8086 Assembly Language

Programming

Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh

Computer Engineering Department

Outline

Why Assembly Language Programming

Organization of 8086 processor

Assembly Language Syntax

Data Representation

Variable Declaration

Instruction Types

Data flow instructions

Arithmetic instructions
Bit manipulation instructions
Flow control instructions

Memory Segmentation
2

COE-KFUPM

Outline Cont.

Program Structure

Addressing Modes

Input and Output

The stack

Procedures

Macros

String Instructions

BIOS and DOS Interrupts

COE-KFUPM

Machine/Assembly Language

Machine Language:

Set of fundamental instructions the machine can execute

Expressed as a pattern of 1s and 0s

Assembly Language:

Alphanumeric equivalent of machine language

Mnemonics more human-oriented than 1s and 0s

Assembler:

Computer program that transliterates (one-to-one mapping)

assembly to machine language

Computers native language is machine/assembly language

COE-KFUPM

Why Assembly Language

Programming

Faster and shorter programs.

Compilers do not always generate optimum code.

Instruction set knowledge is important for machine

designers.

Compiler writers must be familiar with details of

machine language.

Small controllers embedded in many products

Have specialized functions,

Rely so heavily on input/output functionality,
HLLs inappropriate for product development.

COE-KFUPM

Programmers Model:
Instruction Set Architecture

Instruction set: collection of all machine operations.

Programmer sees set of instructions, and machine

resources manipulated by them.

ISA includes

Instruction set,
Memory, and
Programmer-accessible registers.

Temporary or scratch-pad memory used to implement

some functions is not part of ISA

Not programmer accessible.

COE-KFUPM

Organization of 8086 Processor

CPU-Memory Interface
Address Bus
20

CPU

Data Bus

Memory

16-bit
16
Control Bus

COE-KFUPM

CPU Registers

Fourteen 16-bit registers

Data Registers

AX (Accumulator Register): AH and AL

BX (Base Register): BH and BL
CX (Count Register): CH and CL
DX (Data Register): DH and DL

Pointer and Index Registers

SI (Source Index)
DI (Destination Index)
SP (Stack Pointer)
BP (Base Pointer)
IP (Instruction Pointer)
8

COE-KFUPM

CPU Registers Cont.

Segment Registers

CS (Code Segment)
DS (Data Segment)
SS (Stack Segment)
ES (Extra Segment)

FLAGS Register

Zero flag
Sign flag
Parity flag
Carry flag
Overflow flag

COE-KFUPM

Fetch-Execute Process

Program Counter (PC) or Instruction Pointer (IP)

Holds address of next instruction to fetch

Instruction Register (IR)

Stores the instruction fetched from memory

Fetch-Execute process

Read an instruction from memory addressed by PC

Increment program counter
Execute fetched instruction in IR
Repeat process

10

COE-KFUPM

Fetch-Execute Process Cont.

Main Memory
0
1
PC
0010101100111111 4000

4000

65535

IR
0010101100111111
11

COE-KFUPM

Assembly Language Syntax

Program consists of statement per line.

Each statement is an instruction or assembler directive

Statement syntax

Name

operation

operand(s)

comment

Name field

Used for instruction labels, procedure names, and variable

names.

Assembler translates names into memory addresses

Names are 1-31 characters including letters, numbers and

12

special characters ? . @ _ $ %
Names may not begin with a digit
If a period is used, it must be first character
Case insensitive
COE-KFUPM

Assembly Language Syntax Cont.

Examples of legal names

COUNTER1
@character
SUM_OF_DIGITS
$1000
Done?
.TEST

Examples of illegal names

TWO WORDS
2abc
A45.28
You&Me
13

COE-KFUPM

Assembly Language Syntax Cont.

Operation field

instruction
Symbolic operation code (opcode)
Symbolic opcodes translated into machine language opcode
Describes operations function; e.g. MOV, ADD, SUB, INC.

Assembler directive

Contains pseudo-operation code (pseudo-op)

Not translated into machine code
Tell the assembler to do something.

Operand field

Specifies data to be acted on

Zero, one, or two operands
NOP
INC AX
ADD AX, 2

14

COE-KFUPM

Assembly Language Syntax Cont.

Comment field

A semicolon marks the beginning of a comment

A semicolon in beginning of a line makes it all a comment line
Good programming practice dictates comment on every line

Examples

MOV CX, 0

; move 0 to CX

Do not say something obvious

MOV CX, 0

; CX counts terms, initially 0

Put instruction in context of program

; initialize registers

15

COE-KFUPM

Data Representation

Numbers

11011
11011B
64223
-21843D
1,234
1B4DH
1B4D
FFFFH
0FFFFH

decimal
binary
decimal
decimal
illegal, contains a nondigit character
hexadecimal number
illegal hex number, does not end with H
illegal hex numbe, does not begin with with digit
hexadecimal number

Signed numbers represented using 2s complement.

16

COE-KFUPM

Data Representation - Cont.

Characters

must be enclosed in single or double quotes

e.g. Hello, Hello, A, B
encoded by ASCII code

A has ASCII code 41H

a has ASCII code 61H

0 has ASCII code 30H

Line feed has ASCII code 0AH

Carriage Return has ASCII code 0DH

Back Space has ASCII code 08H

Horizontal tab has ASCII code 09H

17

COE-KFUPM

Data Representation - Cont.

The value of the content of registers or memory is

dependent on the programmer.

Let AL=FFH

represents the unsigned number 255

represents the signed number -1 (in 2s complement)

Let AH=30H

represents the decimal number 48

represents the character 0

Let BL=80H

represents the unsigned number +128

represents the signed number -128
18

COE-KFUPM

Variable Declaration

Each variable has a type and assigned a memory

address.

Data-defining pseudo-ops

DB
DW
DD
DQ
DT

define byte
define word
define double word (two consecutive words)
define quad word (four consecutive words)
define ten bytes (five consecutive words)

Each pseudo-op can be used to define one or more

data items of given type.

19

COE-KFUPM

Byte Variables

Assembler directive format defining a byte variable

name DB initial value

a question mark (?) place in initial value leaves variable
uninitialized

I DB 4

define variable I with initial value 4

J DB ? Define variable J with uninitialized value

Name DB Course allocate 6 bytes for Name

K DB 5, 3, -1 allocates 3 bytes
K

20

05
03
FF
COE-KFUPM

10

Word Variables

Assembler directive format defining a word variable

name

DW

I DW 4

J DW -2

K DW 1ABCH

L DW 01

initial value

04
00

FE
FF

BC
1A

31
30

21

COE-KFUPM

Double Word Variables

Assembler directive format defining a word variable

name

DD

initial value

I DD 1FE2AB20H
I

20
AB
E2
1F

FC
FF
FF
FF

J DD -4

22

COE-KFUPM

11

Named Constants

EQU pseudo-op used to assign a name to constant.

Makes assembly language easier to understand.

No memory allocated for EQU names.

LF

EQU

0AH

MOV DL, 0AH

MOV DL, LF

PROMPT

EQU

Type your name

MSG DB Type your name

MDG DB PROMPT

23

COE-KFUPM

DUP Operator

Used to define arrays whose elements share common

initial value.

It has the form: repeat_count DUP (value)

Numbers DB 100 DUP(0)

Allocates an array of 100 bytes, each initialized to 0.

Names DW 200 DUP(?)

Allocates an array of 200 uninitialized words.

Two equivalent definitions

Line DB 5, 4, 3 DUP(2, 3 DUP(0), 1)

Line DB 5, 4, 2, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 1

24

COE-KFUPM

12

Instruction Types

Data transfer instructions

Transfer information between registers and memory locations

or I/O ports.

MOV, XCHG, LEA, PUSH, POP, PUSHF, POPF, IN, OUT.

Arithmetic instructions

Perform arithmetic operations on binary or binary-codeddecimal (BCD) numbers.

ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, ADC, SBB, NEG, CMP, MUL, IMUL,
DIV, IDIV, CBW, CWD.

Bit manipulation instructions

Perform shift, rotate, and logical operations on memory

locations and registers.

SHL, SHR, SAR, ROL, ROR, RCL, RCR, NOT, AND, OR,
XOR, TEST.

25

COE-KFUPM

Instruction Types Cont.

Control transfer instructions

Control sequence of program execution; include jumps and

procedure transfers.
JMP, JG, JL, JE, JNE, JGE, JLE, JNG, JNL, JC, JS, JA, JB,
JAE, JBE, JNB, JNA, JO, JZ, JNZ, JP, JCXZ, LOOP, LOOPE,
LOOPZ, LOOPNE, LOOPNZ, CALL, RET.

String instructions

Move, compare, and scan strings of information.

MOVS, MOVSB, MOVSW, CMPS, CMPSB, CMPSW. SCAS,
SCASB, SCASW, LODS, LODSB, LODSW, STOS, STOSB,
STOSW.

26

COE-KFUPM

13

Instruction Types Cont.

Interrupt instructions

Interrupt processor to service specific condition.

INT, INTO, IRET.

Processor control instructions

Set and clear status flags, and change the processor

execution state.

STC, STD, STI.

Miscellaneous instructions

NOP, WAIT.

27

COE-KFUPM

General Rules

Both operands have to be of the same size.

MOV AX, BL
MOV AL, BL
MOV AH, BL

Both operands cannot be memory operands

simultaneously.

MOV i, j
MOV AL, i

illegal
legal
legal

illegal
legal

First operand cannot be an immediate value.

ADD 2, AX
ADD AX, 2

28

illegal
legal

COE-KFUPM

14

Memory Segmentation

A memory segment is a block of 216 (64K) bytes.

Each segment is identified by a segment number

Segment number is 16 bits (0000 - FFFF).

A memory location is specified by an offset within a

segment.

Logical address: segment:offset

A4FB:4872h means offset 4872h within segment A4FBh.

Physical address: segment * 10H + offset

A4FB*10h + 4872 = A4FB0 + 4872 = A9822h (20-bit address)

Physical address maps to several logical addresses

physical address 1256Ah=1256:000Ah=1240:016Ah

29

COE-KFUPM

Memory Segmentation - Cont.

Location of segments

Segment 0 starts at address 0000:0000=00000h and ends at

0000:FFFF=0FFFFh.
Segment 1 starts at address 0001:0000=00010h and ends at
0001:FFFF= 1000Fh.
Segments overlap.
The starting physical address of any segment has the first
hex digit as 0.

Program segments

Programs code, data, and stack are loaded into different

30

memory segments, namely code segment, data segment and

stack segment.
At any time, only four memory segments are active.
Program segment need not occupy entire 64K byte.
COE-KFUPM

15

Memory Segmentation - Cont.

Data Segment

contains variable definitions

declared by .DATA

Stack segment

used to store the stack

declared by .STACK size
default stack size is 1Kbyte.

Code segment

contains programs instructions

declared by .CODE

31

COE-KFUPM

Memory Models

SMALL

code in one segment & data in one segment

MEDIUM

code in more than one segment & data in one segment

COMPACT

code in one segment & data in more than one segment

LARGE

code in more than one segment & data in more than one
segment & no array larger than 64K bytes

HUGE

code in more than one segment & data in more than one
segment & arrays may be larger than 64K bytes
32

COE-KFUPM

16

Program Structure: An Example

TITLE PRGM1
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
A
DW 2
B
DW 5
SUM DW ?
.CODE
MAIN PROC
; initialize DS
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX
33

COE-KFUPM

Program Structure: An Example

; add the numbers
MOV AX, A
ADD AX, B
MOV SUM, AX
; exit to DOS
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN

34

COE-KFUPM

17

Assembling & Running A Program

Assembling a program

Use microsoft macro assembler (MASM)

MASM PRGM1.ASM
Translates the assembly file PROG1.ASM into machine
language object file PROG1.OBJ
Creates a listing file PROG1.LST containing assembly language
code and corresponding machine code.

Linking a program

The .OBJ file is a machine language file but cannot be run

Some addresses not filled since it is not known where a program
will be loaded in memory.
Some names may not have been defined.
Combines one or more object files and creates a single
executable file (.EXE).
LINK PROG1
35

COE-KFUPM

Assembling & Running A Program

Running a program

Type the name of the program to load it and run it

Simplified procedure

Ml /Fl /Zi PROG1.ASM

Assembles and links the program

Debugging a program

To analyze a program use CODE View debugger.

CV PROG1

36

COE-KFUPM

18

Addressing Modes

Addressing mode is the way an operand is specified.

Register mode

operand is in a register
MOV AX, BX

Immediate mode

operand is constant
MOV AX, 5

Direct mode

operand is variable
MOV AL, i

37

COE-KFUPM

Addressing Modes - Cont.

Register indirect mode

offset address of operand is contained in a register.

Register acts as a pointer to memory location.
Only registers BX, SI, DI, or BP are allowed.
For BX, SI, DI, segment number is in DS.
For BP, segment number is in SS.
Operand format is [register]

Example: suppose SI=0100h and [0100h]=1234h

MOV AX, SI
MOV AX, [SI]

38

AX=0100h
AX=1234h

COE-KFUPM

19

Addressing Modes - Cont.

Based & Indexed addressing modes

operands offset address obtained by adding a displacement

to the content of a register

Displacement may be:

offset address of a variable

a constant (positive or negative)
offset address of a variable plus or minus a constant

Syntax of operand

[register + displacement]
[displacement + register]
[register] + displacement
displacement + [register]
displacement [register]
39

COE-KFUPM

Addressing Modes - Cont.

Based addressing mode

If BX or BP used

Indexed addressing mode

If SI or DI used

Examples:

MOV AX, W [BX]

MOV AX, [W+BX]
MOV AX, [BX+W]
MOV AX, W+[BX]
MOV AX, [BX]+W

Illegal examples:

MOV AX, [BX]2

MOV BX, [AX+1]
40

COE-KFUPM

20

Addressing Modes - Cont.

Based-Indexed mode: offset address is the sum of

contents of a base register (BX or BP)

contents of an index register (SI or DI)
optionally, a variables offset address
optionally, a constant (positive or negative)

Operand may be written in several ways

variable[base_register][index_register]
[base-register + index_register + variable + constant]
variable [base_register + index_register + constant]
constant [base_register + index_register + variable]

Useful for accessing two-dimensional arrays

41

COE-KFUPM

PTR Operator

Used to override declared type of an address

expression.

Examples:

MOV [BX], 1
MOV Bye PTR [BX], 1
MOV WORD PTR [BX], 1

illegal, there is ambiguity

legal
legal

Let j be defined as follows

j DW 10
MOV AL, j
MOV AL, Byte PTR J

42

illegal
legal

COE-KFUPM

21

Input and Output

CPU communicates with peripherals through I/O

registers called I/O ports.

Two instructions access I/O ports directly: IN and OUT.

Used when fast I/O is essential, e.g. games.

Most programs do not use IN/OUT instructions

port addresses vary among computer models

much easier to program I/O with service routines provided by
manufacturer

Two categories of I/O service routines

Basic input/output system (BIOS) routines

Disk operating system (DOS) routines

DOS and BIOS routines invoked by INT (interrupt)

instruction.
43

COE-KFUPM

System BIOS

A set of programs always present in system

BIOS routines most primitive in a computer

Talks directly to system hardware

Hardware specific - must know exact port address and control
bit configuration for I/O devices

BIOS supplied by computer manufacturer and resides

in ROM

Provides services to O.S. or application

Enables O.S. to be written to a standard interface

44

COE-KFUPM

22

Software Layers
System Hardware
Non-standard interface
BIOS
Standard interface
Operating System
Standard interface
Application Program
45

COE-KFUPM

Input/Output - Cont.

INT 21H used to invoke a large number of DOS

function.

Type of called function specified by putting a number

in AH register.

AH=1
AH=2
AH=9
AH=8
AH=0Ah

46

single-key input with echo

single-character output
character string output
single-key input without echo
character string input

COE-KFUPM

23

Single-Key Input

Input: AH=1

Output: AL= ASCII code if character key is pressed,

otherwise 0.

To input character with echo:

MOV AH, 1
INT 21H

; read character will be in AL register

To input a character without echo:

MOV AH, 8
INT 21H

; read character will be in AL register

47

COE-KFUPM

Single-Character Output

Input: AH=2, DL= ASCII code of character to be output

Output: AL=ASCII code of character

To display a character

MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, ?
INT 21H

; displaying character ?

To read a character and display it

MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, AL
INT 21H
48

COE-KFUPM

24

Displaying a String

Input: AH=9, DX= offset address of a string.

String must end with a $ character.

To display the message Hello!

MSG DB Hello!$
MOV AH, 9
MOV DX, offset MSG
INT 21H

OFFSET operator returns the address of a variable

The instruction LEA (load effective address) loads

destination with address of source

LEA DX, MSG

49

COE-KFUPM

Inputting a String

Input: AH=10, DX= offset address of a buffer to store

read string.

First byte of buffer should contain maximum string size+1

Second byte of buffer reserved for storing size of read string.

To read a Name of maximum size of 20 & display it

Name DB 21,0,22 dup($)

MOV AH, 10
LEA DX, Name
INT 21H
MOV AH, 9
LEA DX, Name+2
INT 21H
50

COE-KFUPM

25

A Case Conversion Program

Prompt the user to enter a lowercase letter, and on

next line displays another message with letter in
uppercase.

Enter a lowercase letter: a

In upper case it is: A

.DATA

CR EQU 0DH
LF EQU 0AH
MSG1 DB Enter a lower case letter: $
MSG2 DB CR, LF, In upper case it is:
Char DB ?, $

51

COE-KFUPM

A Case Conversion Program - Cont.

.CODE

.STARTUP
LEA DX, MSG1
MOV AH, 9
INT 21H
MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
SUB AL, 20H
MOV CHAR, AL
LEA DX, MSG2
MOV AH, 9
INT 21H
.EXIT
52

; initialize data segment

; display first message

; read character
; convert it to upper case
; and store it
; display second message and
; uppercase letter
; return to DOS
COE-KFUPM

26

Status & Flags Register

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7

OF DF IF TF SF ZF

5 4

3 2

AF

PF

0
CF

Carry flag (CF): CF=1 if there is

a carry out from most significant bit (msb) on addition

a borrow into msb on subtraction
CF also affected differently by shift and rotate instructions

Parity flag (PF): PF=1 if

low byte of result has an even number of one bits (even

parity)

53

COE-KFUPM

Status & Flags Register - Cont.

Auxiliary carry flag (AF): AF=1 if there is

a carry out from bit 3 on addition

a borrow into bit 3 on subtraction

Zero flag (ZF): ZF=1

if the result is zero

Sign flag (SF): SF=1 if

msb of result is 1 indicating that the result is negative for

signed number interpretation

Overflow flag (OF): OF=1

if signed overflow occurs

54

COE-KFUPM

27

How Processor Indicates Overflow

Unsigned overflow

occurs when there is a carry out of msb

Signed overflow occurs

on addition of numbers with same sign,

when sum has a

different sign.
on subtraction of numbers with different signs, when result
has a different sign than first number.
If the carries into and out of msb are different.

Example:
FFFF
+ FFFF
----------1 FFFEh

SF=1 PF=0 ZF=0 CF=1 OF=0

55

COE-KFUPM

MOV Instruction

Syntax: MOV destination, source

Destination source

Transfer data between

Two registers
A register and a memory location
A constant to a register or memory location
General Segment Memory Constant
Register Register Location
General
Register
Segment
Register
Memory
Location
56

yes

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

yes

no

yes

yes

no

yes
COE-KFUPM

28

MOV Instruction Cont.

MOV instruction has no effect on flags.

Examples:

MOV DS, @Data

MOV DS, ES
MOV [BX], -1
MOV [DI], [SI]
MOV AL, offset I
MOV [BX], offset I
MOV [SI], I
MOV DS, [BX]
MOV AX, [SI]
MOV [BX-1], DS

illegal
illegal
illegal
illegal
illegal
illegal
illegal
legal
legal
legal

57

COE-KFUPM

XCHG Instruction

Syntax: XCHG operand1, operand2

Operand1 operand2
Operand2 operand1

Exchanges contents of two registers, or a register and

a memory location.
General
Register

Memory
Location

General
Register

yes

yes

Memory
Location

yes

no

XCHG has no effect on flags.

58

COE-KFUPM

29

ADD & SUB Instructions

Syntax:

ADD destination, source ; destination=destination+ source

SUB destination, source ; destination=destination-source
General Memory Constant
Register Location
General
Register
Memory
Location

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

yes

ADD and SUB instructions affect all the flags.

59

COE-KFUPM

INC & DEC Instructions

Syntax:

INC operand ; operand=operand+1

DEC operand ; operand=operand-1

Operand can be a general register or memory.

INC and DEC instructions affect all the flags.

Examples:

INC AX
DEC BL
INC [BX]
INC Byte PTR [BX]
DEC I
INC DS
60

legal
legal
illegal
legal
legal
illegal
COE-KFUPM

30

NEG instruction

Syntax: NEG operand

Operand 0 operand

Finds the twos complement of operand.

Operand can be a general register or memory location.

NEG instruction affects all flags.

Examples:

Let AX=FFF0h and I=08h

NEG AX ; AX0010
NEG AH ; AH01
NEG I ;
IF8

61

COE-KFUPM

CMP instruction

Syntax: CMP operand1, operand2

Operand1-operand2

Subtracts operand2 from operand1 and updates the

flags based on the result.

CMP instruction affects all the flags.

General Memory Constant
Register Location
General
Register
Memory
Location

62

yes

yes

yes

yes

no

yes

COE-KFUPM

31

ADC and SBB instruction

Syntax:

ADC destination, source ; destination=destination+source+CF

SBB destination, source ; destination=destination-source-CF

Achieve double-precision addition/subtraction.

To add or subtract 32-bit numbers

Add or subtract lower 16 bits

Add or subtract higher 16 bits with carry or borrow

Example: Add the two double words in A and B

MOV AX, A
MOV DX, A+2
ADD B, AX
ADC B+2, DX
63

COE-KFUPM

Multiplication

Unsigned multiplication: MUL operand

Signed multiplication: IMUL operand

If operand is a Byte

MUL operand;

AX AL * operand

If operand is a Word

MUL operand; DX:AX AX * operand

Operand can be a general register or memory. Cannot

be a constant.

Flags SF, ZF, AF, and PF are undefined.

Only CF and OF are affected.

64

COE-KFUPM

32

Multiplication Cont.

CF=OF=0

Unsigned multiplication: if upper half of result is 0.

Signed multiplication: if upper half of result is a sign extension
of lower half.

Example: Let AX=FFFFh and BX=0002h

MUL BL;
IMUL BL;
MUL AL;
IMUL AL;
MUL BX;
IMUL BX;

AX01FEh (255 * 2 = 510)

CF=OF=1
AXFFFEh (-1 * 2 = -2)
CF=OF=0
AXFE01 (255 * 255 = 65025) CF=OF=1
AX0001 (-1 * -1 = 1)
CF=OF=0
DX0001 AXFFFE
CF=OF=1
DXFFFF AXFFFE
CF=OF=0

65

COE-KFUPM

Application: Inputting a Decimal

Number

Inputting a 2-digit decimal number

MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
SUB AL, 0
MOV BL, 10
MUL BL
MOV CL, AL
MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
SUB AL, 0
ADD AL, CL

66

;read first digit

; convert digit from ASCII code to binary
; multiply digit by 10
; read 2nd digit
; convert digit from ASCII code to binary
; AL contains the 2-digit number

COE-KFUPM

33

Division

Unsigned division: DIV operand

Signed division: IDIV operand

If operand is a Byte

DIV Operand ; AX AX/operand

AH= Remainder, AL= Quotient

If operand is a Word

DIV Operand ; DX:AX DX:AX/operand

DX=Remainder, AX= Quotient

Operand can be a general register or memory. Cannot

be a constant.

All flags are undefined.

67

COE-KFUPM

Division - Cont.

Divide Overflow

If quotient is too big to fit in specified destination (AL or AX)

Happens if divisor much smaller than dividend
Program terminates and displays Divide Overflow

Example: Let DX=0000h, AX=0005h, and BX=FFFEh

DIV BX; AX=0000

IDIV BX; AX=FFFE

DX=0005
DX=0001

Example: Let DX=FFFFh, AX=FFFBh, and BX=0002h

IDIV BX; AX=FFFE

DX=FFFF
DIV BX; DIVIDE Overflow

Example: Let AX=00FBh (251), and BL=FFh

DIV BL; AH=FB

AL=00
IDIV BL; DIVIDE Overflow
68

COE-KFUPM

34

Application: Outputting a Decimal

Number

Outputting a 2-digit decimal number in AX

MOV BL, 10
DIV BL
ADD AH, 0
MOV DH, AH
MOV AH, 0
DIV BL
ADD AH, 0
MOV DL, AH
MOV AH, 2
INT 21H
MOV DL, DH
INT21H

; getting least significant digit

; converting L.S. digit to ASCII
; storing L.S. digit temporarily
; getting most significant digit
; converting M.S. digit into ASCII
; displaying M.S. digit

; displaying least significant digit

69

COE-KFUPM

Logic Instructions

The AND, OR, and XOR instructions perform named

bit-wise logical operation.

Syntax:

AND destination, source

OR destination, source
XOR destination, source
10101010
AND 11110000
--------------10100000

70

OR

10101010
11110000
--------------11111010

10101010
XOR 11110000
--------------01011010

COE-KFUPM

35

Logic Instructions - Cont.

AND instruction used to clear specific destinations bits

while preserving others.

A 0 mask bit clears corresponding destination bit

A 1 mask bit preserves corresponding destination bit

OR instruction used to set specific destinations bits

while preserving others.

A 1 mask bit sets corresponding destination bit

A 0 mask bit preserves corresponding destination bit

XOR instruction used to complement specific

destinations bits while preserving others.

A 1 mask bit complements corresponding destination bit

A 0 mask bit preserves corresponding destination bit
71

COE-KFUPM

Logic Instructions - Cont.

Effect on flags

SF, ZF, PF change based on result

AF undefined
CF=OF=0

Examples:

Converting ASCII digit to a number

SUB AL, 30h
AND AL, 0Fh
Converting a lowercase letter to uppercase
SUB AL, 20h
AND AL, 0DFh
Initializing register with 0
XOR AL, AL
72

COE-KFUPM

36

Logic Instructions - Cont.

NOT instruction

performs ones complement operation on destination

Syntax: NOT destination
has no effect on flags.

TEST instruction

performs an AND operation of destination with source but

does not change destination

it affects the flags like the AND instruction
used to examine content of individual bits

Example

To test for even numbers

TEST AL, 1;
if ZF=1, number is even
73

COE-KFUPM

Shift & Rotate Instructions

Shift bits in destination operand by one or more bit

positions either to left or to right.

For shift instructions, shifted bits are lost

For rotate instructions, bits shifted out from one end are put
back into other end

Syntax:

Opcode destination, 1
Opcode destination, CL

; for single-bit shift or rotate

; for shift or rotate of N bits

Shift Instructions:

SHL/SAL: shift left (shift arithmetic left)

SHR: shift right
SAR: shift arithmetic right
74

COE-KFUPM

37

Shift & Rotate Instructions - Cont.

Rotate instructions

ROL: rotate left

ROR: rotate right
RCL: rotate left with carry
RCR: rotate right with carry

Effect on flags (shift & rotate instructions):

SF, PF, ZF change based on result

AF undefined
CF= last bit shifted
OF=1 if sign bit changes on single-bit shifts

75

COE-KFUPM

Shift & Rotate Instructions - Cont.

Examples: Let AL=FFh

SHR AL, 1 ;
SAR AL, 1 ;
SHL AL, 1 ;
SAL AL, 1 ;

AL 7Fh
AL FFh
AL FEh
AL FEh

Examples: Let AL=0Bh and CL=02h

SHL AL, 1 ; AL 16h

SHL AL, CL ; AL 2Ch
SHR AL, 1 ; AL 05h
SHR AL, CL ; AL 02h
ROL AL, 1 ; AL 16h
ROR AL, 1 ; AL 85h
76

COE-KFUPM

38

Multiplication & Division by Shift

Multiplication by left shift

A left shift by 1 bit doubles the destination value, i.e.

multiplies it by 2.

Division by right shift

A right shift by 1 bit halves it and rounds down to the nearest

integer, i.e. divides it by 2.

Example: Multiply signed content of AL by 17

MOV AH, AL
MOV CL, 4
SAL AL, CL ;
ADD AL, AH;

AL= 16*AL
AL=16*AL + AL = 17 AL

77

COE-KFUPM

Flow Control Instructions

Unconditional jump

JMP label ;

IP label

Conditional jump

Signed jumps
Unsigned jumps
Common jumps

Signed jumps

JG/JNLE
JGE/JNL
JL/JNGE
JLE/JNG
78

jump if greater than, or jump if not less than or

equal
jump if greater than or equal, or jump if not less
than
jump if less than, or jump if not greater than or
equal
jump if less than or equal, or jump if not greater
than
COE-KFUPM

39

Flow Control Instructions - Cont.

Unsigned jumps

JA/JNBE
JAE/JNB
JB/JNAE
JBE/JNA

jump if above, or jump if not below or equal

jump if above or equal, or jump if not below
jump if below, or jump if not above or equal
jump if below or equal, or jump if not above

Single-Flag jumps

JE/JZ
JNE/JNZ
JC
JNC
JO
JNO

jump if equal, or jump if equal to zero

jump if not equal, or jump if not equal to zero
jump of carry
jump if no carry
jump if overflow
jump if no overflow

79

COE-KFUPM

Flow Control Instructions - Cont.

Single-flag jumps

JS
JNS
JP/JPE
JNP/JPO

jump if sign negative

jump if nonnegative sign
jump if parity even
jump if parity odd

Jump based on CX

JCXZ

Loop Instructions

Loop
Loopnz/Loopne
Loopz/Loope

All jump instructions have no effect on the flags.

80

COE-KFUPM

40

Branching Structures: IF-Then

Example:
If AX < 0 Then
Replace AX by AX

ENDIF
; if AX < 0
CMP AX, 0
JNL END_IF
;then
NEG AX
END_IF:

81

COE-KFUPM

IF-Then-Else

Example:
If AL <= BL Then
Display character in AL
Else
Display character in BL
ENDIF
MOV AH, 2
; if AL<=BL
CMP AL, BL
JNBE ELSE_
;then
MOV DL, AL
JMP DISPLAY
ELSE_:
MOV DL, BL
DISPLAY:
INT 21H
END_IF:
82

COE-KFUPM

41

CASE

Example:

CASE AX
<0: put 1 in BX
=0: put 0 in BX
>0: put 1 in BX

END_CASE
; case AX
CMP AX, 0
JL NEGATIVE
JE ZERO
JG POSITIVE
NEGATIVE: MOV BX, -1
JMP END_CASE
ZERO:
MOV BX, 0
JMP END_CASE
POSITIVE: MOV BX, 1
END_CASE:
83

COE-KFUPM

CASE Cont.

Example:

CASE AL
1,3: display o
2,4: display e

END_CASE
; case AL
CMP AL, 1
; 1, 3:
JE ODD
CMP AL, 3
JE ODD
CMP AL, 2
; 2, 4:
JE EVEN
CMP AL, 4
JE EVEN
JMP END_CASE
ODD:
MOV DL, o
JMP DISPLAY
EVEN:
MOV DL, e
DISPLAY: MOV AH, 2
INT 21H
84 END_CASE:

COE-KFUPM

42

Branches with Compound Conditions

Example:

If (A <= character) and (character <= Z) Then

Display character

END_IF
; read a character
MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
; If (A <= character) and (character <= Z) Then
CMP AL, A
JNGE END_IF
CMP AL, Z
JNLE END_IF
; display character
MOV DL, AL
MOV AH, 2
INT 21H
END_IF:
85

COE-KFUPM

Branches with Compound Conditions

Example:

If (character=y) OR (character <= Y) Then

Display character

Else terminate program

END_IF
; read a character
MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
; If (character=y) OR (character = Y) Then
CMP AL, y
JE Then
CMP AL, Y
JE Then
JMP ELSE_
Then:
MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, AL
INT 21H
JMP END_IF
ELSE:
MOV AH, 4CH
INT 21H
86 END_IF:

COE-KFUPM

43

Loop Instructions

Loop Next

Dec Cx
If CX<>0

JMP Next

Loopz/loope Next

Dec Cx
If (CX<>0) AND (ZF=1)

JMP Next

Loopnz/loopne Next

Dec Cx
If (CX<>0) AND (ZF=0)

87

JMP Next

COE-KFUPM

FOR LOOP

Example:
For 80 times DO
Display *

END_IF

Next:

88

MOV CX, 80
MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, *
INT 21H
Loop Next

COE-KFUPM

44

While Loop

Example:

Initialize count to 0
Read a character
While character <> Carriage Return DO
Count = Count + 1
Read a character
END_While
MOV DX, 0
MOV AH, 1
INT 21H
While_:
CMP AL, 0DH
JE End_While
INC DX
INT 21H
JMP While_
End_While:
89

COE-KFUPM

Repeat Loop

Example:
Repeat
Read a character
Until character is blank
MOV AH, 1
Repeat:
INT 21H
; until
CMP AL,
JNE Repeat

90

COE-KFUPM

45

Application of Loope

Example: Search for a number in a Table

Table DB 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Next:

XOR SI, SI
MOV CX, 9
INC SI
CMP Table[SI-1], 7
Loopne Next

91

COE-KFUPM

The Stack

One dimensional data structure

Items added and removed from one end

Last-in first-out

Instructions

PUSH
POP
PUSHF
POPF

PUSH & POP have one operand

16-bit register or memory word

Byte operands are not allowed
Constant operands are not allowed
92

COE-KFUPM

46

Stack Instructions

SP points at the the top of the stack

.STACK 100H
SP is initialized to 100H
PUSH operand
SP SP - 2
[SP+1:SP] operand
POP operand
Operand [SP+1:SP]
SP SP + 2
PUSHF
SP SP - 2
[SP+1:SP] flags register
POPF
Flags register [SP+1:SP]
SP SP + 2
93

COE-KFUPM

Reversing a String

String DB COE-205
MOV CX, 7 ; CX contains length of string
XOR BX, BX
Next: MOV AL, String[BX]
PUSH AX
INC BX
LOOP Next
MOV CX, 7
XOR BX, BX
Next2: POP AX
MOV String[BX], AL
INC BX
LOOP Next2
94

COE-KFUPM

47

Procedures

Procedure Declaration
Name
PROC
type
;body of the procedure

Name

RET
ENDP

Procedure type

NEAR (statement that calls procedure in same segment with

procedure)

FAR (statement that calls procedure in different segment)

Default type is near

Procedure Invocation

CALL Name
95

COE-KFUPM

Procedures Cont.

Executing a CALL instruction causes

Save return address on the stack

Near procedure: PUSH IP
Far procedure: PUSH CS; PUSH IP

IP gets the offset address of the first instruction of the

procedure
CS gets new segment number if procedure is far

Executing a RET instruction causes

Transfer control back to calling procedure

Near procedure: POP IP
Far procedure: POP IP; POP CS

RET n

IP [SP+1:SP]
SP SP + 2 + n
96

COE-KFUPM

48

Passing Parameters to Procedures

By value using Registers

By address using Registers

Using the stack

Copy SP to BP
Access parameters from stack using BP register

97

COE-KFUPM

Procedure - Example

Read a number n from 1-9 and display an array of n x n stars *

NL DB 10,13,$

98

MOV AH, 1
; read a number
INT 21H
AND AX, 0FH ; convert number from ASCII
MOV CX, AX
MOV BX, AX
Next:: PUSH CX
PUSH BX
CALL Display
POP CX
MOV AH, 9
LEA DX, NL
INT 21H
Loop Next
Display Proc Near
MOV BP, SP
MOV CX, [BP+2]
MOV AH, 2
MOV DL, *
Next2: INT 21H
Loop Next2
RET 2
Display ENDP

COE-KFUPM

49

IN/OUT Instructions

Direct: port number is 0-255

IN AL, port ; AL [port]

IN AX, port ; AL [port] ; AH [port+1]
OUT port, AL ; [port] AL
OUT port, AX ; [port] AL; [port+1] AH

Indirect: port number is in DX

IN AL, DX ; AL [DX]
IN AX, DX ; AL [DX] ; AH [DX+1]
OUT DX, AL ; [DX] AL
OUT DX, AX ; [DX] AL; [DX+1] AH

99

COE-KFUPM

String Instructions

Five categories

MOVS, MOVSB, MOVSW

CMPS, CMPSB, CMPSW
SCAS, SCASB, SCASW
LODS, LODSB, LODSW
STOS, STOSB, STOSW

Source is always in DS:[SI]

Destination is always in ES:[DI]

If DF=0, SI and DI are incremented

If DF=1, SI and DI are decremented

To clear direction flag: CLD

To set direction flag: STD

100

COE-KFUPM

50

String Instructions Cont.

MOVSB

ES:[DI] DS:[SI]
DI DI+1; SI SI+1 (if DF=0)
DI DI-1; SI SI-1 (if DF=1)

MOVSW

ES:[DI+1:DI] DS:[SI+1:SI]
DI DI+2; SI SI+2 (if DF=0)
DI DI-2; SI SI-2 (if DF=1)

MOVS destination, source

Replaced by either MOVSB or MOVSW depending on

operands size

101

COE-KFUPM

String Instructions Cont.

CMPSB

DS:[SI] - ES:[DI]
DI DI+1; SI SI+1 (if DF=0)
DI DI-1; SI SI-1 (if DF=1)

CMPSW

DS:[SI+1:SI] - ES:[DI+1:DI]
DI DI+2; SI SI+2 (if DF=0)
DI DI-2; SI SI-2 (if DF=1)

CMPS destination, source

Replaced by either CMPSB or CMPSW depending on

operands size

102

COE-KFUPM

51

String Instructions Cont.

SCASB

AL - ES:[DI]
DI DI+1; (if DF=0)
DI DI-1 (if DF=1)

SCASW

AX - ES:[DI+1:DI]
DI DI+2; (if DF=0)
DI DI-2; (if DF=1)

SCAS destination

Replaced by either SCASB or SCASW depending on

operands size

103

COE-KFUPM

String Instructions Cont.

LODSB

AL DS:[SI]
SI SI+1; (if DF=0)
SI SI-1 (if DF=1)

LODSW

AX DS:[SI+1:SI]
SI SI+2; (if DF=0)
SI SI-2; (if DF=1)

LODS destination

Replaced by either LODSB or LODSW depending on

operands size

104

COE-KFUPM

52

String Instructions Cont.

STOSB

ES:[DI] AL
DI DI+1; (if DF=0)
DI DI-1 (if DF=1)

STOSW

ES:[DI+1:DI] AX
DI DI+2; (if DF=0)
DI DI-2 (if DF=1)

STOS destination

Replaced by either STOSB or STOSW depending on

operands size

105

COE-KFUPM

Copying a String to another

.DATA
String1 DB Hello
String2 DB 5 dup(?)

.CODE

REP

106

MOV AX, @DATA

MOV DS, AX
MOV ES, AX
CLD
MOV CX, 5
LEA SI, String1
LEA DI, String2
MOVSB

COE-KFUPM

53

Copying a String to another in

Reverse Order
.DATA
String1 DB Hello
String2 DB 5 dup(?)

.CODE

Next:

107

MOV AX, @DATA

MOV DS, AX
MOV ES, AX
STD
MOV CX, 5
LEA SI, String1+4
LEA DI, String2
MOVSB
ADD DI, 2
LOOP Next
COE-KFUPM

54