Batteries

Topics Covered in Chapter 12

12-1: Introduction to Batteries
12-2: The Voltaic Cell
12-3: Common Types of Primary Cells
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
12-5: Additional Types of Secondary Cells
Chapter
12
2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Topics Covered in Chapter 12
12-6: Series and Parallel Connected Cells
12-7: Current Drain Depends on Load Resistance
12-8: Internal Resistance of a Generator
12-9: Constant-Voltage and Constant-Current Sources
12-10: Matching a Load Resistance to the Generator r
i


McGraw-Hill 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-1: Introduction to Batteries
Batteries consist of two or more voltaic cells that are
connected in series to provide a steady dc voltage at
the batterys output terminals.

The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside
the cell. Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte,
which forces the electric charge to separate in the form
of ions and free electrons.
12-2: The Voltaic Cell
(converts chemical energy into electric energy)
A voltaic cell consists of two different metal electrodes
that are immersed in an electrolyte (an acid or a base).

The chemical reaction resulting from the immersion
produces a separation of charges.

The current capacity increases with large electrode
sizes.

The negative terminal is considered the anode of the
cell because it forms positive ions in the electrolyte. The
opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode.
The Voltaic Cell
Motion of electrons in
ionic bonding can be
used to generate an
electric current
A device constructed to
do just this is called a
voltaic cell, or cell for
short
12-1: Introduction to Batteries
A batterys voltage output and current rating are
determined by
The elements used for the electrodes.
The size of the electrodes.
The type of electrolyte used.

12-1: Introduction to Batteries
Cells and batteries are available in a wide variety of types.

Fig. 12-1: Typical dry cells and batteries. These primary types cannot be recharged.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
12-1: Introduction to Batteries
Whether a battery may be recharged or not depends on
the cells used to make up the battery.
A primary cell cannot be recharged because the
internal chemical reaction cannot be restored.
A secondary cell, or storage cell, can be recharged
because its chemical reaction is reversible.
Dry cells have a moist electrolyte that cannot be
spilled.
Sealed rechargeable cells are secondary cells that
contain a sealed electrolyte that cannot be refilled.
12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
There are several different types of primary cells in use
today:
Carbon-zinc dry cells.
Alkaline cells.
Zinc chloride cells.
Mercury cells.
Silver oxide cells.
12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell
This is one of the most popular primary cells (often used
for type AAA, AA, C, D).
The negative electrode is made of zinc.
The positive electrode is made of carbon.
The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.
Performance of the cell is better with intermittent
operation.

12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
Alkaline Cells
The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for
type AA, C, D, etc.
It has the same 1.5V output as carbon-zinc cells, but
they are longer-lasting.
It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide
cathode in an alkaline electrolyte (potassium
hydroxide).
It works with high efficiency even with continuous use,
due to low internal resistance.
12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
Zinc Chloride Cells
This cell is also referred to as a heavy-duty type
battery.
It is a modified zinc-carbon cell.
It has little chance of liquid leakage because the cell
consumes water along with the chemically active
materials. The cell is usually dry at the end of its useful
life.
12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
Mercury Cells:
This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound
cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated
with proper disposal of mercury.
Silver Oxide Cells:
This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode,
and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and watches.
12-3: Common Types
of Primary Cells
Lithium Cells:
This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low
weight, and small volume.
It comes in two forms of 3V output in widespread use:
Lithium-sulfur dioxide (LiSO
2
).
Lithium-thionyl chloride.
LiSO
2
-type batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid
solvent; if its container is punctured or cracked, it can
release toxic vapors.
Safe disposal of these cells is critical.

12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used
extensively in vehicles and other applications requiring
high values of load current.
The positive electrode is made of lead peroxide.
The negative electrode is made of spongy lead metal.
The electrolyte is sulfuric acid.
The output is about 2.1 volts per cell.
Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6-V
battery) or 6 (12-V battery).
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
The secondary batteries used in vehicles have a
reversible chemical process.

Discharge: The battery reacts by producing
current flow in an external load circuit and
produces lead sulfate and water.
Charge: The battery reacts to a reverse current from
an external energy source and produces lead, lead
peroxide, and sulfuric acid.
Pb + PbO
2
+ 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
D
C
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
Current Ratings
Lead-acid batteries are rated in terms of how much
discharge current they can supply for a specified
amount of time.

The Ah unit is amperes-hours. Generally, this rating
is proportional to the physical size.

An automobile battery might have a 200 Ah rating. How
long can this battery supply 20 amperes?





The actual ampere-hours delivered varies with battery
age and condition, temperature and discharge rate.
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
Time =
Capacity
Load current
= 10 hours
=
200 Ah
20 A
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a ratio that compares the weight of a
substance with the weight of water.

The states of discharge (how much charge the battery
has left) is checked by measuring the specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
One cell of an automobile battery.







Pb + PbO
2
+ 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
-
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
+
discharge
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
-
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
+
discharge
-
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
+
discharge
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
Charging Lead-Acid Batteries
Apply about 2.5 V per cell.
Attach the terminal of a battery charger directly to the
corresponding terminals of the battery.
Positive terminal to positive terminal.
Negative terminal to negative terminal.
This process restores the batterys ability to deliver
current and voltage to a load.

12-4: Lead-Acid Wet Cell
Charging an Automobile Battery (one cell shown).
Pb + PbO
2
+ 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
H
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Pb PbO
2
charge
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
As the cell
discharges, more
water is formed,
lowering the
specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
Charger produces
2.5 V (about 15 V
for a 12 V battery)
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Cells and Batteries
This type of cell delivers high current.
It can be recharged many times.
It can be stored for long periods of time.
Applications include
Portable power tools.
Alarm systems.
Portable radio and TV equipment.
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Cells and Batteries




The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH) but does
not appear above, as its function is to act as a
conductor for the transfer of the hydroxyl (OH) ions.
Its specific gravity does not change with the state of
charge.

2 Ni(OH)
3
+ Cd + Cd (OH)
2
2 Ni(OH)
2
D
C
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Cells
These cells are used in applications demanding long-
running battery performance (e.g., high-end portable
electrical or electronic products like power tools).
They offer 40% more capacity over a comparably-sized
NiCd cell.
They contain the same components as a NiCd cell,
except for the negative electrode.
They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-
discharge more rapidly, and cannot be cycled as
frequently as NiCd cells.
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Nickel-Iron (Edison) Cells
These cells were once used in industrial truck and
railway applications.
They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid
batteries.
Nickel-Zinc Cells
These cells were previously used in some railway
applications.
Their high energy density created interest in their
application to electric cars.
They have limited life cycles for charging.
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts
chemicals (such as hydrogen and oxygen) into water
and produces electricity in the process.

As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the
fuel cell, it will continually produce electricity and never
go dead, unlike conventional batteries.
12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells using methanol and oxygen are being
developed.
Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as
sources of dc power.
They are very efficient; capable of providing hundreds
of kilowatts of power.

12-5: Additional Types
of Secondary Cells
Solar Cells
Solar cells convert the suns light energy into electric
energy.

They are made of semiconductor materials.

They are arranged in modules that are assembled into a
large solar array to produce the required power.
12-6: Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell
can be obtained by connecting cells in series.
The total voltage available across the battery of cells
is equal to the sum of the individual values for each
cell.
Parallel cells have the same voltage as one cell but
have more current capacity.
To provide a higher output voltage and more current
capacity, cells can be connected in series-parallel
combinations.
The combination of cells is called a battery.
12-6: Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-14: Cells connected in series for higher voltage. Current rating is the same as for one cell.
(a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol for battery with three series cells. (c) Battery connected to lead
resistance R
L
.
The current capacity of a
battery with cells in series is
the same as that for one cell
because the same current
flows through all series cells.
12-6: Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-15: Cells connected in parallel for higher current rating. (a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol
for battery with three parallel cells. (c) Battery connected to lead resistance R
L
.
The parallel connection is
equivalent to increasing
the size of the electrodes
and electrolyte, which
increases the current
capacity.
12-6: Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-16: Cells connected in series-parallel combinations. (a) Wiring two 3-V strings, each with
two 1.5-V cells in series. (b) Wiring two 3-v strings in parallel.
To provide a higher output voltage and more current capacity, cells
can be connected in series-parallel combination.
12-6: Series and Parallel
Connected Cells
Fig. 12-16 cont. (c) Schematic symbol for the battery in (b) with output of 3 V. (d) Equivalent
battery connected to lead resistance RL.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
12-7: Current Drain Depends
on Load Resistance
It is important to note the current rating of batteries, or
any voltage source, is only a guide to typical values
permissible for normal service life.
The actual amount of current produced when the
battery is connected to a load resistance is equal to:
I = V/R by Ohms law.
12-7: Current Drain Depends
on Load Resistance
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-17: An example of how current drain from a battery used as a voltage source depends
on R of the load resistance. Different values of I are shown for the same V of 1.5 V. (a) The V/R
1

equals I of 200 mA. (b) The V/R
2
equals I of 10 mA. (c) The V/R
3
equals I of 600 mA.
I = V/R
1
= 200 mA
I = V/R
2
= 10 mA
I = V/R
3
= 600 mA
A cell delivers less current with higher resistance in the load circuit.
A cell can deliver a smaller load current for a longer time.
12-8: Internal Resistance
of a Generator
A generator is any source that produces continuous
voltage output.

Internal resistance (r
i
) causes the output voltage of a
generator to drop as the amount of current increases.
All generators have internal resistance.

Matching the load resistance to the internal resistance
of the generator causes the maximum power transfer
from the generator to the load.
12-8: Internal Resistance
of a Generator
Measuring r
i

r
i
12 V
0.01 W
V
NL
= 12
10 A
V
L
= 11.9
r
i
=
V
NL
V
L
I
L
12

11.9

10

=
= 0.01 W
Problem
Calculate internal resistance of a generator if the
output voltage drops from 50 V with zero load current
to 45 V with 4 A of load current.
12-9: Constant-Voltage Source
Constant-Voltage Generator
A constant-voltage generator has a very low internal
resistance. It delivers a relatively constant output
voltage in spite of changes in the amount of loading.
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-21: Constant-voltage generator with low r
i
. The V
L
stays approximately the same 6 V as I
varies with R
L
. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph for V
L
.
12-10: Matching a Load Resistance
to the Generator r
i
The power curve peaks where R
L
= r
i
. At this point, the
generator transfers maximum power to the load.
As R
L
increases, V
L
increases, I decreases, efficiency
increases (less power lost in r
i
).
As R
L
decreases, V
L
decreases, I increases.
When r
i
= R
L
, maximum power yields 50% efficiency.
To achieve maximum voltage rather than power, R
L

should be as high as possible.
12-10: Matching a Load Resistance
to the Generator r
i
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fig. 12-24: Circuit for varying R
L
to match r
i
. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent voltage
divider for voltage output across R
L
. (c) Graph of power output P
L
for different values of R
L
.
R
i
= 100
R
L
: variable from
1 to 10, 000
r
i
= R
L
= 100
I = 200/200
I = 1 A
NOTE: P
L
is maximum
when R
L
= r
i
= 100