CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

Purpose---- Property has mineral value only when it contains a deposit from which a
product can be won at a profit. Since evaluation necessarily contemplates the processes
of minin and e!tractin the product" the si#e" shape" position and the rade of the deposit
are fundamental features that must be determined" at least within reasonable limits" as a
basis. $etermination of these features is larely a matter of eoloy.
Samplin is an allied process.
%ineral deposits
&
rane from thin" erratic veins to e!tensive bedded deposits and
massive bodies such as the copper'porphyries. Processes of enetic concentration may
have been ineous" sedimentary" or metamorphic. Some deposits are primary in that they
have retained their oriinal (ualities and relationships to ad)oinin roc*s+ others have
been altered" either by chemical or mechanical means" to secondary deposits. Structural
relationships
,
rane from inclusion in undisturbed series to distortion in tiht foldin and
dislocation by complicated fault offsets. only after it has been mined. -t can seldom be
seen as a whole body.
&. .indren" /." 0%ineral $eposits"1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* Co." &433
,. 5ew house" H./." Editor" 06re deposits as Related to Structural 7eatures"1 Princeton
8niversity Press"&493.
-n all forms of minin" open pit or underround" there is always a reion beyond which
one must visuali#e continuance or possible interruption of ore. -n an open pit" this
pro)ection is downward or sidewise+ -n an underround operation" it maybe in any
direction.
The ob)ect of eoloic study as a basis for evaluation of a mineral deposit is to locate
and determine the boundaries of mineral value+ or as stated above" to determine the si#e"
shape" position" and rade of deposit.
SCOPE:.-n the main" this problem of delineation of ore bodies is a problem in
structural eoloy aided by samplin" althouh the complete investiation would be
concerned also with enesis" alterations" mode of occurrence" and mineral association of
deposit.
Since mineral deposits are themselves three'dimensional and since their coordinate
position and depth below the surface is li*ewise a three'dimensional problem" eoloic
field wor* is planned accordinly. Surface investiations are usually supplemented by
drill'hole data and by underround observations whenever openins for such are
available. Subsurface data are vitally important to provin up the third dimension. /hile
there are occasions when the entire eoloic study must be made from surface indications
alone" it would be poor practice to be limited to surface data if there were underround
openins that could be inspected. To do so would be to inore the possibility of ainin
additional evidence that miht prove or disprove an important point.
7urthermore" surface study is often hindered by lac* of roc* e!posures in the area
under investiation. 6n the averae" there is about one s(uare foot of e!posed bedroc*
per acre throuhout the entire 5orth American continent. 6ver the lacial pre'Cambrian
Shield of Canada and the Central Plains" lare areas contain few e!posures.
2eoloic study seldom can be confined to the immediate mineral property.
;nowlede of the reional eoloy is a per(uisite to wor*in out the local eoloy. The
effects of ma)or forces" possibility not e!pressed locally" may control minor structural
patterns to which the ore deposit is related.
PROSPECT VS MINE:.E!amination of prospects is (uite different from e!amination of
mines or mineral'producin property. A prospect is alon way from profitable production.
Actual ore reserves are seldom evident and" in fact" sometimes not e!pected immediately+
eoloical predictions are more or less speculative. -n the usual instance" structures" ore
limits" and other essential eoloic feature of a prospect are *nown somewhere between
#ero and a reasonable percent of final *nowlede+ the balance is inferred sub)ect to
correction with new evidence. -n the cases of the prospect" the eoloist loo*s for
favourable eoloical condition" whereas in the case of mineral producer" he loo*s for
reserves.
USE OF AVAILABLE DATA:.Several sources of eoloic information are usually
available to the e!aminer even thouh the property bein e!amined is situated in remote
territory. There are few land areas that are un*nown at least as to eneral eoloy.
5ational and State 2eoloical Survey and %ines $epartment are mappin and
reportin continually on mineral areas and properties. These data" e!cept in unusual
instances" are available to public. Company and private reports on mines or districts are
sometimes available to the eoloist. 2eoloy te!ts fre(uently contain references or maps
in sufficient detail to be helpful. %aps of ad)oinin mines" when available" may show
assay results and eoloic sections that will be of value in pro)ectin structure and
mineral trends across the property in (uestion. $rillin and eophysical records are an
additional source of information. The e!aminer should avail him self of all such as data
preparatory to ma*in his own investiation. He can then plan his wor* more effectively.
FIELD WORK:.-t is not within the scope of this boo* to cover in detail the many
eoloic field procedures and the methods of interpretation of data that may be called
upon in the course of a mine e!amination. These" appropriately" may be found in eoloy
te!ts and handboo*s in which mineral deposits" structural principles" and field practice
&

are treated at lenth

CORRELATION WITH OTHER PARTS OF EXAMINATION:.%appin and samplin are
usually part of the field wor* of e!amination mineral property. Each maybe a rather
lenthy underta*in" but is essential to the overall ob)ective of determinin location and
rade of material. -nsofar as the eoloy can be interpreted at the time" this *nowlede
should be used to uide the mappin and samplin prorams. This plan will not only
avoid duplication and unnecessary wor*" but will ma*e for more effective observation of
critical details.
There is no set procedure for the eoloical e!amination of mineral property. Too
many variables are present. An efficient e!aminer will review constantly the sum of
eoloic information on the property and *eep revisin the field proram in order to
obtain the ne!t sinificant bit of *ey data.
7or an undeveloped property" surface inspection should be in considerable detail before
a samplin proram is started. To *eep proper record of observations" mappin may have
to o alon with the surface study" and some test samples may be needed. 3ut until some
picture is formed of the eoloy" or until evidence is found to support a theory of
formation of the deposit" any e!tensive samplin would be hapha#ard and is
to be avoid.
The tas* is much simplified when the e!amination is of an operatin mine where plan"
sectional" and assay maps have been *ept up to date. Here the structure and formation" in
part at least" are in evidence and the e!aminer need only chec* the results already at hand
as bac*round for plannin his approach to the forward problem.
TYPE PROGRAM:.E!amination of mineral property for purposes of valuation is to be
distinuished from a proram of e!ploration for ore. The one is a survey as of a iven
time+ the other more often a continuin proram allied to development or operation. -n a
sense" however" they are similar+ each has the delimitin of ore as an ob)ective and
methods of approach fre(uently are ali*e.
Choice of method for the field proram is often larely a matter of economics. The
proram may be determined by the e!pense warranted for the information that may be
obtained.

&
.ahee" 7.H." 07ield eoloy"1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* Co." -nc." 9th Ed." &49&
7orrester" <. $." 0Principle of 7ield and %inin 2eoloy"1 <ohn /illey = Sons" &49>
%c;instry" H.E." 0%inin 2eoloy1 Prentice'Hill" -nc." &49?.
Tes P!!"# A"$ Tre"%&!"#:..6ne traces of mineral or favourable eoloic condition have
been found" test pits and trenches are amon the simpler" direct methods of prospectin
used to search out mineral values. Trenches are suitable for uncoverin lede under
shallow soil+ test pits can be used to penetrate overburden to about &@@ ft in dept"
providin lare boulders and much water are not encountered. 3oth are adaptable to hand
methods and" re(uirin no power e(uipment" to remote localities.
Simple drive'pipes or auer drills may be used to test relatively soft" shallow deposits.
/ith suitable toporaphy" liht overburden" and a supply of water under head"
Hydraulic *in may be advantaeous for e!posin an area of bedroc* to inspection. This
method" however" will usually re(uire too much capital outlay for the averae
e!amination.
Dr!''!"#
&
:.$rillin" preferably core drillin" is an e!cellent method of determinin ore
formations and structures. -t reatly auments surface eoloical *nowlede by
correlatin structures and chec*in presumed e!tensions of ore at depth. -n prospectin" it
is fully as important for the eoloical information which it brins to liht as for any ore
which it may discover. /here actual ore is bein dealt with" drillin is apt to ive
misleadin result" since drillin holes have been *nown )ust to miss a lare body of ore.
/hen they cut obli(uely throuh a small body" they may ive the impression of reater
ore thic*ness than actually occurs. Results of drillin should be correlated closely with
structural observation to avoid miss leadin interpretation.
-n core drillin" the slude obtained from a hole is a value able ad)unct. Slude
samples should be ta*en at reular intervals in sinificant sections and retained for
analysis and for comparison with the core. -n soft ore'bearin formations and in fracture
#ones where much of the core may be lost" slude samples may be the sole criterion for
)udment of the value of the material.
/hen churn drillin is used to test a deposit" special attention must be paid to recovery
of the material and interpretation of results. Contamination is apt to occur even in cased
holes" dependin upon the formations penetrated. An analysis correction factor"
determined empirically" may be necessary in such an event. Althouh portable churn and
diamond'drill ris with self'contained power are available to specification for practically
any e!amination wor*" contactors are often employed for the wor*" thus avoidin capital
outlay for e(uipment.

&
7orrester" <. $." 0Principle of 7ield and %inin 2eoloy"1 <ohn /illey = Sons" &49>
%c ;instry" H.E." 0%inin 2eoloy1 Prentice ' Hill" -nc."&49?" Chap. 3.

I"sru(e" Sur)e*s:..The dip needle and manetometer are amon the most useful
instrument for eoloical wor*. Each is readily portable and rapid to operate. Choice
depends" usually" upon accuracy desire. The airborne manetometer maybe employed
advantaeously to indicate mayor anomalies which can then be investiated more closely
by round observations within a limited area. These instruments record only the presence
of manetic materials" but a *nowlede of mineral associations may lead to usin them
on allied minerals and mar*er formations where the mineral under investiation is" itself"
non manetic. Asbestos" for instance" may be associated with enouh manetic for a
survey of this type to outline the formations.
-n respect to radioactive minerals" the 2eier counter is obviously useful. Portable field
models are readily available. An understandin of types of emission is essential to proper
interpretation of readins. Portable ultraviolet lamps are an aid to prospectin for
fluorescent minerals" such as scheelite.
2eophysical methods"
&
such as ravitation" seismic" and electrical resistivity" are
usually applied to lare'scale e!ploration" as for petroleum. They may also be useful as
aids to determinin the eoloy of the ordinary mineral deposit. Advanced methods and
instruments for well'loin" li*ewise" have been most helpful in petroleum wor*. To
date" they have not been applied e!tensively to ore deposits.

&
.ahee" 7.H." 07ield 2eoloy"1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* C.o." -nc." &49&" Chap. AA--
Heiland" C.A." 02eophysical E!ploration"1 Prentice'Hall" &49@.
<a*os*y" <. <." 0E!ploration 2eophysics"1 Times'%irror Press" .os Aneles" Calif." &49@.
5ettleton" .. .." 02eophysical Prospectin for 6il1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* Co." &49@.
02eophysical Prospectin1 A.-.%.E." &4,4" &43," &439" &49@" &49B.
LABORATORY STUDIES:...aboratory wor* is call for in many mineral investiations. -t
may be for the purpose of optical or !'ray identification of minor minerals value in
association with the ma)or ones in deposit+ for ae determination to correlate series+ or to
point out chemical and physical (ualities critical to the millin and metallury of the
product.
The enineer or eoloist e!aminin a property" thouh he may not be proficient in
these speciali#ed fields" should be aware of the valuable help of such wor*. -nterpretation
of eoloical features may be verified by studies or tests of this type. Critical problems of
treatment and mar*etin" solved in the laboratory" may be the determinin factor in the
success of the operation.
MAPPING:..%easurements are essential to determinin the location and si#e of a
mineral deposit. Points of reference tie measurements toether and are needed for leal
record. Some form of surveyin is the procedure by which this is done. %aps are the
usual form of final record.
%ost e!aminers of mineral property will be conversant with surveyin techni(ues.
&
6thers will appreciate the need for enineerin assistance to conduct this phase of the
wor*. The eoloist or enineer may do his own surveyin on a small )ob or may direct
the wor* of one or more crews if considerable measurement and mappin are called for.
Surveys re(uirin special e(uipment are usually handled on contract basis. Aerial
mappin and airborne manetic wor* are in this class" as are also eophysical survey by
ravity" seismic and electrical methods" and electrical or radioactive drill'hole loin.
Aerial mappin and airborne manetometer surveys usually re(uire round control" so
will probably call for some surface surveyin to ive maps of the area that will be fully
satisfactory.
Sur+,%e:..Surface maps usually are of two types" property and toporaphic. The property
map show only land parcels and be plotted on form sheets printed to cover a reular
township with its 3> numbered sections. 6r it may be a map drawn to show property
lines" railroads" hihways" streams" buildin" mine dumps" etc." but usually without
toporaphy. The toporaphy map probably will show property lines also and will have on
it the railroads" hihways" etc." listed above. -n addition" it will show toporaphy
CcountersD and eoloy. Property lines" with tie'in lines to reference points" are usually
Surveyed with transit and tape for record purposes" althouh for a preliminary report and
as a base for eoloic wor*" stadia measurements will suffice for boundary lines but
should be so noted. The plane table is the usual field instrument for toporaphic and
eoloic wor*" as it is somewhat more rapid than the transit. Choice of contour interval
will depend on ruedness of toporaphy and scale will depend on area bein wor*ed.
The compass is often used for some of traversin. Solar observations are the usual means
for determinin meridian in remote areas. -f the area is lare" aerial mappin will be
much faster and possibly more economical.
&
3reed" Surveyin" <ohn /iley = Sons" -nc.
.ahee" 7.H." 07ield 2eoloy"1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* C.o." -nc." &49&" Chap. AE to AA-"
-nclusive
7orrester" <. $." 0Principle of 7ield and %inin 2eoloy"1 <ohn /illey = Sons" &49>
%c ;instry" H.E." 0%inin 2eoloy1 Prentice ' Hill" -nc."&49?" Chap. &
U"$er#rou"$ :..The brunton compass" in some situations" may be sufficiently accurate
for the underround survey for e!amination purposes. -n any case" an instrument of this
type is well adapted to ma*in s*etch maps of underround openins and for the
mappin of eoloic data. %easurements may be tape or pace" as the situation re(uires.
Side developments and e!tensions of main underround openins are fre(uently
measured up by brunton until such as time as more accurate location is needed.
The transit is the usual instrument for underround surveyin. .inear measurements
are by tape to hundredths of foot. Anular readins to one minute of accuracy are
customary with readins to one'half minute or even closer for important closures and for
e!tended main'level developments. Elevations are carried by usin the transit as a level
and by vertical anle measurements throuh either main or au!iliary telescope.
Corrections must be applied by computation for vertical anle measurements made by top
telescope. 3earin Ca#imuthsD are carried underround by transit or plumb wires as the
openins demand.
3oth p'," (,ps and se%!o"s are usually needed to show underround wor*ins and
ore deposits. Elevation at which plans are drawn will probably coincide with main levels
or sublevels. 7or a property undeveloped e!cept by drillin and for pro)ection of eoloic
inferences" the elevation of such a plan map or s*etch will be determined by the data at
hand and the purpose. Position of sectional veins and plane of pro)ections usually depend
on shape and position of the deposit+ the footwall is often a controllin factor.
8nderround maps show position of openins such as shafts" drifts" CentriesD" crosscuts"
raises" and stopes and are plotted accurately to scale.
6n the bac*round are recorded the eoloic data and samplin results. These are
often called ,ss,* or #eo'o#!%,' (,ps to distinuish them from operatin maps for
contract measurementF the eoloy maps will show roc* and ore formations" dips" stri*es"
contacts" folds" slips" faults" feature #ones" and mineral associations and assays. -n vein
structures" width of veins vs. width of minin openin is important" as will be noted
under samplin.
All relevant data are entered on the wor*in maps which are drawn to a scale Coften 9@
ft per inch suitable for such record. 7inal maps for reports are more often at scales of &@@
to 9@@ ft. per inch" with formations and eoloic features displayed clearly by use of
colors and symbols.
ORIGIN OF ORE BODIES:..-n discussin classification of mineral deposits" .indren
&
states that in e!plorin and e!ploitin ore deposits" the miner is almost forced to form an
idea of its oriin in order to follow up the ore bodies to the best advantae. Therefore" in
his opinion" a enetic classification accordin to eoloical processes is the most
desirable both theoretically and practically. .indrenG classification" as out'lined in the
reference cited" has withstood the test of the time and continues to be authoritative.
%ineral deposits must have been formed by ineous process" alteration" cementation"
deformation" erosion" or sedimentation.
To have an ore or mineral deposit" there must have been a source of the elements that
o to ma*e up the mineral" a process of concentration" and a locus of deposition. The
locus of the position was determined by some combination of environmental factors that
may be classed" broadly" as physical" chemical" and structural. -n arrivin at a deductive
e!planation for the enesis of an ore body" the e!aminer must consider all of these factors
as an interrelated roup. The results of the physical factors" such pressure and
temperature" and the chemical action are evidence from which the oriinal system may be
reconstructed but" of the three" only the structure can be seen in a relatively unchaned
state.
2eoloy is not yet an e!act science and" naturally" there differences of opinion about
the oriin of any ore body. Althouh it may be difficult" in any deposits" for the
investiator to ain much of practical value from ideas on ore enesis" nevertheless"
relationships of ore to roc* alteration and to structural features are at times reat aids in
locatin and followin ore bodies.
HHHHHHHHH
&. .indren" /." 0%ineral $eposits"1 %c2raw'Hill 3oo* Co." 9th Ed."&433" p. ,@9
IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE:..Structure refers to the build of the earthGs crust. Those
structural features which aid in mineral concentration or delimit ore bodies maybe
primary sedimentational structures or deformational. 6re bodies maybe found in
sedimentary beds" may follow favourable hori#ons such as lime stones" or may be
concentrated in other sedimentary hori#ons. $eformational features" as fractures" folds"
contacts" and barriers" may be causal determinants of ore deposition. Roc* alteration
associated with ore also is often related to structural features.
The e!aminer should be aware of the importance of thorouh study of structure
around and in an ore deposit as basis for his deductions as to the e!tent and delineation of
the ore. Hypotheses of oriin and detailed description of the relations of structural
features to ore bodies maybe found amon the references already iven.
$eformational structures" notably faults" may be post'ore in ae. -n this event"
dislocation and displacement of part of an ore body may present a difficult problem to the
investiator. Careful studies of both minor and ma)or eoloical features in three'
dimensional relationships are re(uired to solve problems of this *ind. Special drillin"
trenchin" or mine openins may be needed to ive sinificant information. %ethods of
structural analysis applicable to cases of this *ind involve descriptive eometry
&
or
stereoraphic pro)ection
,
.
As noted" three dimensions are involved. %ap and sections are mean to an end+ they
help the e!aminer to see the three dimensional picture and by contributin to
understandin of the eometry are a means for ma*in (uantitative measurements of
features of importance. /hile eometry may be all importance in solvin post'ore
structural problems" structure has much broader implications on the enetic side.
HHHHHHHHH
&
3illins" %.P." 0Structural 2eoloy"1 Prentice Hall" -nc."&49,
,
7isher" $. <." 0A 5ew Pro)ection Protractor"1 8niversity of Chicao" $ept. of 2eoloy"
&49@