ae ie Wat 181939 a 4 Frome! Ly “A yee = TECHHICAL NOTZS i WATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR ASRONAUTIOS Mo. 335 THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF PARACHUTE CLOTHS By H. J. MoNicholas and A. F. Hedrick Bureau of Standards Washington, mine FILE’C&py Tc be returned to % the files of the Langley Memorial Aeronautical LeboratoryWeAG. = II. Til. Iv. v iT Ti 3.1176 01431 9: +4. Technical Note No. 335 CONTENTS Requisite properties of a parachute cloth .... Purpose ‘and scope of the present investigation.. Description of cloths and their construction....... Measurement of physical properties ....seseseeeeees 1. Weight ..,.. 2. Strength . (a) Breaking strength ... (b) Teer resistance ..... 3. Elastic properties ...... (a) Stretch . (») Recovery under flexure .. 4, Air permeability .ececeeceseceseceeeeeceeeee Discussion. specifications for parachute cloth References ..NATIONAL ADVISORY COMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS. TECHNICAL NOTE HO. 335. THE STRUCTURE AND PROPSRTIZS OF PARACHUTE CLOTHS. By H. J, HcNicholes and A. F, Hedrick. Abstract The requisite properties of a parachute cloth are discussed and the methods for measuring these properties described. in addition to the structural analysis of the cloths, the proper— ties measured are weight, breaking strength, tear resistance, elasticity, and air permeability. Thirty-six silk cloths of domestic manufacture, not previously used in parachute oonstruc— tion, are compared with some silk cloths of foreign manufacture Which have been proved by trial and extended use to be suitable materials for parachute construction. Contrary to the belief that domestic woven cloths were not suitable materiale for parachute construction, it is show that many domestic silk cloths are evaileble which in all their properties are entirely satisfactory and in some respects supe- rior to the foreign products. Based on a comparative study of all the cloths, specifica tions are dram for the manufacture of silk parachute cloths, using either the plain or the mock leno weave. These specifica~ tions have been accepted by the Navy Department, and service tests on full-sized parachutes made with the domestic wovenN.A.C.A. Technical Note Wo. 335 2 cloths have demonstrated the suitability of the specified mate- tials. The apparatus and methods employed and the information here— in obtained are being applied in the development of a parachute cloth woven with some home-grown fiber such as cotton. I, Requisite Properties of a Parachute Cloth Along with the size, shape, and other serodynamicel charac- teristics of a parachute, the physical properties of the cloth used in its construction are of considerable importance in their relation to the performance under the various conditions of service. As in all geronautical materials, weight and ultimate strength are of paramount importance. A determination of the stresses in different regions of the parachute envelope is in- herently difficult and calculated results are somewhat uncertain, Calculations by Mazer (Reference 1) indicate that the cloth is normelly not subjected to excessive stress; yet it is realized that the maximum tensions may vary considerably with variations in the shape of the envelope, with local deformations, and in the region of the points of attachment. A slight deterioration of the thin cloth may decrease in strength considerably. For these reasons the strength requirements in parachute cloths areH.A.C.A. Technical Note Ho. 335. 3 set to a fairly high value, in order to insure a wide margin of safety. As part of the strength requirements the cloth must offer a high resistence to the continuation of a tear already started. Whereas breaking strength always applies to the simltancous breaking of a system of yarns, the tear resistance is the re— sistance principally of one yern at a time to a rupture travel- ing crosswise from yarn to yarn. In the construction of a par— achute the gores or panels are usually cut on the bias, so that the warp and filling yarne make an angle with the seams running from the center to the hem of the parachute. In thie way, if a tear is started, it follows along the direction of a yarn to the sean where the resistance is sufficient to prevent further rupture. Thus long rips which might run from center to hem of the parachute are prevented. Other desirable characteristics of a parachute cloth are determined chiefly by its elastic properties. Tne parachute now universally used is the pack-on-aviator type with manually op- erated rip cord. Before use it is carefully folded and held compressed in a suitable container. Its quick and positive op- ening, when released from the container, is deemed to depend largely on the ability of the layers of cloth to spring apart along the folds, thue permitting air to rush in and quickly in- flate the envelope. The degree to which a given cloth exhibits this desired property depends on its elastia reaction underN.A.C.A, Technical Note No. 335 4 flexure. A low permanent set in the folded cloth and a high po- tential energy of deformation (resilience) are both desirable properties. The falling parachute opens with a snap followed by a sudden change in the momentum of the system. This change is the result of the impact of air against the parachute envelope with sudden ise in the pressure difference between the under and upver sur— faces. We have Ft = MV, - Mv, where the right-hand member of the equation is the change in mo— mentum, and the left-hand member is the product of the impulsive force, or "shook," by the time during which it acts. It has been stated by Mazer (Reference 1, page 13) that the magnitude of the opening shock depends chiefly on the shape of the parachute, on the speed with which it opens, and on the speed of the airplane. Definite information is apparently not available regarding the relative importance of some other factors which may contribute appreciably to the reduction of the shock, Obviously, the shock is small when t in the above equation is large; and +t de~ pends very much on the elasticity of the system as a whole, in- cluding that of the surrounding medium. The time lag in the establishment of the maximim pressure difference between the under and upper sides of the envelope, end in the formation of the steady flight conditions of air flow about the envelope, re~ sults in 2 cushioning action which reduces the magnitude of the+A.GeAs Technical Note No. 335 5 shock. Some of the kinetic energy of the falling parachute is transformed into kinetic and potential energy of the surrounding medium, The effect will depend largely on the geometrical form and construction of the envelope. Furthermore, as the pressure difference and air flow are being established, tensions are set up in the parachute structure with resulting stretch of the ma terials, The stretching of the cloth (and shroud lines) tends to distribute the sudden load more uniformly over the envelope and Tequires the elapse of a short time interval before the maximim load is taken up. Thus, the elasticity of the cloth may not only assist in the reduction of the opening shock, but it also tends to prevent the development of excessive stresses in any region of the envelope. The expansion of the whole en- velope is sugmented by the springy action of the vent, which is made flexible and capable of considerable extension under load. Leakage of air through the cloth has also been regarded as a factor in the reduction of the opening shock, as well as in the determination of the velocity of steady descent. In regard to the latter effect, some experiments to be described defi- nitely indicate that the leakage, or air permeability of the cloth has, within a wide range of permeability, a negligible effect on the velocity of steady descent. This velocity is primarily a function of the size and shape of the envelope. It seems possible, however, that the leakage may appreciably re- tard the development, and decrease the maximum value, of thehe Se Technical Note No. 335 6 pressure difference between opposite sides of the envelope, thus aiding to come degree in the reduction of the shock. The change in kinetic energy following the opening of the parachute reappeore largely as potential energy of strain in the system. Teste have shown (Reference 2) that an ordinary service parcchute is sometimes subjected to a shock load of more than 2000 pounds, which may be taken up by the parachute a time interval of less than 1 second (Reference 3). It is probable that the time involved in the reaction of the various elastic forces, and the corresponding capacities for energy ab— sorption, are also pertinent matters for consideration. In the present status of te parachute problem it is not definitely determined to what degree each of the above-discussed properties of the cloth contributes to the proper performance of the parachute. There is no adequate theoretical or experi- mental basis for the acourate definition of the limits of tol- erance permissible in a specification of the physical proper— ties. In a consideration of these problems it is evident that more reliance must be placed on methodical experiments and suc~ cessive trials than on calculations. The accurate judgment of the value of eny particular material entering into the con- struction of the parachute may involve numerous tests and ex- pensive experinentation., Little progress in this direction has been nace. Properties of the cloth which may be determined readily and7] A.G.A. Technical xote No, 335 7 are most likely of importance in their relation to the perform cance of the parachute, are as follows: 1. Weight 2. Strength (a) Breaking strength (») Tear resistance 3. Elastic properties (a) Tension ~ stretch relation (®) Recovery from flexure. Permanent set and resilience. 4, Air permeability II, Purpose and Scope of the Present Investigation At the beginning of this investigation it was the consen- sus of opinion in, aeronautical circles that domestic woven cloths were not suitable for parachute construction. ail the cloths used were of foreign manufacture. Inasiuuch as the life of the aviator may depend on the faultless performance of the para chute, there was naturally a reluctance to depart from estab- lished usage in thie respect. At the request of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department, the Sureau of Standards undertook the development of specifications for a silk parachute cloth which could be readily manufactured in this country end would compare favorably with the foreign product in all the requisite physical properties.+A,Cede Technical Kote Wo. 335 8 As c basis for the development of tentative specifications, a study was made of the degree to which the requisite properties were exhibited by the cloth which had been proved by trial and extended use to be suitable motericls for parachute construction. With this approximate specification of the physical properties, thirty-six different silk cloths of domestic manufacture were exemined to ascertain as nearly as possible their suitability for parachute construction. It will be shown that domestic woven febrics cre available which are entirely satisfactory and in some zespects superior to the foreign product. As c row notericl for the construction of parachute cloths, silk exhibits to a higher degree than other natural fibers oll the desirable properties, Its greatest disadvantage lies in the ex of cost and in the availability of the row materials. Although several attempts have been made to cultivate the silk vorm in thie country, the high labor costs involved in handling the cocoon have prevented the rapid advoncenent of the industry. The methods of mecsurement to be described herein are being op- plied (with some improveuents) in the development of 2 suitable clot woven from n home-grown fiber, thus obteining eventually on entizely domestio product. It hes been found, for instance, that cotton may be treated to enhance some of the desired qual- ities. The progress of this work will be given in a future report.N.A.0.A. Technical Note Mo. 335 9 TII, Description of Clotisand Their Construction The antericls studied, with their constructionel features, are listed in the accompanying table. Sample A is the Japa- nese Habutai cloth which has been generally used in parachutes of the U.S. Air Services. Sample B is material taken from a "Guardian Angel" parachute (foreign cloth). Samples ¢ and D aze domestic woven cloths used for repairing the Navy parachutes. These four materials, then, give some indication of the requi- site properties of a parachute cloth. Although used with a cer- tain degree of satisfaction, they have been regarded as possess- ing certain weaknesses wherein improvement could probably be made. Samples A and B have e rather low breaking strength in the warp ¢ ection, and samles ¢ and D have a low warp stretoh. Up to the time of this investigation the remaining samples had never been used in parachute construction; they were subsitted by various domestic manufacturers in the interest of the present investigation. In this connection appreciation is expressed for the cooperation of the Belding Mills; Cheney Brothers; the Duplan 841k Corporation; Follmer, Clogg and Compa- ny; Julius Kayser and Company; the Russell Parachute Company; Schwartzenbach, Huber and Company; end also for the assistance of the Bureau of Foreign end Domestic Commerce, and the Bureau of Aeronautics in obtaining these cloths. Five different weaves are represented in the group. TaeUeAeO.A. Technical Note No. 355 10 plain weave is tie simplest type of weave wherein each yarn goes clternately over end under the cross yarn. The cross— barred weave is the plain weave with a cross-bar effect intro— duced by extra heavy yarne epaced about 1 inch both in the warp and in the filling directions. The warp-knit cloth differs from the ordinary knit in that it is made froma series of yarns forming a varp ond knitted in such a way that these yarns run lengthwise in the fabric, whereas the yarns in the pedinary cloth rum crosswise. The cloth is actually a series of cheins, so bound together that it cannot revel from a dropped or broken stitch, In the mock leno* weave the center yarn of each group of three yarns goes over three cross yarns and under one; where— as the two outer yorns of each group go under one and over one as in the plain weave. The pattern is thus complete in six warp ends and six filling picks and is symmetricel with respect to the werp and filling directions. Each group of three yorns is woven close to the next without being seperated by small in- tervening spaces, as is done in some mock leno weaves by léav— ing 2 certein number of dents empty in the loom when an open effect is desired, ‘The letter "a" in the trble indicates the origincl mock leno weave, cnd variations are denoted by letters "pb! to "e." A photomicrograph of the mock leno weave, closely Moven for perachute use, is shown in Figure 2. *This weave hes sometimes been referred to erroneously as © bas- ket weave, Even the termMuodified basket weave" is mesleading. It is essentially the mock leno weave which has been extensively used in the manufacture of cotton dress goods, men's shirts, curtains, imitation gauze, etc.H.A.G.A. Technical Hote No. 338 coe The procedure folicwed in the analysis of the cloth struc— ture is described in U.S. Government General Specifications No. 345-a. It is found that a uniformly low twist is used in all the cloths tested, both in the binding of the individual silk filaments in the single thread and in the binding together of the threads in the yarn, Only enough twist ie used, appar— ently, to keep the yarns from separating into the component filaments. The size of each single thread is given in the table and expressed in terme of a definite length of thread (denier measure). It Was not considered necessary to extend the yarn analysis to ell the cloths. All measurements were made on the degunned silk. To estimate the weight of silk before the gum was Texoved, 25 per cent of the given weight should be added. The degissing of the silk, and in general, the absence of any weighting or sizing, improves the quality of the material espe- cially with respect to the elastic properties. IV. Measurement of Physical Properties The methods employed in the determination of weight, break ing strength, tear resistance and stretch, are standard test procedures used by the Bureau of Standards in the general test— ing of all kinds of cloths. Special methods have been devised for measuring the air permeability and elastic properties under flexure. Aj1 tests were made on material having a normal moist- ure content, obtained by proper exposure to atmospheric condi~WAGs. Technical Note No. 335 12 tions of 65 per cent relative humidity and 70°F. l.Weight In weight determinations a sample 2 inches square is out with a die and weighed on an analytical balance. The weight is then expressed in ounces per square yard. a Strength a) Breaking strength Rectangular specimens, approximate~ ly S by 1-1/4 inches, are cut with the long edge either in the warp or in the filling direction, as desired. The specimens are then frayed to exactly 1 inch in width. 4n inclination-balance type of testing machine is employed, having an eutographic recording device which plots the tension- stretch curve up to the breaking point. |The specimen is clamped between the jaws of the machine, which are each 5 inches in width and are initially separated by a distance of 3 inches (in- itiel length of specimen under stress). When the machine is in operation the lower or pulling jaw moves at a uniform speed of 18 inches per minute (under no load), and the rising arm of the pendulum applies an increasing tension in the cloth until it breaks. In the case of three cloths, which were knitted instead of woven and consequently could not be frayed at the edges, the "grab" method of test was employed. In this method the opera-H.A.0.A. Technical Hote Zo. 335 13 tion of the machine is the some as described above. The test procedure differs only in the method of mounting the specimen. The specizen is 6 inches long and 4 inches wide, The width of the back Jaw of each set of jaws is 3 inches, as before, but the width of the front jaw of each set is now only 1 inch. Al- though the load is thus applied only over a l-inch width of the specimen, there is a certain amount of "cloth assistance" con tributed by the remainder of the specimen. Ten Warp tests and ten filling tests were made on each sam ple. The average breaking load per inch width of specimen is recorded in the table. (v) Tear resistence. In the measurement of tear resist- ance the specimens are cut as sioWn in Figure 1, with the long edge either in the warp or in the filling direction, as desired. A elit approximately 3/8 inch in length is cut in the specimen at the point S, With the jaws of the testing machine horizon— tel and separated by a distance of 1 inch, the test specimen is clamped on the diagonels AB and A'B', The left-hand edge of the specimen is thus held taut between the Jaws, but the remain— ing portion lays in folds. As the jaws of the machine ore sep- arated, then, with customary speed of 12 inches per minute, the tear continues from the initial slit horizontally across the specimen. The test is made on a sensitive autogrephic breakingicel Kote No. 335 14 G.A, Tech strength “achine, vith the porls of the pendulun fastened up so that the pendulum is free to move up or down in accordance ith the load required to continue the tear. The automatic record of this varying lood is given on 2 chert attached to the machine. Five tests were made across the warp system of yarns and the same number across the filling yarns. The average re- sistance of each sample is recorded in the table. Elastic Properties a) Stretch. The stretch is recorded in the test for breaking strength, by means of the autographic device previously described. The stretch at any tension up to the breaking load may de read directly from the chart. Inasmuch as the stretch is not proportional to the load applied, it is convenient to compare the values at some definite load. The maximum stretch at the breaking load is perhaps not a fair meens of comparison, because the cloth in service is not usually subjected to such extrese conditions. A load of 20 pounds was chosen as being imore representative of actual service conditions. ‘The stretch at this load, in both the warp and the filling directions, is re~ corded in the table. (b) Recovery under flexure. In the following measurements it is only intended to simulate roughly actual service condi-~ tions in which a parachute is folded anc compressed in a contain-Hote No. 335 15 @.A, Technical er ane then released for use. With the release of the parachute the folds spring apart, permitting air to enter between the folds and rapidly inflate the envelope. The device employed is shown in Figure 5. A fold of the cloth F is placed upon a horizontal platform, which may be raised or lowered by weans of a rack-and-pinion arrangement and its vertical position reed on a suitable scale. The upper part 7 of the fold bears against the circular weight holder 0, which is 5/8 inch in diameter and hangs freely from the balance arm D. Under the initial conditions of the test, the weight holder is valanced by the countezpoise, and its under surface is just in contact vith the fold of tae cloth. A load is applied by aoving the rider R or by adding weights to the holder, thus destroy— ing the balance of the arm, By vaising the platform, then, the radius of the fold is decreased until the balance of forces is again restored. The various heights of the platform are recoré— ed as definite increments of load are added until the fold is vent 7) et on itself. Weights are then removed, again in def: nite steps, and the degree of return of the fold to its initial state is recorded. A uniform procedure in loading and unload- ing was employed for all the specimens. The standard size of sample adopted is a rectangular strip = @ inches long and 3 inches wide, the long edge being out in ei- ther the warp or the filling direction. The fold is carefully formed by laying the specimen on the platform and bringing itH.A.S.a, Technical, 16 ack on itself until the ends are even. The specimen is adjust- ed with the center of the fold approximately under the center of the weight holder. Sone illustrative deta obtained in this way are given in Figure 4. Two silk cloths, one a plain weave end the other a mock leno weave, are chosen to represent the maximum variation among the silks. Comparative data are also given on a cotton loth of approximately the same weight and yarn count. only the parts of the compression and return curves between loads of 0 and 2.2 grams are presented in the figure, although the load~ ing process was continued until the fold was flat on itself. The plain weave cloth (Curve B B') shows a 67 per cent recovery from the compression. The mock leno weave cloth (Curve ¢ 0") shows a 61 per cent recovery, whereas the recovery of the cotton cloth is only 40 per cent. It may be noted that at return loads down to approximately 0.6 gram the force tending to open the cotton fold is comparable with that of the silks; but there is a considerable permanent set in the cotton yarns which prevents a return to the original form proportionate to that shown by the silks. The potential energy of strain, or resilience, of the deZorned cloth is represented by the area under the return curve, In general the animal fibers are more elastic and pli- able then. the vegetable fibers. Thus silk and wool are easily vent under a siiall load and recover readily, whereas cotton is stiff, requiring a greater load to bend it and remaining creasedA.C.A. Technical Hote No. 335 Ly when the load ie removed, The apparatus described was assembled from parts convenient— ly at hend, It ie not applied in this work for differentiating definitely between various silk cloths, or for use in specifying tue elastic properties. Improved equipment for these purposes ie planned. Owing to the inherent ond characteristic elasticity of silk, all the silk cloths herein compared are presumably sat~ isfactozy in this respect for parachute use. Hence no results of this test are included in the table. The apparatus has served a useful purpose os an aid in the development of a suitable par achute cloth woven from cotton yarn, Relations which may be obtained between the loed, deformation, and permanent set, fur ish o desis for comparing in different cloths the effect of ver- ious chemical treatments ond other factors which may prove of interest. The abflity to recover from long-continued flexure is elen 9 desirable characteristic of parachute cloths which may be investigated in like manner. Again silk leads the other naturel fibers in this respect. 4 air Permeability The apparatus used for the air permeability measurements is shown in Figure 5. Air from the compressed air line L passes through, the gas meter K into the box A, and thence through the specimen which 1s mounted over an opening $ in the top wall of the box. By means of en arrangement of clamps and springFeAeCeA, Technical Vote Ho. 335 18 balances (not shown in the figure), the specimen is held over the opening under a tension of azproximately 0.2 1b. ver eq.in., oth in the warp and in the filling directions. An annular shaped metel plate, held by the clamps 0, and 0,, presses the eloth cently egainet the edge of the opening, thus forming an approximately air-tight junction between the cloth and the box. To kel the flow of aiz through the system alwaye within the capacity of the gas meter (600 cu.ft. per hr.), the diameter of the outlet may be changed from 6 inches to 2 inches, as required. The pressure take-off P is mounted just below the edge of the 6-inch outlet and is connected directly to a water nanom eter. Acathetometer K is used to read the water level in the manometer tube G. The oross eection of the reservoir W is so large in comparison with that of the tube G that the varia. tions in the water level of this reservoir are negligible. After a steady flow of air at a chosen pressure difference has deen established, the rate of flow is determined by readings of the sas aeter and a stop watch. The air nermeability at the zessure difference is expressed in cubic feet per minute given > per square foot area of the specimen, For permeability values greater than 30, the 2-inch opening was used. The measurements were made over a pressure range (in Box A) of from 0,1 to 5.0 pounds per square foot. Deta on samples A, C, 8, endQ are shown in Figure 6. The high perueability of semple Q is the result of its porousW.A.O.A. Technical Wote No. 335 19 construction. Curves for samples B, D, E, F, G, I, J, K, b, ¥, , 0, ond W if plotted, would lie between the curves for sam ples A and C; curves for samples U, V, X, and Y would lie only slightly above the curve for sample A. ALz permeability, as above defined, may depend not only on the pressure difference between both sides of the cloth, but elso on the absolute pressure (or density) on either side. In the present apparatus the pressure on the emergent side of the cloth is that of the surrounding atmosphere end is considered constant. As shown by the curves in Figure 6, the perneability is not strictly proportional to the pressure difference. Hence, for convenience in the comparison of the different cloths, only the permeability for a pressure difference of 1 pound per square foot is recorded in the table. Authough the conditions under which the permeability is herein neasured ore not strictly comparable with actual service conditions, the results, nevertheless, provide an adequate com perigon of the different clothe with respect to the degree of porosity in their structure. In a direct application of the nu merical results to any phase of parachute performance, these @iffercnces would perhaps demand further considerction.HeA.0.A, Technical Tote Yo. 335 20 V. Discussion of Deta Specifications for Parachute Cloth A comparison of the structure ond properties of the cloths brings out several points of intorest. As may be expected, the heavier cloths in general exhibit cs higher breaking strength, although the latter property is also dependent on the quality of the fiber, on tho type of weave, ané on other constructioncl features such as relative size, count ond twist of the warp ond filling yarns. Cloths weighing more than 2 ounces per square yard are considered unnecessarily heavy for Darschute use, because sufficient strength can readily be obtainod in the lighter cloths. Tae effect of weave on the tear resistance is grophically illustrated in Figure 7. For somples heaving the some breaking strength, the tear resistence of the wock leno weave is for ebove that of the plain veave. Only cloths woven with yarns of uniform size are included in this comparison; for the presence of an extra heavy yarn, for exomple, at definite intervals in the cloth, would considerably increase the average tear resist— ance and the effect would be confused with the true effect of the weave. All cloths have been assigned to groups in accordance with their estimated suitability for parachute use. In Group I are included the cloths A, B, 0, and D previously used in pare-Hea Technical Note No. 335 al chute construction. The cloths in Group II are considered too heavy. Those in Group III have a breaking strength below 40 pounds per inch, either in the warp or in the filling direction, or both, ané are for this veason discarded. Exception is made, however, in the case of samples 2B and 2K. Although their warp ‘creaking strength is low, their high filling strength makes taea sppear at lecet as satisfactory as sauple A. In Group IV are cloths of low elasticity, having c stretch of less than 5 per cent under a load of 20 pounds. In Group ¥ the air permeability is so high that these cloths would undoubtedly be unsatisfacto— ry for this reason alone, All reuaining cloths sre Dlaced in Group VI and are considered suitable materiale for parachute construction. The large nusber of cloths thus obtained, oll com pering favorably with the Jopanese Habutai silk (sample A), shows conclusively thet a satisfactory material can be woven in domestic milis. Ccreful comparison of all the cloths with respect to breok- ing strength, tear resistance, end balance in strength ond elas- ticity between the warp and filling directions, shows the super- iority of the isock leno weave cloths over the imported and other domestic actericls. Specifications were accordingly drown for the construction of two cloths, one using the mock leno weave and the otzer the plain weave. These specifications* were based ‘ifaterial Specification for Silk Parachute Cloth. Revised edi— tion C-37, Becewber 11, 1928. opies of the specification may be obtained by application to the Bureau of AeTonautios, Novy Departuent, Washington, D. C.H.A.G.A. Technical Note No. 335 22 on the mensured properties of all the cloths and have been ac- cepted by the Navy Department. The essential elements of the specifications are as follows (as per revision of December 11, 1928): (1) The material used in the mamfacture of the cloths shell be a natural unbleached white Japan, or the equivalent grade of China or Italian silk. Only one grade, know as firsts may be used in either the plain or the mock leno weave (called also the modified basket weave. See footnote, page 10). The cloth shall be thoroughly boiled to remove gums and greases and there shall be no sizing or weighting materials of any descrip— tion present in the finished cloth. Excessive heating must not be applied in the finishing process, and in general the cloth shall be free from all imperfections affecting its strength or durability. (2) Tne weight per square yard of the finished cloth shall be 1.55 ounces for the plain weave and 1.70 ounces for the mock leno weave, with a tolerance of #10 per cent in each case. (3) The yarns per inch in the warp and filling directions shall be 120 and 90, respectively, for the plain weave, with corresponding values of 96 and 105 for the mock leno weave. A tolerance of +10 per cent is allowed for each of the counts. (4) The minimum breaking strength in pounds per inch width shall be the same in the warp and filling directions. The per- mitted values are 45 pounds for the plain weave and 53 poundsN.A.O.A. Technical Kote No. 335 83 for the mock leno weave, (5) The minimum tear resistence in the watp and filling directions shall be 3 and 5 pounds, respectively, for the plain weave, vith corresponding values of 7 and 9 for the mock leno weave. Other properties of the cloth are not specified. The pre~ soribed methods for making the physical tests are essentially the sane as described in Section IV of this paper. * Service tests were made on full-sized parachutes construct— ed of the mock lend weave (sample 5) cloth. A 200-pound lead weight was used in these tests, which were conducted by the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department, at the Neval Air Station, Anacostia, D. C., on Match 23, 1927. The tests included drops of 600 feet, at flying speeds of 60, 80, and 100 miles per hour. ‘The parachutes withstood all the tests successfully and the ve- locity of descent was comparable with that of parachutes of the same type made of the Japanese Habutei cloth. It may be noted (see table) that sample § has about twice the air permeability of sample A. The service tests showed, however, that the rate of descent of the parachutes constructed of these cloths is approximately the same. It thus appears that a considerable variation in the air permeability is permissible without appreciably affecting the velocity of steady descent. This conclusion 1s in agreement with some laboratory tests by Jones and Williams (Reference 4). These investigators conductedN-A.C.A. Technical Kote No. 335 24 wind-tunnel experiments with plane models of the same size ond shepe (6-inch circular plates) but made of materials varying widely in the porosity of their structure. Tin, longcloth, mus- lin ond silx (doped and undoped) were tried with no apprecioble differences among the various materials in the "drag" for oir speeds up to 60 feet per second. The further development and refinement of the parachute in- volves problems which are essentially aerodynamical. The manu- facture of suitable cloths for the envelope will progress on a more intelligent basis with more definite knowledge of the requi- site properties of the cloth. The development of uniform end accurate specifications is of particular concern to the cloth manufacturer, who is obliged to supply materials with properties limited by the specifications. At present these specifications are not the same in the different Air Services, although each service uses the same type of parachute. The active cooperation of all interested parties would be advantageous in a methodical study of the performance of parachutes, using different experi- mental cloths in their construction. In conjunction with full- scale observations in the field, valuable information undoubtedly would accrue from well-designed experiments with models in the wind tunnel. To gain needed information on the requisite prop- erties of the cloth, some work along this line would indeed seem imperative. Burecu of Standards, Washington, D.’C.,1. Mazer, Lieut. 2, Ball, Guy 3, Baumann, Richerd 4, Jones, Re A.O.4, Technical Note No, 335 25 References Airplene Parachutes. N.A.G.A. Tech- nical Memorandum No. 328, 1925, Parachutes. Slipstream, Vol. VIII, August, 1927. Determination of the Value of Wood for Structural Purposes. H.A.0.A. Teoh— nical Note No. 138, 1925. On the Aerodynomic Characteristics of Porachutes. A comprehensive account of Tesearches incorporated in various papers submitted to the Advisory Com mittee for Aeronautics. British A.R.C. Reports ond Hemoranda No. 862, 1923.N.A.C.A. Technical Note No. 335 26 TABLE I. Structure and Properties of Parachute Cloths r 1 Weight ] Yarns isomple Weave | oz per pez_inch Group* ' 1 sasya. W F A plein Vo 145 134 | 94 Tr B . i aye 115 | 106 a 0 : {1.53 75 | WL I i 2 . i 1.63 75 | 102 I ; = . ! 36 738 ie os 1 94 vI G 0 i a) II i og " i 86 II 1 or " i | 74 Ir } 2 " | 1 98 Ir [ox # ! 1 f0 II i ob : ! ea II es " 141 | 36 III x f i 139 | 92 III ° " | zal] 91 VI : oP warp knit =| - 5 v 1 8 hea i | 2 ie v | oR moon | -Ge- v i 8 mock leno ~ a | - - vI ot ee 1.84 - - vr u serge : | = = VI v 7 | S - vr wo | plain - - vr es : i | VE i ¥ | cross-barred | | - | + Ir log plain | 7m | 97 Wv | 2a . Lf. = VE aB ff | 96 | 99 VI | 20 | mock leno - a - 7 III aD ee 96 } 105 vr 2E mock leno — b } oa | 118 vr | 8F plain | | meas see vI ; 2¢ | frock 1eno - ol = = Ww | 8H ! mock leno - 4| -4- vI | BI | mock Leno ~ e} - is wv | 20 | plain | | 127 84 VI | ax i " 1 all | 87 VI | BL j mock leno - ai : 94 | 93 VI au; ok i 95 | 92 VE an plain | 130 | 104 IIL ¥Explanation of groups: 1. Previously used for parachutes; II. Too heavy; Ill. Low breaking strength; IV. Low stretch; V. High air permeability; VI. Compare satisfactorily with sample A.WsA.O.A. Technical Note No. 335 ar TABLE I (Cont. ) Structure and Properties of Parachute Cloths. Filaments| Threads | ‘Twist | Denier Sample ‘per per of yarns of thread Group* thread yarn ‘Turns (degummed) L per_inoh WF WF ¥ F ¥ F A al 20 a[s | oa] 1.3] 149° 24,5 : B ie] 16 | 2] 5 s s - | = I ¢ 10] 10 715 | OL] 1.5] 12.6! 13.7 a D 14| 14 7{ 5 | 3.3 | 3.3) a7] 11.8 I E io} 10 | 10] 9 | 0.2} 2.3] 12.0] 10,8 II F 10} 10 7,6 | 0.2] a2] 15.6] 13.8 vr G 10} lo v{ 5 | O21] 14) 14a1] lee III E 10} 10 7; 9 | 04] Be] 13.9] 13.8 II I 1s] 10 5} 9 | 0.2] 3,4! 2910] isle II gz zo] lo | 20/9 | O11 | Bef 14.7] lag II x 20; (8 5| 9 | 0.1} 3.0] 28.3 II L 201 10 | 5,9 | 0.2! O6) 20.2 II Mu zz} iz j 2] 5 | 00! 20] 16.0 Ir N 12] 10 Bi 4 | 0-1 | 26] 15.15 III “See footnote, page 26.N.A.C.A, Technical Hete No. 335 28 TABLE I (Cont.) Structure and Properties of Parachute Cloths Breaking Tear Stretch Aig T strength | resistance at permeability Sample ib. 20 1b. load |ou.ft. per min. |Group* per inch 1b. per cent |per oq.ft. area for pressure T difference of wir v F Wi F (1 1b, per sq.ft. A so[67 | 1.8) 4.5 | lial 5.4 62.9 I B | 31] 64 e 7] 8.3 36.6 I a 43/31 | 3.8] 2.2 B.4| 8.7 | 24.2 I D 57] 57 | 4.3] 3.2 3.4) 11.4 57.7 I E 88} 70 | 6.0) 4.9 8.0] 9.4 | 27.7 II F 52 | 52 =~] 5.4| 8.6 24.8 VI @ 44] 38 -| - 3.2| 9.2 28,9 3II H 57 | 63 ete 5.4| 8.6 19-1 II I 88 | 62 a 13.3] 9.9 28.5 I Zz 101 | 76 + - 12.3} 9.4! 23.6 II xk | 109 | 65 ~| = 9.111165 25.6 II L 93 | 72 =| 10.4] 7.9 | 27.9 | rr xu 25 | 33 | 2 18.0} 9.0 45.5 pata N 42 | 29 ~| - 6.7] 7.3 27.3 Irz 0 44| 45 -{ = 9.0] 6.0 34.3 VI P 52/41 /10.7! 7.8 | 51.0! 91-0 = v Q 43 | 32 7.6/12.0 47.0 | 88,0 383.5 v R 55 | 39 Sie 38.0 | 94.0 - v s 45/69 | 10.2/13.2 8.0] 7.0 125.4 vI T 45| 58 | 10.6/11.1 8.0] 8.0 ~ VI vu 42/52 | 7.4| 7.9 . 7.0 | 68.2 VI v 40) 48 | 7.2/10.2 9.0} 9,0 | 88.3 VI W 43) 56 | 4.8/7.3 | 20.0] 9:0 57.9 VI x 43/68 | 4.4| 7.5 | 11.0] 8.0 63.2 vr o 25/41 | 3.4) 9.6 | 15.9] 4.3 78.1 III z 42 | 54 |= 4.3) 7.7 | iv BA 46 | 41 -|o- 7.0} 5.0 ie ee 2B 32 | 65 - | 9.5 8.0] 6.0 vr 20 45|28 | 12.9) 5.7 6.0 | 10.0 Ur 2D 54/56 |11.5]12:7 | 6.0} 5.0 VE 2E 53/67 | 7.1] 8.8 | 13.0] 8.7 VI ar sa|67 | 6.6] 6.5 j 11.3} 9.7 VI 3G 4g)6i | 7.9/11.3 4.0} 72% Iv 2B 49 | 49 4,9) 7.0 5.0} 9.7 VI aI 49|61 | 6.6| 9:0 47] 242 Ww ao 40 | 51 3.0] 8.0 8.3] 7.7 VI 2K 38 | 71 -| - 9.4] 6.6 vr 2L 58 | 53 aie 6.2) 7,4 VI 2M 60 | 57 -| - 6.0| 8.0 vi BY. 35152 | 4.0} 5.3 = = IIL *See footnote, page 26.W.A.C.A. Technical Note No.335 Fig.l ee Fig.l. Test specimen for tear resistance measurements.seqzoto Jo Asyrrqvensed zyw ous uysnswou Zoz sngereddy °Btg soa aye 'ytTy +730 ooey omesoad tg saenen, nH court are ‘possaad “a00 'E *edanT9'2) Nip -uoorroa' sor TTY Fige.2,3 4 5 Froayea oye \24*Ty -uenyoods'g -asoywruzes sams niet SEReR UAC poheath aaa # ‘for parachute u cloth, closely woven W.A.C.k. Technical Wote No.335 Fig.2 Photomicrograph of ‘he eisetio proper: ot of weight holde: sk fold of oloth.o, scale R, rider.W,weighti ‘ange .B,novable platfora.c, Fig-3 Api and pinion’4 F 8 = pes eee e | D i + |x AA'-Cotton cicth * BB!-8ilk cloth, 24-nerp| ° O0'-Silk cloth, :t-warp 6 Bw. — Compression ourves |_77, Return curves a *tae] e 7 e tok 7 5 a % 8 2 4 I # a ef 3 SI 3 & wy 8 8 4 1 a = ° *_ Load in grams 2 4 8 8 10 1.2 14 1.6 328 2.0 2.28 Fig.4 Characteristic stress- Geformation curves for silk and cotton cloth under flexure. 928° ON S20" TeOTUYOeS -Y-O'Y'N yBtsa 2350 per sg, ft. ar 8 8 mute 5 a 3 ,Alr flowou. ft. por mim a gs e 8 S s 50 x—Semple A -- Plain weave ——~ o—Sample G —~ Plain weave ample Q —- Warp knit +—Sample § -- Mook Leno weave eee ON S30R TeOTEWOeL “Ow R : | Le | oT eal Fig.6 Air permeability of silk cloths. ia eee A Oats Pressure difference, pounds per eq. ft.N.A.0.A. Technical Note No.335 Fig.7? Fig.? | | » b H 6 ie 5 © o y o a T Tear resistance --- pounds FS a a a o-—-—o Kock Leno | | Weave Plain weave ——. Serge weave ° 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Breaking strength -- Pounds per inch Effect of weave on the tear resistance. 75