CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS PROJECT

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of
current knowledge and or methodological approaches on a particular topic. Literature
reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original
experimental work.
Most often associated with academic-oriented literature, such as theses, a
literature review usually precedes a research proposal and results section. Its ultimate
goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the
basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.
We are doing this project is the result of ideas aquarium Automatic Feeder.
However, we combine the results of discussions between the Automatic Feeder,

Solar and light sensor circuit to enable users aquarium. Here are our findings about
the project, we found:

Components Used;

Figure 2.0 Resistors, Capacitors and 555 Timer.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Hours
IC 555 (timer)
620K resistor
10uF capacitor
DC Motor. AC / DC 12V A
Food Containers
Relay switch
Soldering Iron

Explanation;
User just needs to hang on the lid feeder aquarium. In closing this aquarium,
there is a relatively small hole. This will rotate the food container and drop food
without having to shake the container of food within the set with a DC motor. DC
motor is controlled by a timer 555.
Based on this study, we modify the Automatic Feeder is to be as follows:
Components Used;
a) Toggle switch
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b) Motor 6V/12V
c) 12V battery

Explanation;

a) User just needs to hang on the lid feeder aquarium.

b) In closing this aquarium, there is a relatively small hole. This will rotate the
food container and drop food without having to shake the container of food
within the set with a DC motor.
c) DC motors are controlled by the PLC.
d) DC motor will move clockwise and counterclockwise as a control for opening
and closing the container the food.

2.2

PLC (Programmable Logic Control)

Figure 2.2.1 OMRON CPM1A-20CDR-D-V1 Programmable Controller

a) We use the PLC to replace the control processing for Automatic Feeder in
the Solar Aquarium project.
b) PLC type we use the OMRON.
c) Voltage to enter the PLC is DC 24V.

2.3

PROGRAMMING CONSOLES

Hand-held Programming Consoles are ideal for onsite startup and adjustments.

Figure 2.3.1 Programming Consoles

Full Functionality in a Compact Body

Plenty of programming capacity and a large instruction set handle even complex
control operations.

2.4

User Memory: 2,048 words

Data Memory: 1,024 words

Timers/Counters: 128

Basic instructions: 14

Special instructions: 79

Analog adjustment: 2

555 TIMER

Astable circuits produce pulses. The circuit most people use to make a 555 astable
looks like this:

Figure 2.4.1 Astable circuits

As you can see, the frequency, or repetition rate, of the output pulses is determined
by the values of two resistors, R1 and R2 and by the timing capacitor, C.
The design formula for the frequency of the pulses is:

The period, t, of the pulses is given by:

The HIGH and LOW times of each pulse can be calculated from:

The duty cycle of the waveform, usually expressed as a percentage, is given by:

An alternative measurement of HIGH and LOW times is the mark space ratio:

Before calculating a frequency, we should know that it is usual to make

R1=1 k because this helps to give the output pulses a duty cycle close to 50%, that
is, the HIGH and LOW times of the pulses are approximately equal.
Remember that design formulae work in fundamental units. However, it is
often more convenient to work with other combinations of units:
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resistance

capacitance

period

frequency

Hz

Hz

ms

kHz

Tables 2.4.1 Astable components specification

With R values in M and C values in F, the frequency will be in Hz.

Alternatively, with R values in k and C values in F, frequencies will be in kHz
2.5

RESISTOR

Figures 2.5.1 Resistor

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage

across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

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The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include
temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance,
the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow,
and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the
design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as
integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to
equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when
dissipating their power.
2.6

CAPACITOR

Figure 2.6.1 A typical electrolytic capacitor

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a

pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential difference
(voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric.
This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors.
The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.

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An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,

which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an
equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth
the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant
circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal
with many frequencies.
a) Non-polarized fixed capacitor
A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor
that has no implicit polarity -- it can be connected either way in a
circuit. Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitors are nonpolarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call them "bipolar"
capacitors.

b) Polarized fixed capacitor

A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that have implicit
polarity -- it can only be connected one way in a circuit. The positive lead is
shown on the schematic (and often on the capacitor) with a little "+" symbol.
The negative lead is generally not shown on the schematic, but may be
marked on the capacitor with a bar or "-" symbol. Polarized capacitors are
generally electrolytics, meaning that the dielectric is made up of a thin layer
of oxide formed on the aluminum or tantalum foil conductor.

Note that you really need to pay attention to correctly hooking a polarized
capacitor up (both with respect to polarity, as well as not pushing a capacitor

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past its rated voltage). If you "push" a polarized capacitor hard enough, it is
possible to begin 'electrolyzing' the moist electrolyte. Modern electrolytic
capacitors usually have a pressure relief vent to prevent popping the
aluminum can.

c) Variable capacitor
A variable capacitor is a capacitor whose capacitance can be varied.
They are usually made up of one or more moving plates and one or more non
moving plates separated by the dielectric. By moving the plates, we can vary
the capacitance. These types of capacitor are usually used in radio tuners,
oscillators, etc.

2.7

DIODE

Figure 2.7.1 A typical diodes

A two-terminal semiconductor (rectifying) device that exhibits a nonlinear

current-voltage characteristic. The function of a diode is to allow current in one
direction and to block current in the opposite direction. The terminals of a diode are

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called the anode and cathode. There are two kinds of semiconductor diodes: a P-N
junction diode, which forms an electrical barrier at the interface between N- and Ptype semiconductor layers, and a Schottky diode, whose barrier is formed between
metal and semiconductor regions.
But this discussion really ought to start with a bit about semiconductors as
materials.
Semiconductors are crystals that, in their pure state, are resistive (that is, their
electrical properties lie between those of conductors and insulators) -- but when the
proper impurities are added (this process is called doping) in trace amounts (often
measured in parts per billion), display interesting and useful properties.

2.8

ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is designed to have a specific reverse breakdown voltage

(i.e., conduction voltage when reverse-biased). Because of this, Zener diodes can be
used by themselves as voltage-sensitive switches, or in series with a current-limiting
resistor to provide voltage regulation.

2.9

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)

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Figure 2.9.1 A typical LED.

All diodes emit some light when forward-biased. LEDs are made from a
special semiconductor (like gallium arsenide phosphide) which optimizes this light
output. Unlike light bulbs, LEDs rarely burn out unless their current limit is passed.
When current is flowing through an LED the voltage on the positive leg is
about 1.4 volts higher than the voltage on the negative side (this varies with LED
type -- infrared LEDs have a lower forward voltage requirement, others may need up
to 1.8 V). Remember that there is very little resistance to limit the current, so a
resistor must be used in series with the LED to avoid destroying it (note, though, that
some panel-mount LEDs come from the factory with a current-limiting resistor
soldered to them).
Also note that LEDs can be used as photodiodes (tho' their sensitivity is
relatively low, so they're only useable this way in very bright conditions).

2.10

PHOTORESISTORS

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Figure 2.10.1 Shcematic and real symbol of Photoresistors

Photoresistors, as their name suggests, are resistors whose resistance is a

function of the amount of light falling on them. Their resistance is very high when no
light is present (up to millions of Ohms), and significantly lower when they are
illuminated (hundreds of Ohms). These are also often called Light-dependent
Resistors (LDRs) and Cadmium-Sulfide (CDS) cells.

2.11

VARIABLE RESISTORS

Figures 2.11.1 Variable Resistor

Variable resistors have a dial, knob, or screw that allows you to change their
resistance. The value of a variable resistor is given as it's highest resistance value. A
variable resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short).

2.12

TRANSISTOR

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A transistor in a circuit will be in one of three conditions:

a) Cut off (no collector current), useful for switch operation.
b) In the active region (some collector current, more than a few tenths of a volt
above the emitter), useful for amplifier applications
c) In saturation (collector a few tenths of a volt above emitter), large current
useful for "switch on" applications.

Figures 2.12.1 Characteristic curves

Figures 2.12.2 Symbol of Transistor

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2.13

RELAY

All relays operate using the same basic principle. Our example will use a
commonly used 4 - pin relay. Relays have two circuits: A control circuit (shown in
GREEN) and a load circuit (shown in RED). The control circuit has a small control
coil while the load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.

Figures 2.13.1 Symbol of Relay

2.13.1

Relay Energized (On)

Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small

magnetic field which causes the switch to close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is
part of the load circuit, is used to control an electrical circuit that may connect to it.
Current now flows through pins 2 and 4 shown in RED, when the relay is energized.

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Figures 2.13.1.1 Relay Energized (On)

2.13.2

Relay De-Energized (Off)

When current stops flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the relay

becomes de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is
prevented from flowing through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now OFF.

Figures 2.13.2.1 Relay De-Energized (Off)

2.13.3

Relay Operation
When no voltage is applied to pin 1, there is no current flow through the coil.

No current means no magnetic field is developed, and the switch is open. When

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voltage is supplied to pin 1, current flow though the coil creates the magnetic field
needed to close the switch allowing continuity between pins 2 and 4.

Figures 2.13.3.1 Relay Operation

2.13.4

Normally Design
Relays are either Normally Open or Normally Closed. Notice the position of

the switches in the two relays shown below. Normally open relays have a switch that
remains open until energized (ON) while normally closed relays are closed until
energized. Relays are always shown in the de-energized position (no current flowing
through the control circuit - OFF).

2.13.5

Normally Closed Relays

The operation of a Normally Closed relay is the same to that of a Normally

Open relay, except backwards. In other words, when the relay control coil is NOT
energized, the relay switch contacts are closed, completing the circuit through pins 2
and 4. When the control coil is energized, the relay switch contacts opens, which
breaks the circuit open and no continuity exists between pins 2 and 4.

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2.13.6

Actual Relay Design

Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core.

The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper
contact arm and pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the
power source to go to the load.

Figures 2.13.6 Actual Relay Design

2.13.7

Relay Variations
Other relay variations include three and five pin relays. A 3-PIN relay instead

of two B+ input sources, this relay has one B+ input at pin 1. Current splits inside the
relay, supplying power to both the control and load circuits. A 5-PIN relay has a
single control circuit, but two separate current paths for the switch: One when the
relay is de-energized (OFF - no current through the control coil) and the other the
energized (ON - current is flowing through the control coil). When the 5-PIN relay is
de-energized (OFF), pins 4 and 5 have continuity. When the relay is energized (ON),
pins 3 and 5 have continuity.

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5 - PIN
3 - PIN

4 - PIN
Figures 2.13.7.1 Relay Variations

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