
circumference of about 43,500 km, which is a fair approximation of the actual dimension
(40,074 km). Interestingly, a few years before Varhamihira, ryabhaa took the earths
diameter to be 1,050 yojanas; this is equivalent to a circumference of about 3,300 yojanas,
i.e. a slightly larger size. We do not know how these savants reached such numbers.
***

Brahmagupta (b. 598), Brahmasphua Siddhnta (tr. K Ramasubramanian)

If the earth were to be spinning at the rate of one minute (kal) in four
seconds (pra) then what, where and why would they [birds] leave? Further,
in a rotating earth, how would the arrows shot up fall in the same place?
(11.17)
Note: Brahmagupta disagrees here with ryabhaas theory of a rotating earth: if it were
true, birds leaving their nests would be unable to return to them, since they would have
moved with the earth, or that an arrow shot vertically would not fall back to the same
spot. There was no theory of frames of reference to answer those questions, and
Brahmaguptas view prevailed even though it was ryabhaa who was right.
***

21

Vaevara (b. 880), Vaevarasiddhnta

The time-divisions:
lotus-pricking time

= 1 trui

100 truis

= 1 lava

100 lavas

= 1 nimea (twinkling of eye)

4 nimea

= 1 long syllable

4 long syllables

= 1 kh

2 khs

= 1 asu (respiration) = 4 seconds

6 asus (pras)

= 1 sidereal pala (caaka, vini or vighaik)

60 palas

= 1 ghaik = 24 minutes

60 ghaiks

= 1 day

30 days

= 1 month

12 months

= 1 year

4,320,000 years

= 1 yuga

72 yugas

= 1 manu

14 manus

= 1 kalpa

2 kalpas

= 1 day (and night) of Brahm

30 days of Brahm

= 1 month of Brahm

12 months of Brahm = 1 year of Brahm

1 year of Brahm

= 72 x 14 x 2 x 30 x 12 yugas = 725,760 yugas

100 years of Brahm = Life of Brahm or mahkalpa (1.1.7-9)

Note: Vaevara gives here a scale of time units, beginning with the most tiny trui
(equivalent to about 9 microseconds, as a simple calculation shows) and extending to
cosmic time scales. We may wonder what practical use the two ends of the scale might
have had, but they were mentioned by several savants even much longer time scales.

22

At the very least, they show a remarkable conceptual ability. (Note that there are some
variations in the smaller units from one scholar to another.)
***

Bhskara II (b. 1114), Siddhntairomai

Ancient astronomers did write, of course, treatises abounding in intelligent
expression; nonetheless, this work is composed to fill some lacunae in their
works. I am going to make up for the deficiencies of the older works and these
improvements will be found here and there in their respective places. So I
beseech the good-minded mathematicians to go through this entire work of
mine (for, otherwise, they may not locate my contribution). (1.1.1.4)
Note: Bhskarchrya follows here a well-established Indian intellectual tradition: while
acknowledging the contributions of his predecessors, he has no hesitation in proposing
improvements on their work.
A Siddhnta work is an astronomical treatise which deals with the various
measures of time ranging from a trui up to of a Kalpa which culminates in a
deluge, planetary theory, arithmetical computations as well as algebraical
processes, questions relating to intricate ideas and their answers, location of
the earth, stars and planets, and the description and use of instruments.
(1.1.1.6)
Note: Bhskarchrya defines for us the nature of a Siddhnta text in the astronomical
context. Note the last phrase, one of the many evidences found in the texts of a strong
tradition of astronomical observation. In fact, many Siddhntas included separate
chapters on the description and use of instruments.

23

Paramevara (b. ~ 1360 CE), Siddhntadpik (Mahabhskarya Bhsyavykhy)

Thus far, I have elucidated in detail (the computation of) the eclipses of the
sun and the moon. But at times there are found differences both in the time
(of the eclipses) and in (the extent of) the orbs (eclipsed).
Beginning from aka (1315, i.e. A.D. 1393), I have computed and observed a
large number of eclipses. However, there had uniformly been difference in
the time (of the eclipses) as observed (and as computed).
In those cases, the times when (the eclipses were) observed occurred before
the computed times. Hence it was patent that an appropriate correction was
required to be effected by expert astronomers. (5.77)
Note: Paramevara plainly states his wide experience in computing and observing
eclipses, and adds that he had to introduce corrections in earlier computations. This
practice was indeed standard among astronomers, and the corrections thus introduced
in established formulas were called bja. Such corrections became necessary in the course
of time for two reasons: (1) because the formulas used were approximations, with a
deviation that would grow in the course of time; (2) because the planets parameters
themselves would slightly change over centuries.

Paramevara (b. ~ 1360 CE), Goladpik (tr. K.V. Sarma)

[Really] the moon is the hiding object of the sun, and [the hiding object] of
the moon is the huge shadow of the earth. This shadow of the earth will
[always] be at the seventh sign from the sun, moving with a velocity equal to
the suns.
In the case of the moon, since the eclipsed object [the moon] is faster, the
beginning of the eclipse is at the east, and the end at the west. In the case of

24

the suns [eclipse], due to the slower motion of the eclipsed body [the sun],
these two, [the beginning and the end], are the other way.
The orb hiding the sun [the projection of the moon], is small and hence sharp
horns are formed. The orb hiding the moon [the earths shadow], is big and
hence it is blunt-horned. (2. 41-43)
Note: Paramevara states in brief a theory of eclipses, with the relative motions of the
moon and the earth with regard to the sun.
***

Nlakaha Somayj (b. 1444 CE), Jyotrmms

A commentator on the Mnasa [Laghumnasa of Munjla] has lamented:
Indeed, the Siddhntas, like Paitmaha, differ from one another [in giving the
astronomical constants]. Timings are different as the Siddhntas differ [i.e.,
the measures of time at a particular moment differs as computed by the
different Siddhntas]. When the computed timings differ, Vedic and domestic
rituals, which have [correct] timings as a component [of their performance]
go astray. When rituals go astray, worldly life gets disrupted. Alas! We have
been precipitated into a big calamity.
Here, it needs to be stated: O faint-hearted, there is nothing to be
despaired of. Wherefore does anything remain beyond the ken of those intent
on serving at the feet of the teachers [and thus gain knowledge]? One has to
realise that the five Siddhntas had been correct [only] at a particular time.
Therefore, one should search for a Siddhnta that does not show discord with
actual observation [at the present time]. Such accordance with observation
has to be ascertained by [astronomical] observers during times of eclipses etc.

25

When Siddhntas show discord, i.e. when an early Siddhnta is in discord,

observations should be made with the use of instruments and the correct
number of revolutions etc. [which would give results which accord with
actual observation] found, and a new Siddhnta enunciated. (p. 6)
Note: Here, Nlakaha gently rebukes a faint-hearted predecessor, who lamented that
there were differences between various Siddhntas as regards computed times (for
specific configurations of the sun, the moon or the planets, for instance), and that Vedic
sacrifices, which are carefully attuned to such celestial configurations, were thrown into
disarray as a result. Nlakaha observes that such differences become unavoidable in
the course of time, and that the only way out it to test, verify and revise, producing a
new Siddhnta whenever necessary. This is a pragmatic as well as scientific attitude.
***

Jyehadeva (b. ~ 1500 CE), Gaita-Yukti-Bh (tr. K.V. Sarma)

Now, all planets move in circular orbits. The number of degrees which each
planet moves in its orbit in the course of a day is fixed. There again, the
number of yojana-s moved per day is the same for all planets. For planets
which move along smaller orbits, the circle would be completed in a shorter
time. For those which move along larger orbits, the circle would be completed
only in a longer period. For instance, the Moon would have completely moved
through the twelve signs in 28 days, while Saturn will complete it only in 30
years. The length of time taken is proportional to the size of the orbit. The
completion of the motion of a planet once in its orbit is called a bhagaa of
that planet. The number of times that a planet completes its orbit during a
catur-yuga is called its yuga-bhagaa [revolutions per aeon]. Now, if the Moon
is seen with an asterism on a particular day, it will be seen the next day with
26

the asterism to the east of it. From this, it might be understood that the Moon
has proper motion [relative to the stars], and that the motion is eastwards.
The sequence of the signs can also be understood to be eastwards. For all
these orbits, a particular point is taken as the commencing point. This point
is termed as the first point of Aries (Medi). All the circles considered in a
sphere are divided into 21,600 equal parts. Each part is a minute (ili). They are
larger in bigger circles and smaller in smaller circles, the number of parts
being the same in all. The number of minutes that a planet will move along its
orbit during the course of a day is fixed. If one observes the said motion
placing himself at the centre of the orbit of a planet, then the motion of the
planet would appear equal every day. The centre of the planetary orbit is
slightly above the centre of the Earth. The observer is, however, situated on
the Earth. Conceive a circle touching the planet and with the observer at its
centre. The observer would find the planet that much advanced from the first
point of Aries as it has advanced in the said circle. The method by which this
is ascertained is called the computation of the true planet (sphua-kriy). We
state it here, deferring the specialties to later sections. (8.1)
Note: This is the beginning of Jyehadevas text on astronomy (which, interestingly, was
written in Malayalam, not Sanskrit), the second part of his Gaita-Yukti-Bh (the first
part of which is dedicated to mathematics). It is a systematic exposition of astronomical
theories and practices accumulated in preceding centuries, in particular by the Kerala
School of astronomy. Here, we have basic concepts of planetary motion.
***

27

akara Varman (b. ~ 1790 CE), Sadratnaml

60 pratatpars = 1 tatpar
60 tatpars

= 1 viliptik (vilipt or vikal)

60 viliptiks

= 1 liptik (lipt or kal)

60 liptiks

= 1 lava (or bhga, a degree)

30 lava

= 1 ri

12 ri

= 1 celestial circle (2.4)

Note: akara Varman gives here a few units of angular measure. Note the degree (bhga
or lava), thirty of which add up to a ri (zodiacal sign). At the other end, we find the
minute (liptik) and the second (viliptik) of an angle, and even the 60th and 360th of a
second!
***

Comprehension
1. On the basis of your reading of the texts, complete the following table:
Astronomer

Period

Finding

ryabhaa
Varhamihira

28

Relevance

2. Prioritize the qualifications of an astronomer given by Varhamihira? Give

reasons. Justify your answer.
3. Among the standard astronomical instruments (see under Bhskara II), we find
the disc, the compass and the vertical stick (or gnomon); refer to the picture in
the survey text. Describe some of the actual uses of these three instruments.
4. In Jyehadevas text on astronomy, spot elements of planetary motion which
current astronomy would accept as valid.

YZ

29

The French astronomer Guillaume Le Gentil came to Pondicherry in

1768 to observe Venuss transit across the sun due for the following
year. A mischievous cloud in an otherwise clear sky prevented his
observation. However, Le Gentils observation of Indian customs,
people and astronomy, left precious testimonies.

Brahmanas make their astronomical calculations with a singular speed and

ease, without pen or pencil; they use instead cowries (kinds of shells) which they
align on a board, as we do with our counters, or often on the ground.
This method of calculation seems to be advantageous in that it is swifter
and more expeditious than ours, but at the same time it has a big drawback:
there is no way to go back on ones calculations, still less of saving them, since
one has to erase them as one proceeds. If by ill-luck one gets the result wrong,
one has to start all over again.
But they very rarely make mistakes. They work in a singularly composed,
untroubled and calm manner, which we Europeans are incapable of, and which
protects them from the errors we would be unable to avoid in their place. It does
seem that they and we must keep to our respective methods, and that theirs has
been uniquely designed for them.
Their rules of astronomical calculations involve enigmatic verses which
they know by heart; in that way, they have no need of tables of rules. By means
of those verses which they can be seen repeating as they go along (as we
repeat our formulas) and of those cowries, they calculate eclipses of the sun and
of the moon with the greatest speed.
... Their tables for the sun and the moon are written on palm leaves cleanly
cut to the same size. They assemble them in kinds of booklets which they
consult when they want to calculate an eclipse. They use a small stylet or awl to
trace on those leaves whatever signs they wish. This stylet traces a slight but
visible line by tearing the thin film that covers the leaf.
What I was able to learn of the Brahmanas astronomy boils down to five
chief points: the use of the gnomon, the length of the year, the precession of
equinoxes, the division of the zodiac into twenty-seven constellations, and the
calculations of eclipses of the sun and the moon. ...
Dissertation on India, Particularly on a Few Points of the
Tamil Gentiles Astronomy, Histoire de l'Acadmie Royale des
Sciences, 1772, 2nd part, pp. 17475 (tr. Michel Danino).

30

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India