7 The gamma ray and spectral ray logs TA General The log ‘The gamma ray log is a record of a formation’s radioactivity, The radiation emanates from naturally occurring uranium, thorium and potassium (see be- Tow) The simple gamma ray log gives the radioactivity of the three elements combined, while the spectral ‘gamma ray log shows the amount of each individual element contributing to this radioactivity ‘The geological significance of radioactivity lies in the distribution of these three elements. Most rocks are radioactive to some degree. igneous and metamorphi gamma rocks more so than sediments. However, amongst the sediments, shales have by far the strongest radiation, It is for this reason that the simple gamma ray log has been called the ‘shale log’ although modern thinking shows that itis quite insufficient to equate gamma ray emission with shale occurrence. Not all shales are radioactive, and all that isradioactive is not necessarily shale (Figure 7.1) —see section 76. Principal uses The gamma ray log is still principally used quanti- tacvely to calculate shale volume, Qualitatively. in its GAMMA RAY LOG (natural eadioactivity) SHALE sanosrone 77 LMESTONE BE ARKOSE ELF mcaceous MM SANDSTONE wom SILTIFINE vod SAND sl KAOUNTE | pune MBRLLonmre JOC" sane we ats. errumnous SHALE coat FING UP SHALY. SANDSTONE = cucanl uate Figure 7.1 The gimma ay log: some typical responses, the gamma ray = \ SHALE ease og shows natural radioscivity. feldspar, M = mie, * = glauconite58 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL, LOGS: ses ofthe gamma ray log Used for Knowing Petrophysics Shale volume Gamma ray (max) Osh) Gamma ray (min Qualitative Geology Shale ‘shaliness) Lithology adietivity values Mineral Mineral ‘ideatifieation radioactivity Sedimentology Facies CClay/grain size ‘elatonships Stratigraphy Correlation = Unconformity ‘dentifcation Table 7.106) Principal uses ofthe speteal gamma ray log Discipline Used for Koowing ‘Quantitative Petrophysies Shale volume ‘Th (max), Th (min) for pure shale Ya (Th, "kimanh, Keio, volume shale Semiquantiative Geology lay mineral Th, K, U content and ‘dentifeation of individual clay ‘ualtative rminerals Detrial Radioactive content mines ‘of detrital minerals ‘Mentifcation Sedimentology Depostional “Th/K content of environment ‘shale depositional environments Reservoir Fracture nium contribution ‘ology ‘deatifcation Geochemistry Source rock Uranium content ‘valuation of organic matter simple form, it can be used to correlate, to suggest facies, and of course to identify lithology (shaliness). In its complex form, the spectral gamma ray log, itcan be used to calculate radioactive mineral volumes, identify clays and detrital minerals, indicate depositional en- vironment, and suggest fracture zones and source-rock intervals (Table 7.1a, b). 7.2 Natural gamma radiation ‘Natural radiation in rocks comes essentially from only three elemental sources: the radioactive elements of the thorium family, of the uranium-radium family and of the radioactive isotope of potassium “°K (Adams and Weaver, 1958) Quantitatively, potassium is by far the most abun- dant of the three elements (Table 7.2) but its conti bution to the overall radioactivity in relation to its weight is small, In reality, the contribution to the overall radioactivity ofthe three elements is ofthe same order of magnitude, the abundance seeming to be the inverse of the contribution in energy: a small quantity of uranium has a large effect on the radioactivity, a large quantity of potassium a small effect, Each of the three sources emits gamma rays spon= taneously. That is, they emit photons with no mass and“Table 72. Abundance and relative radiation activity ofthe natural radioactive clements K oth u Relative abundance inthe earths erst 289% ~ 12pm ~3ppm 1 13003600 "Serra (1979), Sera ea (1980) ‘Adams and Weaver (988) no charge but great energy (this being the definition of 4 gamma ray). The energy in the ease of uranium, thorium and potassium emisions occurs in the spec- trum from 0-3 MeV (million electron volts). ‘The radiation from *°K is distinct, with a single encray value of L46 MeV (Figure 12) Both thorium and uranium emit radiations with a whole range of energies, but with certain peak frequencies. These peaks ate especially distinct atthe higher energy levels of 2.62 MeV for thorium and 1.7 MeV for uranium (Figure 12) The spectra and the energy levels illustrate are those at the point of emission. One ofthe characteris ties of gamma rays is that when they ps theough any material thet energy is progressively absorbed. The effects known as Compton scattering, ands due othe Collision between gammi rays and electrons which produces a degrading (lowering) of energy (Figure 7.3). ‘The higher the common density through which the gamma-rays pass the more rapid the degradation or Toss of eneray (in eeality it depends on the materia’ ull] Hjull, Figure 7.2 The gamma ray emision spectra of naturally radionctive minerals The principal peaks used to slenify each source are Indwate, (After Titman etal, 1965, redrawn from Schlumberger, 19) THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 59 Figure 7.3 Schematic drawing of the Compton satering of garoma ‘aye: The elects more marked in denser mate e- Lavends, 1985) electron density, which is very similar to common density) In borehole logging, when radiations are observed by the tool, they have already passed through the formation and probably also the drilling mud, both of which cause Compton scattering. Thus, the diserete energy levels at which gamma rays are emitted become degraded, and a continuous spectrum of values is, observed (Figure 7.8, When each of the radioactive ‘minerals is present their radiations become mixed and the resulting spectrum is very complex. However, a slance at the original spectra (Figure 72) will show that the final complex, mixed spectrum, even after ‘Compton scattering, will still contain diagnostic peaks in the 1-3 MeV region. The original distinct peaks of potassium at L46MeV. uranium at 1.76MeV and thorium at 2.62 MeV still exist and can be used to ‘identify the original source of radiations, This is the Principle used in the spectral gamma ray tool, 7.3 Tools Gamma ray tools consist essentially of @ sensitive gamma ray detector. generally a scintillation counter made with large sodium iodide crystal, When a ‘gamma ray penetrates the crystal it produces a flash of light, which is then converted to an electrie pulse by a photoelectric cell, The tool literally ‘counts’ the gamma rays. In the spectral gamma ray tool the energy evel of the Figure 7-4 Complex spectrum observed from a radioactive source containing potassium, thorium and uranium, alter Compton scat- fering (After Hassan eta 1996),(60 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS, Table 73 Ratios of radioactive 10 nonradioactive material in radioactive isotopes in naturally-occurring mixtures normal elemental mixtures (Serra ea 1980, (Table 73) Ty yy Typical modern gamma ray tools are listed in a tae 74 inormal mistures 00199 100 99.27 072 000s? Log presentation: scales and units aT as The accepted unit for radioactivity logging is the API Kee Ca Cas aut (American Petroleum Institute). The API unit is def- ned in a reference well in the grounds of the University of Houston, Texas. The well contains specially-mixed Table 7.4 Typical modern gamma ray tools high-radioactivity concrete surrounded by equal- Nm Compan ly special, low-activity concrete, An API unit is 1200 Name ribo! Compan a ee of the difference between the two radioactivities. IF a Gamma ray log GR al particular gamma ray tool is tested, the APL unit is spectralog Dresser Aas 1/200 of the deflection between the low and high values Natural gamma cay NGT Schlumberger for that tool. Thus not only does the Houston pit serve spectromet asa standard forthe APL unit, it alsoserves to calibrate 2 tool, This is also true for the spectral tool, where the values for the individual elements are found empiri- gamma ray entering the scintillation saunter is iden- cally by calibration, fied by the intensity of the flash it produces. This The simple gamma ray log is usually recorded in energy level allows the radioactive source 10 be iden- rack 1 along with the calipe. Scales arechosen locally, tified as described above. The count is therefore but 0-100 or 6-150 API are common (Figure 7.5) The separated into the relative contributions from the tool is small and can be combined with practically any ragivisotopes of uranium, thorium and potassium. The other tool, be it a resistivity or porosity device. overall amount of each of the three elements is then ‘The spectral gamma ray log is run alone (Dres- calculated from the known ratios ofradiosctive tonon- ser) or combined if required with the FDC- (A) GAMMA RAY LOG. ‘other logs. (SP, caliper ete) | GAWMA RAY To Toa T LH 1400 other tog (resistivity, sonic, density neutron ete.) depths (m) (8) SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOG. t FFigare 7.§ Typical gamma ray and spectral gammy log headings(Schlumberger). The log format depends on the Togging company, but generally a combined, recon- stituted log is given in track 1, while tracks 3 and 4 give three logs, potassium % uranium ppm and thorium ppm (Figure 7.5) 74 Log characteristics Depth of inestigation As discussed previously, gamma rays are subject to Compton-scattering. Knowing the gross energy char- acteristics of natural radiation and the usual range of sedimentary densities, the approximate volume of rock contributing radiations measured by a logging tool can be calculated. Figure 7.6 shows that 50% of the signal will come from within a radius of 18cm of the borehole and 75% will come from within 30cm (Desbrandes, 1968), ‘These are approximate values, since they will vary according to the density of the formation. Two rocks with identical quantities of radioactive elements but different densities will show different gamma ray counts; the less dense will be more radioactive. However. in general, the principal contribution to the radioactivity detected by the gamma ray tool will come from within 30cm of the tool detector, both horizon- tally and vertically. Logging speed Because gammy radiations are discrete events and, as described, are measured in the gamma ray tools by ‘counting’, there are restrictions on logging speeds Radiations are'counted’ by a tool over a fixed period of time, say two seconds, called the rime-constant. But as radiations are to some extent random, the uetual count in one time-constant varies, perhaps between 185 and Figure 7.6 The depth of investigation ofthe gamma ray tool, The raph shows that the formation at em from the borehole wall ‘contributing 257 ofthe sna, at 40m it contributes $7 or lsc Figures are approximate, (Redrawn from Desbrandes, 1968) THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 61 “SanEA BAYT LTHoLosy 10 20 death (m) 8 Figue 7.7 Statistical variation inthe gamma ray log. Two runs, GR and GR2, made withthe same tool and separated by about 10 220, with an average of 200: this 1s the statistical variation, The effects of this on a typical log are illustrated in Figure 7.7. The comparison is from the same tool making a repeat run over the same section, the second run being made 10 minutesafter the first, To avoid large statistical variations the ‘count’ should be as large as possible, which means it should be made over a long period of time. However, since a borehole tool is constantly moving, too long a time-constant will, blur bed boundaries and mix several lithologies (Figure 2.15). With a rapidly-moving tool, the rock being ‘counted’ at the beginning of a long time- constant is not the same as the rock being ‘counted! at the end of the time constant (fora discussion of this see “Bed boundary definition’. Chapter 2) In practical terms. the compromise is that the ‘ordinary gamma ray tool should not travel more than 30cm in the time-constant. Table 7.5 sets out the limitations of time-constants and logging speeds. ‘A gamma ray tool that is pulled too fast up the hole62 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS, ble 75 Logging speed r.time-constant—simple gamma ray tol Time-consast Logging speed Formation logged (seconds) eal) in timesonstant (em 1 1080 sao 2 580 305 4 218 30s ‘ wo 310 Table 7.6 Spectral tool logging —time corstants Logging Fm, logatd Time-constant speed intime (seconds) (rh) constant fm) Company 4 25 ws Schlumberger 305-406 Dresser Atte os 183 shows two defects: the shape of beds is distorted and the full count value is not achieved (see Chapter 2). The spectral tool is also sensitive 10 logging speeds, in fact more so, The time-constant for the Schlumberger tool is 4 seconds and the recommended logging speed 275 my/h, that is, 30.5em is logged in the time-constant (Serra e¢ al, 1980), For Dresser Atlas tools the logging speed is slightly lower (Fertl, 1979) (Table 7.) Unwanted borehole effects ‘The gamma ray log is relatively unaffected by small scale borehole irregularities. but is markedly affected by large caves (Table7.7} The effect is due to the increased volume of drilling mud between the for- mation and the gamma ray detector which causes increased Compton scattering and a consequent dimi- ution in the gamma ray log value. A quite different effect is caused by the use of radioactive mud additives such as KCI. The potassium radioactivity of the KCL is detected by the gamma ray tool and the usual result is a marked increase in absolute values, However, since the mud volume through the hole is relasively constant for any one hote size, the relative sensitivity of the log values remains the same: it is the base line that is usually increased (Figure 7.8) although this is not always the case. Table 7.7 Unwanted ericonmentalfsts— gamma flog Factor fet on log ‘Severity Caving iminution of values ‘Common related to sizeof cave Mud additive Increased absolute values, Present ‘ssi unchanged (2) "When the effect makes the log values unusable, Ratings fequent, common, present rae GAMMA RAY API jo 50 100 150 > nal St rl 18 The est on KCI in the ding mud on gamma ray valves. Well). with ordinary mud, wel 2 with KCI mud, The Formation valves should be the same ,tediference created bythe KCl content, The well ave Ske apar, 7.8 Geochemical behaviour of potas ‘uranium and natural radioactivity The old tenet that the gamma tay log is a ‘shale log" was based on its use asa black box, not understanding. what was inside, In modern interpretation an under: standing of the mineralogy and geochemistry leading to radiation is used. Described below are the natural ‘occurrences of the radioactive minerals and their geological significance. Potassium Potassium is both chemically active and yolumetri- cally common in naturally occurring rocks. Because of its chemical activity it is generally chemically com- toined. In the clay minerals, for example, it (and invariably its radioactive isotope) occurs in the clay silicate structure. In evaperitesit occurs chemically asa salt, and in rock-forming minerals, such as the feld- spats, itis again chemically combined in the silicate“Table 7.4 Potassium in clay minerals chemical content, From Serr 79), Dreser Alla (1983) Potassium conten” Mineral ite ASrast 520 ‘ty weight Average % Construction Glauconite 320-580 430 Kaolinite 000-149 068 Smectite 00-060 022 (Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, Al, ‘ite Choe Average sale =2, % passim structure. The behs viour of potassium can therefore be ‘considered in terms of chemical composition, as can its contribution to radioactivity The potassium content of the clay minerals varies considerably. Ilites contain by far the greatest amount, while kaolinite has very litte or none (Table 7.8). The consequence of this is that clay mixtures with a high Kaolinite or high smectite content will have lower potassium radioactivity than clays made up essentially of illite (mica), However. since most clays are mixtures, ofseveral clay minerals the differences discussed above are muted, and natural shale has a relatively constant potassium content of about 2.7% (Table 7.8) Potassium is present in many rock-forming minerals besides the micas, considered above as clay minerals. The most important of these are the feldspar. Microcline contains approximately 16% by weight of potassium, and orthoclase approximately 14%; such percentages render the feldspars highly radioactive in geological terms (see Table 7.15). Feldspathic: sedi ‘ments may therefore be detected by their radioactivity Finally, potassium occurs in some of the less com: monly occutring evaporites but in sufficient quantities to have an important effect on the radioactivity (Table 7.9}. In these salts thereis between 10%, and 50%, potassium by weight, When itis considered that the average shale coacains only 2.7%, potassium, the very ‘Table 7.9 Potassium content of evapories ‘Typical % Poa gama ray Formula by wei value API Kal 325 $00 Carnalite KCLMgCL0H,0), 141 200 Polyhalte K,SO.MsSO, "129 190 ‘THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 63 strong radioactivity of these potassium evaporites is understandable (Table 79. Figure 7.19} Uranium Original uranium is generally associated with acid igneous rocks which contain on average 4.65 ppm of uranium, However, the mineral forms soluble salts, especially the uranyl ion (UO,?*) and in this form is, present in river and sea water. The salts are unstable and pass easily out of solution, From sea or river water, uranium can be ‘fixed’ and pass into sediments in three geologically important ways (Serra, 1979): 1, ‘chemical precipitation in acid {pH 25-40) or reducing (pH 0-04) environments: 2. adsorption by ‘organic matter. plants, plankton, shells or by ‘animal skeletons in certain environments: 3, absorp tion of uranium by phosphates. ‘The extremely acid, reducing conditions required for the direct chemical precipitation of uranium indicated above are found in few natural environments, An. cnvironment of stagnant water and a relatively slow rate of deposition (Adams and Weaver, 1958) is re- {quired (0 produce black shales and this is geologi- cally the most important. The high gamma-radiation values of the North Sea Jurassic *hot shales’, typica! black shales, come mainly from a high uranium content (Figure 7.9, Table 7.10)(Bjdriykke et ul. 1975). High organic matter values are often associated with high gamma ray values (e.g. Schmoker and Hester, 1983) (Figure 7.26) This is due. certainly in part, to the uranium adsorbed by the organic matter as suggested in (2) above (Koczy, 1956), However, the exact te lationship between organic matter and total uranium content is not easy to establish, since high organic matter content is not always related to high uranium content (Figure 7.10). Nonetheless, the principal pre~ sence of organic matter in shales (Table 7.11) suggests that some part at least ofall radioactivity comes from the uranium contained in this organic matter. In general, uranjum behaves as an independent constituent: it is not chemically combined in the principal molecules of rocks like potassium, but is loosely associated with secondary components. For this reason it has @ very heterogeneous, original, sedimentary distribution. Moreover. its. continued solubility even in the subsurface, which is a function of its loose attachments, makes it susceptible to leaching, and redeposition and its distribution is therefore even more irregular. ‘Typically. on the logs. uranium is shown by irre- gular, high peaks corresponding to its uneven distr: bution, Due to the unusual requirements ofits original deposition, these peaks are associated with unusual cavironments such as are found in condensed se- ‘quences or at unconformities (cf, Figure 13.1)64 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS ; Jnole size 12.25" thorjam Jeaaing speed] 300mm NC [Sp ecdaiam a 2 san 7 Figure 79 "Buck shale radioactivity. A spetel gamma raylogover the Upper Sasi lack shales ofthe North Sa showing te high uranium contribution, Figure 7.10 Organic carhon content compared to uranium content here wide dispersion, (Source of data, Adams and Weaver, 1958) ‘Table7.40 Black Kimmeridgian shale radioac- tivity. Averages from well 2/11-1 Norway, (From Gorlykbe etal, 1975) North Sea, Table 711 Average Weigh (9) of organic matter in sediments (rom Shaw. 1980) Sediment ‘Average weigh ent Content of gamma ray valu! Shales 290 “ Carbonstes ox oasppm 33 6 Sendstones 0s ‘Contribution in % 10 the total gamma ray value a F Thorium ° ° 6 Like uranium, thorium has its origins mainly in the of acid and intermediate igneous rocks. However, itis 2 extremely stable and, unlike uranium, will not ge- x 6 nerally pass into solution. For this reason its found in ° ° bauxites(residuat soils. Thorium and its minerals find 7 their way into sediments psivcipally as detrital grains. . ol 2 They are typically heavy minerals such as zircon, Comma 3 thorite, monazite, epidote and sphene (Tale 7.12) They are all very stable. Thorium minerals may be found as silt-sized par-‘Table 712 Thorium-bearing heavy mineral (Sera eal, 1980) Composition THO, content (7) Thorite Th Si, 0, 25.63 Monazite CR YL, PO, 4-12 Zircon 2ASi0, Less than 1 ‘Uranium ppm rium pp Zircon 100-2800 Sphene 10-00, Epidote Apatite Table 7.13 Thorium abundance in clay minerals (Prom Hassan fal 1976; Dreser As, 1983, ‘THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 65 “Thorium pom Minera (approximate average) Bauxite #132 (42) “Kaolinite “1826 More a tn Smectte 10-24 — Ghauconite DS particles in placer concentrations (sce “sandstone radio activity’. below) but occur more generally distributed throughout most shales where the thorium seems to become fixed by adsorption (Serra, 1979). Moreover. because ofits detrital nature and consequent transport by currents, thorium shows an alfinity for terrestrial minerals and, amongst the clay minerals for example is more abundant in kaolinites (of terrestrial origin) than in glauconites (of marine origin) (Hassan er al., 1976) (Table 7.13) 7.6 Radioact Of shales and clays in petroleum borehole logging, the greatest amount of natural radioactivity (by volume) is found in shales. A high gamma ray value frequently means shale. A typical shale analysed by a spectral gamma ray tool shows that each of the three elements (U. Th and K) is contributing to shale radioactivity (Figure 7.11). An analysis of shales in general shows the relative contri bution of each to overall shale radioactivity (Table 7.14) A discussion of shale radioactivity is pertinent to the utilization of the gamma ray as a “shale indicator’ that is the gamma ray used to indicate the volume of shale in aa rock both quantitatively and qualitatively, For the spectral log this requires an analysis ofthe relationship of the individual radioactive elements to the clay matrix, The use of the simple gamma ray is secondary 10 this discussion, Potassium, as discussed above, is part of the clay Figure 7-1 A typical shale interval analysed by aspeteal imma {a5 tool The log shows the individual contributions of thorium. potassium and uranium to the overall radioactivity. mineral structure and will have a fairly constant distribution through most shales. As such itis a good “shale indicator’, However, potassium also occurs in detrital minerals and in sand-shale mixtures may ‘occur in both the shales and in the sands. Uranium is shown distributed irregularly because of its affinity with secondary components and not the rock-forming minerals. Thus. in the average shale it may contribute only 10%-20% of the overall radioac- tivity (Table 7.14) but in certain cases this can increas dramatically (e.g. Table 7.10, Figure 7.9). This distri- bution is not related (o clay volume, and consequently uranium is a poor ‘shale indicator. Indeed, for this reason, on some spectral gamma ray logs uranium is, subtracted from the total gamma ray contribution to tive a better clay volume estimate (Figure 7.5). ‘The behaviour of thorium in shales is not fully understood. Experience, however, shows that despite its varying content in clay mineral species (Table 7.13). ithasaconstant valuein almost all naturally-occurring, shalles, The average value is about 12 ppm (range 5 to 20 ppm) for a typical shale. This constant value is said to contribute between 40% to 50% of overall shale ‘TableT.14 Average radioactive mineral cont bason to shale radiogctvty. [From Dypuik and Friksen, 1983) Contribution to radioactivity Postassium asus Uranium 10.20 ‘Thorum 0-5066 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS: radioactivity (Table 7.14 and rel). Considering there- fore the constant average value and the high contri bution to the overall radioactivity, thorium is a very 200d ‘shale indicator’. In mixtures of sand and shale, ‘thorium will occur only in the shale fraction (except in rare occurrences). Asa ‘shale indicator’ then, thorium may be used in ‘most cases, potassium may be used in many cases but uranium should not be used at all. This obviously also ‘has implications for the simple gamma ray log: where uranium content is variable the log is a poor ‘shale indicator. | = : ie HW] ee We tt =e Figure 7.12 Sund ive ad shale line defined om gantma ray log. “These baslines at or the quantitative use of the fog and may be reasonably constant any one zone. 77 Quat J use ofthe simple gamma ray log ‘The gamma ray log may aften be used quantitatively. and although the gamma ray value for shales varies enormously, in any one area or well.the values for pure shale tend to be constant (Figure 7.12). Thus, if one considers the maximum average gamma ray log value to be pure 100% shale (i. shale line, Figure 7.12). and the lowest value to indicate no shale at all (ie. sand line, Figure 7.12), a scale from 0-100% shale can be constructed, Since this scale will be linear, any value (GR)of the gamma ray log will give the volume of shale from the simple calculation GR value (Jog) ~ GR (min) GR (max) —GR (min) — GR (max) = 100% shale, GR (min)=0% shale. ie. ‘clean formation, volume of shale % w Generally the value is not very accurate and tends to sivean upper limit to the volume of shale (Wo, oF Vs, ‘A mogiication of the simple linear relationship used above has been, proposed as a result of empirical correlation (Dresser Avis, 1982). The relationship changes between younger (unconsolidated) rocks and older (consolidated) rocks (Figure 7.13) for pre-Tertiary (consolidated) rocks, Vy = 0332 —1) ° {or Tertiary (unconsolidated) rocks, Voy = 0.083(2°7" — 1) 8 where Hy =shale volume from these formulae (see Figure 713) and __GR~GRimin) % = GR (max) — GR (min) as shown previcusly in (1). Figure 7.13. Graphical epresenaton of the relationship beeen fete gamma 7) dfecon and sale volun (Fvom Dreoct fas. 1982)7.8 Quantitative use of the spectral gamma ray log, ‘The spectral gamma ray log, like the simple gamma ray, is used to calculate shale volume. it can also be used to calculate the volume of radioactive minerals Shale volume In the description of shale radioactivity given above, it was shown that the three elements are not distributed equally in shales, Some spectral logs are therefore plotted with a computed potassium + thorium radio- activity curve as a better shale indicator (Figure 7.5) However. as indicated previously, potassium can occur in detrital minerals such as micas and feldspar so that thorium can be considered as the best shale indicator (Fertl 1979; Schenewerk et al, 1980). ‘The shale volume calculated from the spectral gamma ray log therefore may be based entirely on the thorium values. The mathematical relationship between thorium value (in ppm) and shale volume is taken as linear, the same relationship as between the simple gamma ray and shale volume, The equation becomes ‘Th (log value) —Th (min) Th (max) = Th (min) Yat) = ® Th (min thorium value in clean formation (ppm) 20 1, NON-RADIOAGTIVE ELEMENTS cle 100 detrital grains 7 t ° 0125025080 001 006s 7.0 mm; median grabs size ‘THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 67 “Th (max) = thorium value in pure shale (ppm) Va(t) =shale volume from thorium values ‘As with the simple gamma ray, an empirical, expon- ential relationship to clay votume may be used instead of the simple linear one shown above (Fertl, 1979). ic. Vy = 033 (2%s"— 10) for consolidated and Mesozoic rocks 3) V,=0.83(2"770"— 1.0) for Tertiary clases (6) where V., = shale volume, Radioactive mineral volume Attempts to quantify the presence of radioactive minerals such as feldspars or mica are based on two assumptions: (1)all thorium radioactivity is from shale, and (2) radioactive detrital minerals show only pot assium radioactivcy For the quantification, the potassium values are normalized for shale volume using the maximum and minimum method as for thorium. The normalized potassium value will give shale volume + radioactive ‘minerals volume. Subtracting the shale volume derived from the thorium log will eave the volume of radioac- tive minerals (Schenewerk er al. 1980) 2. RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS. Tachoactive dewital | oon 088.188 ery a55 70 mm median grain size —e Figure 7.14 Radiouctive elements in detrital rocks. Typical sandstone composition shown against grain size forthe Reindeer Formation, Mackenzie Delta, Besufor Seu. Radiouctive cements vary with grain se Tee a delta snd of Lower Tertiary age (Redrawn fom Nentwich and Yole, 1982)68 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS Volume of radioaetive minerals __ Klog value) — K(tin) ~ Ya (K(max) ~(rin)} a K(min) = potassium % in clean formation K(max) = potassium % in pure shale a= empirical factor for the formation concerned. ‘The quantitative use of the gamma ray spectra lo in the experimental stage and several methodologies exist for shale and radioactive mineral volume caleu- lation besides those detailed above (¢.8. Quirein et al Table 1982). All the proposed methodologies need empiricat and theoretical confirmation (sec also "Clay mineral identification’, below), 7.9 Qualitative use af the simple gamma ray log Lithology As a first indicator of lithology. the gamma ray log is extremely useful as it suggests where shale may be expected (Figure 7.1). Moreover, as shown above, the higher the gamma ray vahve,the higher the percentage of shale (Figure 7.13), But the log is only a first Potassium content of some common detrital minerals (Rom Sera, 1979; Edmundson et al, 1979; Dresser Alls, 1983; Schlumberaer, 1988) potassium by Average Gamma ray wale Mineral species weight 4g Glauconite™ Bz 38 45 3 Muscovie i398 98 2 Biowe 62-101 a7 GAMMA RAY AP! LiTHoLosy 050109180 ptm (nd ° 801008 Fig ‘but 15-30%, mic, mainly muscovite, which causes the radioactivity bs al@ es 2\8 cvartz 095, feldspar 4% ° awnzsos | |. gi? cayaoe [2 | pyrite 5% ale ve tie sand (1000 |B cuartz 59% feldspar 8% 5 clay 19% 5 uvnet 10% é coarse sand (10904) log] 7218 Radiative sand, the'mica sands’ ofthe North Sea Jurassic. They are fine-grained shallow maine sandstones wth perhaps 207 clayindicator. The radioactivity of some typical lithologies other than shales now considered, Thisshows that any lithology indicated by the simple gamma ray log must be confirmed by other logs Radioactivity of sandstones and other arenaceous racks Quartz, the principal component of the coarse-grained detrital rocks, shows no radioactivity. Sandstones consequently usually show low gamma ray values (Figure 7.1), However, associated detrital minerals are radioactive, The most common of these are feldspars, micas, heavy minerals and lithic fragments (Figure 7.14), The first two groups contain potassium (Table 7.15), the third thorium (Table 7,12) nd the last contains shale. These all cause sandstones with high to moderate gamma ray values. ‘There are many examples of radioactive sandstones that may be quoted, The fine-grained mica sands of the North Sea (Nyberg et al.. 1978) are a typical, well- {IE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 69 | GannaaRAY apr 30 ole oie Figure 7.16 Glauconite causing radioactivity in sandstone in. terval. ity sands enselop this marine. plauconite-rich sand giving the sands higher gamna ray lg values than the sales, An Nos confirms the reservoir characteristics DST=Deil Stem Tes +20) Ftholosy ove i Ea +0) 7 25 Radioaive SGlauconite. Species Mines clement —— — vane ee known example (Figure 7.15). Some marine sands Glavcontic sind Glaaconite e contain glauconite and, if the concentrations are co ee or a sufficiently high, render the sands radiowccive = as igure 7.16), In fact radioactive sandstones are far SOAMIMA BAY APL ag ,__ 200" 2 @ x ‘SANDS AND SILTS. a "i Sho (with heavy mineral 7 tidal channe! za pacers) zz 238 —=_" a sigs cat = Par conrsoninoe x eZ g8 / iy 8 b2 7000" = BS deposits shales and sits Figure 7.17 Heavy mineral concentrations (placer deposits)causnga spiky gamma ray log Shales have lower gamma ry values than the heavy mineral deposits (Nigeria. (Redrawn fom Serra, (978)10 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS more common than realized, Arkoses are radioactive by definition (Table 7.16). Thorium, as previously described, is present in heavy-mineral suites. Placer sits (concentrations of hheavy minerals) are frequently radioactive, producing ‘spiky aspect to the gamma ray log (Figure 7.17) However, this isthe only case, and in general detrital ‘fain radioactivity iscaused by potassium (Table 7.16). For sandstone reservoir studies, identifying clay as opposed tonon-clay radioactive elements s important. Neglecting radioactive sandstone intervals as being shales means missing essential reservoir. The fact that only potassium should be causing detrital mineral radioactivity in sandstones (eg, Table 7.15) is used in the interpretation of the spectral garama ray log 10 separate shale radioactivity from detrital grain radioactivity (see above, Quantitative uses) Radioactivity in carbonates CCarbonates in their pure state are not radioactive and this aids their identification (Figure 7.1), Nonetheless, in certain facies, carbonates contain organic matter and this frequently radioactive due to uranium. This is certainly the case in the example given (Figure 7.18) and itis proposed (Hassan, 1973) that pure carbonate radioactivity is due only to uranium. Shaly carbonates will show the presence of potassium and thorium Radioactivity in evaporites “The most common evaporites, such as salt and anhyd- rite, give extremely and abnormally low values on the : wlEBS Orion cae sono Figure 7.18 Radioactivity of Ypresian (Eocene) Limestones, ‘Tunisia related to uranium concentrations. The uranium 's a8- sociated with early diagenesis, organic matter and. phosphatic ‘concentrations. Redeawn from Hassan, 1973). ef ap OI 399 VA 9 aod, DOLOMITE (argilaceous) EE TAY (ealerousd = sNHYDAITE. eK POTASSIUM SALTS. = os {eome halite) ae HALITE (eat : aNHYORITE = with dotomive bands se Figure 7-19 Potassium sats giving very high peaks of radioactivity in an evaporite Seqoens. [The litholegy comes from an interpretation of combined logs and cuttings). Permian, North Seagamma ray log (Figure 7.J) However, the high radioactivity in some evaporites caused by potassium ‘content has already been mentioned (Table 7.9). The log example shows a typical aspect of this evaporite radioactivity, Frequently there are extreme contrasts, between the potassium and non-potassium-bearing zones (Figure 7.19), and those zones without pot- assium should be the more voluminous. It is considered that in logging potassium salts the percentage of K,O can be estimated from the gamma ray response. Thus, for a 6,25-inch, liquid-filled hole, Edwards er al. (1967) found a correlation of 12.6 APL units per 1% K,0. Obviously, the logs must always be calibrated before making generalizations of this kind, Igneous and volcanic rock radioactivity Igneous rocks are not volumetrically important in petroleum wells, but occur sufficiently frequently to be A necessary element in the lithologic vocabulary. Both uranium and thorium originate in the acid-to-in- cermediate igneous rocks, but their distribution is very itregular since they are associated with secondary ‘minerals such as apatite. Potassium is present, es- Pecially in the acid igneous rocks, principally in the alkali (potassic) feldspars. The net result is that basic igneous rocks have low radioactivity, while the in- termediate and acid types show progressively higher values (Keys, 1979; Sanyal et al., 1980) (Table 7.17). The example shows a typical basalt which may be confused with sand (Figure 7.20), Mineral identification Certain minerals can be identified on the gamma ray log by their abnormal contribution to the radioac~ tivity, This is certainly the case for the potassium-rich evaporites described previously (sec ‘Radioactivity in evaporites’) which give high peaks, Itis often the ease for coals, which give excessively Jow values (Figure 7.1), However, these are only general indications. ‘Table 7.17 Radioactive elements in igneous and volcanic rocks rom Serra, Baldwin ea, 1980 figures approximate) Rock type Thippm) Typical radioactivity Acid inirusive (258 AN1-2.00 High Acid exeusive 9 200.400 Basie intusive 05-5 03-2 099-220 = Low extrusve 05-10 02-4 140-280 very amor 160 Tow 003 THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY £OGS TI GAMMA RAY API 3 30, 60, 90, 120, 150| = ° 5 si composition basic, ie. pyroxene and 25. plagioclase. 501 = 15 100 125 Figure 7.20 Low gamma ray values through a base sill may be ‘onfsed with a sandstone interval Onconformities Unusually high gamma ray values often occur as narrow. isolated peaks. Considering the geochemistry Of the radioactive minerals, these peaks are generally associated with uranium concentrations. As discussed (see"Uranium’ above) uranium concentrations indicate extreme conditions of deposition, Experience has shown that these conditions frequently accur around72 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LOGS, GAMMA RAY API o 60 20m 25m A. Logs, clay volume) 0 50 100% relative GR def Amin coarse fi LITHOLOGY /GRAIN SIZE B, GRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP (schematic) Figure 7.21 Facisfrom the gamma ry lg. (4) The changes in sandstone gran size are reflected in changesin the gamma ray value, Thisllows 2 facies to be sugeested (8) Graphic repesenation of the variation of gram ize with garmaray value, Hereitisexpressed ws straight ine bu the ship is very variable. It should parallel the eay volume change. lunconformities where a long passage of time is repre- sented by little deposition. The minerals associated may be uranium-enriched phosphaies or uranium- enriched organic matter (see also Chapter 13, and Figure 13.1, Facies ‘An interesting aril fairly comprehensive scheme for facies identification in detrital sediments (sand-shale) has been developed using gamma ray log shapes. The basis forthe scheme isthe relationship between grain size and shale content. It is shale content that the ‘gamma ray og indicates, but itis interpreted in terms of grain size, For example, a coarse-grained sand will hhave a very ow shale content, a medium-grained sand some shale, and aTine-grained sand may be very shaly. The changes in grain size will befollowed by changes in ‘gamma ray value (Figure 7.21). This method of indieating facies with the gamma ray log, however. is not straightforward, The relationship between grain sizeand shale contents very variable, as 4s the relationship between shale volume and gamma ray value (see “Shale volume’. Empirically, if the gamma ray log shows a typical shapeiitcan be taken as indicating grain-size changes. A lack of shape is not evidence for lack of grain-size change since it cannot be interpreted. “The facies scheme derived from the gamma ray log is fully described in Chapter 12. Correlation ‘The gamma ray log is one of the most frequently-used logs for correlation, It has ‘character, is repeatable, is not affected by depth, it gives some indication of lithology and is simple (Figure 7.22). Moreover, it is almost always run and the sensitivity scales are always relatively similar, Generally, because it is used for correlation, itis reproduced on the well completion log, the document used to reassemble the essential drilling and geological data at the end of a well (sce Chapter 11), Besides its availability, the gamma ray log has inherent advantages for correlation, especially when this concerns shales. The gamma ray value of shale formations is often variable, depending on the various amounts of clay minerals, carbonate and organicNNW BN-2 sw BN-14BN-I7 Loss commecteo 10 10 BN-4 BN-10 THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 73 BN-9 Figure7.22 Correlation using the gtinma ray log. Baroni field, Sarowak. (From Scherer, 1980) matter present, Horizontally, at the same stratigraphic level, these various elements tend to show only slight variability in the complex mix, i. the depositional environment which controls the mix is laterally persistent. The complexity does not persist through time, as most abrupt changes are vertical, There are changes, amongst others, in source and age. Thus, the gamma ray log value in shales remains constant laterally but changes vertically. These are ideal charac- teristies for correlation In sandstones, gamma ray log shapes are often used to correlate. However, the shape is a facies characteris- tic and often leads to false correlations (e.g. Figure 13.8), Log shapes in carbonates are generally related to shale distribution and as such are more reliable for correlation, However, the shapes must be sufficiently consistent to ensure that they are not related to uranium concentrations, as discussed above (ce ‘Carbonate radioactivity’, Although it has many advantages for correlation, the gamma ray log also has disadvantages. The fine detail on the logs is merely statistical variation. A comparison between any log and a repeat section shows (0 what extent this has an effect (Figure 7.7) Fine peaks therefore cannot be used for correlation, ‘The second disadvantageis that the gamma ray cannot be calibrated. Although absolute values are given on the logs they are relative both to hole size and tool, the former because of Compton scattering by hole mud and the latter due to detection capabilities. Logs, to be entirely comparable, must be ‘normalized’ (see Chapter 11), 7.18 Qualitative uses of the spectral gamma ray log Shale and clay minerals A certain amount of literature exists on the possibility of identifying individual clay minerals using the spect- ral gamma ray log. As was shown previously see (Geochemical behaviour) the potassium content of the clay minerals varies considerably between species but is moderately constant within species (Table 7.8) Thorium, to, varies but with slightly less consistency with each species (Table 7.13) The intent is to find if these variations enable the individual species to be idemified qualitatively. and eventually quantitatively. The interval of the Muddy ‘formation of Eastern Wyoming has been studied by Donovan and Hilehie (1981). They found a fairly good correlation between potassium radioactivity and illite content. However, they also found that while there was no correlation14 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LoGs 16 Th Goom) 100% i 100% kaolinite , ite "ay tne” Ka Figure 7.23 Graph ofthe theoretical distribution of clay mineral. heavy minerals and evaporite, in erms of potassium and thorium content (Redrawa fom Quiein eta, 1982) between clay mineral content and total gamma ra diation, there was a strong correlation between total counts and uranium content, The essential radiation was therefore coming {rom uranium. The evidence suggested that the uranium source was principally smectite, its presence being caused by the exchange of the uranyl ion from the formation waters. Uranium radioactivity was therefore related to the presence of smectite. Almost exactly the opposite was found in the analysis of shales around the North Sea (Dypvik and Eriksen, 1983), The authors found that potassium and thorium were thedominant contributors to gamma ray activity with uranium being of minor importance (cf. Table 7.14) ‘A complex quantitative approach to clay-mineral identification has been proposed (Quirein er al, 1982), ‘The authors suggest that clay mineral species, along with feldspar and evaporites, can all be identified relatively simply by their Th/K ratios (Figure 7.23) ‘There is certainly a tendency for this behaviour (cf. Tables 7.8, 7.13) and it is the basis for using just thorium as a shale indicator (see ‘Quantitative uses). However, itis not certain that individual clay minerals fall into such a simple classification, Such a classifi- cation demands a strict chemical control for the distribution of the elements. As was indicated, po- tassium is chemically involved in the clay lattice, but theexact behaviour of thorium in terms ofclay-mineral composition is not clear. This method needs both empirical and theoretical justification, Local variations, complexity of clay-mineral mix- tures and many other contributory variables allow no convincingly clear picture as yet for clay-mineral identification, The use of the spectral gamma ray log for this purpose is stil in the future. Detrital minerals Using the spectral fog to identify detrital minerals such as feldspar and mica has already been discussed (see “Quantitative use of the spectral gamma ray log’, above). Qualitatively. where sand (and porosity and permeability) are suspected from other logs. high potassium radiation values on the spectral log. will indicate feldspars or micas. High thorium values will indicate placer deposits. The spectral log is therefore ‘more specific than the simple gamma ray log. Depositional environment In as much as thorium, potassium and uranium are environment indicators, she gamma ray spectral logs ccan be used for environment identification. The principal use of the three elements is im the jon of the depositional environments of shales, The affinity of uranium for shales of marine origin has been documented (Koczy, 1956). as has the affinity of thorium for terrestrial sediments (Hassan cer all, 1976), Consequently, it has been proposed to contrast the content of uranium in shales to that of thorium to give an index of the amount of marine influence on the environment of deposition (Adams and Weaver, 1958) (Figure 7.24), Marine shales should have a low Th/U ratio, with the converse the case in continental shales, Published figures give some sup- port for this idea (Table 7.18).THE GAMMA RAY AND SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY LOGS 75 ARN ‘continent | ENVIRONMENT |< Figure 7.24 Schematic representation of the use ofthe THU rato to indicate environment of deposition. (Source of ata, Adams and Weaver, 1988) However. the make-up ofashalein any environment _redeposition, Cody (1971) examined the use of boron as is extremely complex. and simple systems of environ- a salinity indicator. and commented "the complexities. ment identification will lead to simple errors. The of natural environments make definite conclusions chemical composition of any shale and the chemical about reliability) extremely difficult. The same com- conditions of the depositional environment are very ments can be made about the radioactive elements as complex. In addition there is frequent reworking and environment indicators, rota cours |e Couns PER MINUTE Figure 7.28 High values of uranium activity identified on the spect log correlation with fractures. Completion on zone alone gave 3 BOD, tne the addition of zone gave s total 18 BOD. (Modified from Fetl 1979)76 THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF WELL LoGs ss oncine ennaon panne, ‘igure 7.26 Wigh organic carbon values nd the total gamma ray giving good correlation, inthis case due to uranium associated with organic ‘Table 7.8 Uranium and thorium content ofshale from Adams and Weaver, 1958) Shale ype "Thorium *Uraniam — *T/U (pm) (ppm Grey-preen American 13.1 32 Russian Platform " a1 2 Black shales ay Ts Us 15) Averageshaletesty ET 37S ABELL Using average values "Figures with too wide a speead to be ell representative, added by the author Fracture jocaitzation ‘The mobility of uranium and its presence in formation waters is considered to be the cause of high uranium radioactivity in fractures and faults (Fert, 1979; Fest nd Rieke, 1980}. Using the spectral gamma ray log, zones of high uranium radiation can be detected (Figure 7,25), and other logs may be used to confirm the hypothesis, Source-rock evaluation The relationship between organic matter and uranium, is the basis for being able to identify source rocks using the spectral gamma ray log. The theory has already been discussed {see ‘Uranium’ above) and illustrated (Tables 7.10, 7.11; Figures 79, 7.10), High uranium values may well indicate high organic content (Figure 7.26), but not necessarily so, If uranium can be confidently used for the identification of paths of formation-water flowage (see “Fracture localization ‘cannot also be used to identify source rocks since it is far too mobile, Moreover, investigation show that in lacustrine environments organic maties isnot entiched in uranium and that organic-rich shales can show normal uranium values (Meyer and Nederlof, 1983). ‘The use of high uranium values in shales as @ means. of identifying organic matter is unreliable. Such values should be used only as an indication. The use of uuranjum content as a quantitative estimate for organic ‘matter content is not advisable.